UNIT SIX

6. REGIONAL LANDFORM

6.1 Landform Classification

Landforms can be divided into different groups based on different criteria:

6.1.1 Classification Based on Formation Processes: On the basis of their processes of

formation, topographic or physical or relief features can be classified into the following groups:

a) Structural / Initial Landforms- landforms that are created by internal processes, i.e.,
massive Earth movements due to plate tectonics or small and medium scale crustal deformations
due to diastrophism or by the accumulation of immense quantities of molten materials inside or
on the surface of the Earth. They are also called primary landforms simply because they were
primarily produced by internal processes.

b) Weathering Landforms - created by the physical or chemical decomposition of rock through

weathering. Weathering produces landforms where rocks and sediments are decomposed and
disintegrated.

c) Erosional/ Residual/ Sequential Landforms- landforms formed from the removal of

weathered and eroded surface materials by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity. This includes
landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: river valleys, glacial valleys, and
coastal cliffs.

d) Depositional Landforms - landforms formed from the deposition of weathered and eroded
surface materials. On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and
chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: beaches, deltas, flood plains, and glacial moraines.

6.1.2 Classification on the basis on Order of Relief: Topographic features or landforms may as
well be classified on the basis of their vertical and horizontal extent. Here, relief refers to the
vertical elevation differences in the landscape. The undulating form of Earth's surface, its overall
relief, is called Topography, portrayed so effectively on topographic maps. A landform is an
individual topographic feature of whatever size. For convenience of description, geographers
group the landscape's topography into five orders of relief. These orders classify landscapes by
scale, from vast ocean basins and continents down to local hills and valleys.

a) First Order Relief: is the coarsest level of landforms. It includes huge continental platforms
and ocean basins. Continental platforms are the masses of crust that reside above or near sea
level, including the undersea continental shelves along the coastlines. The ocean basins are
entirely below sea level. Approximately 71% of Earth is covered by water. The remaining dry
land appears as continents and islands. The distribution of land and water in evidence today
demonstrates a distinct water hemisphere and continental hemisphere.

b) The Second Order Relief: is the intermediate level of landforms, associated with both
continental and ocean- basins. Continental features in the second order of relief include
individual continental masses, mountain masses, plains, and lowlands.
In the ocean basins, second order of relief includes continental rises, slopes, abyssal plains, mid-
ocean ridges, submarine canyons, and trenches.

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c) The Third-Order Relief -detailed order of relief includes individual mountains, cliffs,
valleys, hills, and other landforms of smaller scale. These features are identifiable as local
landscapes.

d) Fourth-Order Relief: Comprise the sculptural details of the third-order features.

e) Fifth-Order Relief: consists of small features that are parts of the fourth-order relief features
such as a cliff on the slope of a mountain or waterfall of a valley.

Relative to Earth's diameter of 12,756 km, the surface is of low relief, only about 20 km from
highest peak to lowest oceanic trench. For perspective, Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
and the Marianas Trench is 11 km below sea level. The average elevation for the exposed land is
+ 875 m. For the ocean depths, average elevation is -3800 m. From this description you can see
that, on the average, the oceans are much deeper than continental regions are higher.

6.1.3 Classification With respect to Continents and Ocean Basins: The topographic features
could be also seen in terms of where they are located with respect to the continents or oceans as
continental platforms or ocean basin features.

a) Continental Platforms: Continents are the Earth's largest continuous units of landmasses. A
continent is distinguished from an island not merely by greater size but also by geological
structure and development. The continents, in order of size, are Eurasia (conventionally regarded
as the two continents of Europe, individually the second smallest, and Asia, the largest), Africa,
North America, South America, Antarctica, and Australia.

Continental area—all land rising above sea level—amounts to about 29% of the Earth's total
area. More than two-thirds of the continental land area lies north of the equator. In addition, the
continental masses include the submerged continental shelves, which slope gently from the
ocean shores of the continents to depths of about 100 fathoms (about 183 m); at approximately
this point begins the more abrupt plunge to the oceanic depression known as the continental
slope. If the continental shelves are taken into account, the total continental area increases to
35% of the Earth's surface. Islands standing on the continental shelf of a given continent are
considered part of that continent. Prominent examples are Great Britain and Ireland in Europe;
the Malay Archipelago and Japan in Asia; New Guinea, Tasmania, and New Zealand in
Australia; Greenland in North America and Madagascar in Africa.

The land-sea patterns of today have evolved over the course of hundreds of millions of years,
during which time continental landmasses drifted, were united by collisions, then torn apart and
recombined. These movements show no sign of slackening or abating, so the distribution of sea
and dry land will continue to change for as long as the planet contains the heat energy required to
drive the movement of its crustal plates.
Terrestrial Landforms
On the Basis of their genesis, form, size and relief dimensions, terrestrial landforms can be
grouped into three main Classes:

i. Plains: are areas of level or gently undulating land usually near to sea level or a few
hundred meters above it. Plains are one of the most important landforms because they
are the home of the bulk of the world’s population. Most of the fertile soils are
located on plains and they are both extensively and intensively cultivated.

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How are plains formed? Plains are basically the product of both denudation and tectonic
processes. Thus, they are classified into three groups on the basis of their origin.

• Peneplains: Agents of erosion mostly water, but at times glaciers and winds may erode a part
of the terrestrial surface and lower it significantly until it is made flat and close to see level.
These kinds of water-made lowland features are peneplains, and the whole process of lowering
the land to this level is called peneplanation.

• Depositional Plains: These plains owe their origin to the deposition by rivers, waves, glaciers
and wind. They are composed of sediments. Some rivers are capable of depositing vast amounts
of sediment in their lower courses, which gradually build up gently sloping surfaces called
floodplains. Sediments deposited in a river’s mouth build a similar surface, called a delta.
Floodplains and deltas consist of sediments that have been sorted by river action. The finest
particles are deposited last, usually in the delta.

• Emergent coastal plain: As stated earlier epeirogenesis may cause a part of the crust, which
might have been under water to be slightly uplifted above water without deformation of the rocks
and produce tectonic plains.

ii. Plateaus: are broad, flat areas of land that reach more than 600 m above sea level. Plateaus
have altitudes that are greater than the high plains but less than mountains. Local relief of this
topographic feature varies between 100 and 500 meters. Plateaus are geomorphologically similar
to plains; they are different from plains simply because they have higher elevations and probably
because they have more dissected surfaces at the upper surfaces and lower slopes.

iii. Mountains: are landforms that rise steeply above their surroundings to a narrow summit on
top. Mountains are located all around the world. They can be either in a chain, or by themselves.

Mountains differ greatly in size and they can be formed in a couple of different ways. They are
usually divided into different classes on the basis of their height, structure, and genesis.
Mountains Classified on the Basis of Height could be described as:
• Low Mountains if their heights range from 1,000 to 1,500 meters.
• Mountains of Ordinary Height if their heights vary from 1,500 to 2,000 meters.
• High Mountains if their height is above 2,000 meters.

iv. Rift valleys

The most impressive rift valley system in the world extends through Eastern Africa northwards
through the Red Sea. It is known as the Great Rift Valley of Eastern Africa and it extends for just
over 7200 km, of which 5600 km is in Africa.
From the Red Sea it extends via the Gulf of Aqaba into Jordan. The width of the valley varies
from 30 to 100 km and its sides are both steep and high. The deepest part of the rift valley is in
the western arm. The floor of Lake Tanganyika is just over 600 m below sea level. In contrast, a
block of ancient rock has been pushed up to a height of 4870 m above sea level. This block
forms the Ruwenzori Mountains.

b). Topography of the Ocean Basins

Oceans are great bodies of salt water. The world oceans cover 71 percent of the Earth's surface,
or about 361 million sq km. Its average depth is 5000 m, and its total volume is about
1,347,000,000 km3.

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The three major subdivisions of the world ocean are the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and
the Indian Ocean, which are conventionally bounded by the continental masses or by ocean
ridges; they merge below 40° South latitude in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In the North
Polar Region the nearly circular Arctic Ocean, almost landlocked except between Greenland and
Europe, is considered by some part of the Atlantic and by others a fourth ocean subdivision.

6.2 Broad global landform regions

6.3 Landform Regions of Ethiopia

The landforms of Ethiopia are made up of river-cut gorges, valleys, plateaus, mountains and
rolling plains. These landforms are the results of exogenic and endogenic forces that have acted
alternately and, at times, simultaneously or the last sixty million years.

Altitude of Ethiopia varies from about 116 meters below sea level at the Dallol depression
(Kobar sink) to 4620 meters above sea level at Ras Dashen in Semein. Between these extreme
points lie a number of mountains. If 1000 meters is chosen as a demarcating contour line
between highlands and lowlands, 56 percent of Ethiopia’s land is highland. This fact has given
Ethiopia the name “Roof of Northeastern Africa.” It is the only country in the region with such a
high proportion of elevated surface. This elevated surface is bisected diagonally by the Rift
Valley which extends from Syria to Mozoambique across the East African lakes.

In terms of the geological and structural features that resulted from the two types of forces
(endogenic and exogenic forces), the relief of Ethiopia can be divided in to three main
physiographic divisions. These are:

a. The Western Highlands and Lowlands

b. The South Eastern Highlands and Lowlands
c. The Rift Valley
6.3.1 The Western Highlands and Lowlands

It includes all the areas west of the Ethiopian Great Rift valley region. It runs all the way from
north to south comprising the whole western part of Ethiopia. Its eastern part is bounded by
western escarpment of the rift valley while in its western part of the land gradually descend in
altitude.

Sub divisions of western highlands and lowlands: This physiographic region is divided into
four highland groups which cover 75% of the area and four lowland groups which cover about
24% of the area of the region.

The highland groups include: The lowland groups include:

1. Tigrean plateau 1. The Tekeze lowland

2. North central massifs 2. The Abbay Dinder lowland
3. The Shewan plateau 3. The Baro lowland
4. The south western highlands 4. The Ghibe lowland

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 6.3.1.1 The Highland Groups
1. The Tigrean Plateau

It consists of the highlands of Tigray. It extends from Tekeze River to the area of Barka River. It
also extends from Tekeze gorges in the south to Mereb River in the north or Eritrean boarder.

It is an area composed largely of sandstones and limestone, as the overlying basalt has been
eroded. As a result, the soils are poor and thin. The plateau has been exposed to sever erosion
due to long periods of human settlement. The highest peaks in Tgrey include mt. Tsibet(3988m
asl), mt. Ambalage (3291m asl), and mt. Assimba (3248m asl).

2. North central Massifs

It is the largest and most rugged and dissected plateaus in this physiographic group. It includes
the all highlands of north of Abbay and south of Tekeze river. The rivers and their tributaries
formed gorges, steep sided river valleys, isolated plateaus or table land and rugged surface. This
high land in its central part accommodates the Lake Tana basin. The Lake Tana basin is
surrounded by plains of Foggera to south east and plains of Dembeya to the north. Here about
58% of the region is above 2000mts asl. So this region could become the 2nd highest
physiographic region after the Shewan plateau. It consists of the high lands of Gondar, Gojjam
and Wollo.

Tekeze River has divided the North Central Massif area in to western and eastern massifs, which
are connected by the Yejju-Wadla-Dilanta plateau. The western massifs make up the massifs of
South Gondar (Semein), while the eastern make up the Lasta and Wollo massifs. South of these
is found the Gojjam massif. This physiographic group consists numerous numbers of mountains
which are above 4000m asl. These are Ras Dashen(4620m), mt. Legeda(4532m), mt.
Analu(4480m), mt. Tefaw Lezer (4456m), mt. Kollo(4300m), mt. Guna(4231m), mt. Abuna
Yosef(4190), mt. Hey (4154m), and mt. Brihan(4100m).

3. The Shewan Plateau

It is bounded by the Rift valley in the east and south east direction; the Abbay gorge in the
northward direction and Omo gorge in the south west. The Shewan plateau is separated from the
plateau of Gojjam by Abbay gorge; from the southeastern highlands by the Awash river and the
Rift valley and from the highlands of Keffa by the Ghibe (Omo) river. The plateau of this region
occupies a central geographical, political and economic position of the country. Almost 75% of
this area more than 2000m asl. Highest mountains in here include mt. Abbuye Meda(4000m asl)
in northern Shewa and mt. Guraghe(3721m asl) in the southeastern margin.

4. The South-Western Highlands

It consists of the highlands of Wellega, Illubabor, Shekicho, Keficho, Benchi-Maji, Gamo Gofa
and South Omo. This physiographic region is separated by the Abbay gorges and Omo river
valley. It is the wettest region of the country with a total average annual rain fall of above
1500mm and accommodates the most numerous and diverse ethnic and linguistic group of the
country.

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The region is drained by the Dabus and Diddessa tributaries of the Abbay river; westwards by
the headstreams of the Baro-Akobo river; southwards by the Omo-Ghibe river and eastwards by
the right-bank tributaries of Gojeb river. The highest mountain peak of the region is mt.
Guge(4200m asl) in Gamo Gofa.

6.3.1.2 The Western Lowlands

These are the western foot hills and boarder plains that extend from western Tigray in the north
to the southern part of South Omo in the South. They have a general elevation of 500-1000m asl.

Except the Baro lowland the rest are generally characterized by Arid and semi-Arid climate. Due
to this their economy is dominated by nomadic or semi-nomadic activities. The area is
potentially rich for irrigated agriculture. Towns like Humera, Metema, Omedla, Gicao and
Kurmuk, serve as business centers for the communities living along the Ethio-Sudanese boarder.

6.3.2 The South Eastern Highlands and Lowlands

It is the 2nd largest physiographic region in terms of area. The high land part accounts for 46% of
the total area. It is bounded by the eastern part of Rift Valley in the west and north. This region
subdivided in to two highlands and four lowland groups. These are:

Highland groups Lowland groups

5. The Arsi-Bale-Sidamo Highland 1. The Afar plains

6. The Haraghe plateau 2. The Ogaden plains
3. The Elkeri plains
4. The Borena plains

6.3.2.1 The Highland Groups

1. The Arsi-Bale-Sidamo Highland

This highland is found to the east of lakes region. It accounts for 28.5% of the region and 62% of
the highland groups. The Arsi high land peaks include mt. Chilao (4136m asl), mt.
Bada(4139m asl) and mt. Kaka (4180m asl). Extensive plateaus are found between Gugu and
Chilao massifs. It is an extendingly rolling plateau; it is very suitable plateau for farming. The
Arsi plateau is known for its wheat and burley production.

The Bale high land is found south of the Arsi highland and separated by headstreams of
Wabishebelle River. The Bale massif is dominated by two peaks, mt. Tulu Dimtu (4377m asl)
and mt. Batu(4307m asl)

The Sidamo plateau area is next to Bale massifs, but is separated from them by the Genale River.
The area constitutes the southwest extension of the southeastern highlands. The plateau slopes
away gently to the south and is drained by the Dawa river and its tributaries. The Jemjem plateau
is the dominant feature of this arena.

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2. The Hararghe Plateau

Is a north easterly extension to the south eastern highland, extends from Chercher in to the South
West and to Jijiga in the south east. It accounts 39% of the southeastern highland groups. The
plateau is drained by the left bank tributaries of the Wabishebele River. The basaltic rocks have
been worn away, exposing lime stones and earlier sand stones. It is an important coffee and chat
growing area.

6.3.2.2 The South-Eastern Lowlands

Like the western lowlands, the southeastern lowlands run from northwest to south. It begins from
Djibouti and run all the way to Somalia in the northeast, bordering the Indian Ocean. It accounts
54% of the region and more than 30% of the country. The extensive plains are interrupted by low
hills, low ridges, shallow and broad rivers. It is inhabited by nomadic pastoralists. The economic
potential of the region include animal husbandry, irrigation agriculture and possible oil
exploitation. The annual rain fall amount is often below 500mm. Most of these lowlands are
covered by sandstones and recent marine deposits.

6.3.3 The Rift Valley

The Ethiopian rift Valley System is part of the Great East African Rift System. It is tertiary
period, tectonically formed structural depression of land feature. Is elongated funnel shape
depression. It has been the scene of intense volcanic activity and minor faulting. Even today,
active volcanic activity exists here. It is therefore, the most unstable physiographic division of
the area. It is the widest in the Afar triangle and narrower about 50-80km in the south.

The floor of rift valley is covered by volcanic rocks, fluvial and lacustrine deposits. It is
characterized by volcanic doom hills and cylinder cones which rises from the floor altitude
ranges between -116m below sea level at Dallol to 2000m asl. It is subdivided in to three main
parts.

1. The Afar Triangle

2. The Main Ethiopian Rift Valley
3. The Chew Bahir Rift

1. The Afar Triangle (Northern Part)

It is the largest and widest part of the Rift Valley and it is bounded by western and eastern
escarpment in the west and east and by the Afar-Aisha horsts in the north-east. Its altitude is
generally low, ranging from 116m below sea level at the Kobar Sink to about 900m a.s.l. at
Awash. The area is characterized by:

-Faulted depression - Fossil rich sediments

-Volcanic hills and mountains e. g mt. Fentalle -Active volcanoes
-Rift lakes like Abbe, Asale and Afrera. - Volcanic ridges
-Grabens such as Tendaho graben - Lava fields
-Rich archeological sites
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Dankil depression is a prominent feature in here where large part is covered by salt plains. The
area is generally hot and dry. Economic importance of the region is salt extraction, irrigation
along Awash River& Geothermal energy.

2. The Main Ethiopian Rift Valley (Lake Region or Central Part)

It refers the narrow belt of the Rift valley. That extends from Awash in the north and Lake
Chamo in the south. It is bounded by escarpment (which are low) to the west and east except
Arbaminch area. It had an average width 50-60km and general elevation between 1000-2000m.
This subdivision is the most elevated part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. It is also the wettest,
most densely vegetated, and most densely populated. Economic potential of the region include:
rain fed agriculture, recreational value, and geothermal energy.

3. The Chew Bahir Rift

The southern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, the Chew-Bahir rift, is also known as the
Omo-Ghibe trough. It is the smallest section of the Ethiopian Rift system. It consists of an
extensive shallow marshy area covered by tall grasses.

In the vicinity of Arba-Minch, this part of the Ethiopian Rift valley system is split into the
Ganjuli and the Galena valleys by the Amaro mountain range.

6.4 Drainage Systems and Patterns

The study of the characteristics of drainage network of a particular region is approached in two
ways.

1. Descriptive Approach: it involves the study of the characteristics of the forms and
patterns of the streams of a given region.
2. Genetic Approach: involves the investigation of the evolution of streams of a given
region to tectonics, lithologies and structures.

Thus, drainage system refers to the origin and development of streams through time while
drainage pattern means spatial arrangement and form of drainage system in terms of
geometrical shapes in the areas of different rock types, geological structure, climatic conditions
and denudational history.

The origin and subsequent evolution of any drainage system in a region are determined and
controlled by two main factors;

1. Nature of initial surface and slope

2. Geological structure (e.g. folds, faults, fractures, joints, dips and strikes of rock beds and types
of rocks)

6.4.1 Major Drainage Systems

Streams or drainage systems are divided in two broad categories on the basis of the adjustment of
the streams to the initial surface and geological structure.

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1) Sequent Streams (which follow the regional slope and are well adjusted to geological
structure) such as consequent streams, subsequent streams, obsequent streams and re
sequent streams, and;
2) In sequent Streams (which do not follow the regional slope and are not adjust to geological
structures) such as antecedent streams and superimposed streams.
1. Sequent Drainage Streams

a). Consequent Streams: Consequent steams are the first steams to be originated in a particular
region. These streams have their courses in accordance with the initial slope of land surface. In
other words, the consequent streams follow the regional slope. These are also called dip
streams. In a region of folded structure (when the crustal rocks are folded due to lateral
compressive forces into parallel anticlines and synclines) consequent streams are formed in the
synclinal troughs. Such consequent streams are called synclinal consequent streams, which
become the master consequent streams of trellis drainage pattern at much later date.

The first streams to be initiated on a newly emerged coastal plain are consequent streams which
are parallel to each other and thus form parallel drainage pattern. The longest stream of the
whole system of consequent steams is called master consequent.

Consequent streams are divided into two types;

i. Longitudinal Consequent; which follows the axis of the depression or syncline in a folded
structure.

ii. Lateral Consequent; which follows the sides of the depression or the sides of anticlines.
Lateral consequent streams generally join the master or longitudinal or synclinal consequent
more or less at right angle.

b). Subsequent Streams: The steams originated after the master consequent stream and
following the axis of the anticlines or ridges and the strikes of beds are called subsequent
streams.

c). Obsequent Streams: The streams flowing in opposite direction to the master consequent are
called obsequent streams. In fact, obsequent streams are also consequent because they also
follow the slopes of the ranges.

d). Resequent Streams: The tributary streams flowing in the direction of the master consequent
are called resequents. These are originated at much later date in comparison to the master
consequent. Since they are of recent origin, and hence they are called resequent.

2. Insequent Streams

The streams which do not follow the regional slopes and drain across the geological structures
are called insequent or inconsequent streams. Antecedent and superimposed streams are the best
representative examples of insequent drainage systems.

a) Antecedent Drainage System: antecedent streams are those which are originated prior to the
upliftment of land surface.
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In other words, antecedent streams antedate the upliftment of an up land or mountain across
which they have maintained their present courses through contiguous down cutting of their
valleys. It is thus, obvious that if a river has developed in a particular region and if the
subsequent uplift or up warping of the land area across the pre-existing river does not divert or
deflect the course of the river and the river maintains its previous course though down cutting its
valley at the rate equivalent to the rate of uplift of the land area, the river is called antecedent or
anti consequent.

b) Superimposed Drainage System: like antecedent streams superimposed streams are also not
adjusted to regional geological structure and slope and thus are insequent or anti-consequent
streams. Superimposed stream means a river which, flowing on a definite geological formation
and structure has inherited the characteristics of its previous form developed on upper geological
formation of entirely different structural characteristics. In other words, a superimposes drainage
is formed when the nature and characteristics of the valley and flow direction of a consequent
stream developed on the upper geological formation and structures and superimposed on the
lower geological formation of entirely different characteristics.

6.4.2 Drainage Patterns

Drainage refers to the extent and manner of flow of water on the surface of the land. Drainage
studies, among others, include the distance and direction of flow of water and the speed with
which it flows.
Drainage pattern refers to the particular plan or design which individual river courses
collectively form. The drainage pattern means the ‘form’ (geometrical forms) of the drainage
systems and the spatial arrangement of streams in a particular locality or region. The location,
number and flow directions of different streams of a particular region depend on the nature of
slope, structural control, lithological characteristics, tectonic forces, climatic conditions, vegetal
characteristics, etc. Since there are many variations in the environmental conditions of deferent
regions and hence there are also spatial variations in drainage patterns.

Drainages reflect the influence of many factors such as initial slopes, inequalities of rock
hardness, structural controls, diastrophic disturbances, etc. Because drainage patterns are
influenced by so many factors they are helpful in the interpretations of geomorphic features and
understanding of landform evolution.

The most commonly encountered patterns are dendritic trellis, barbed, rectangular, complex and
deranged.
Dendritic Patterns: are the most common and are characterized by irregular branching of
tributaries in many directions. They develop upon rocks of uniform resistance and imply a
notable lack of structural control. They are most likely to be found on nearly horizontal
sedimentary rocks or in areas of massive igneous rocks or even in folded or complex
metamorphosed rocks, particularly, when imposed by superposition.

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Trellis patterns display a system of sub-parallel streams, usually aligned along the strike of the
rock formations or between parallel or nearly parallel topographic features recently deposited by
wind or ice. The major streams frequently make nearly right-angled bends to cross or pass
between aligned ridges, and the primary tributary streams are usually at right angles to the main
stream and are themselves joined at right angles by secondary tributaries whose courses
commonly parallel the master stream. Trellis patterns reflect marked structural control of most
stream courses, except perhaps the trunk streams. The tributary valleys are usually subsequent
strike valleys. A variety of trellis pattern is the fault trellis pattern, which may be found where a
series of parallel faults have brought together alternating bands of strong and weak rock. Usually
a trellis pattern is largely subsequent in origin but there are areas where the streams are largely
consequent ones. This may be encountered in certain glaciated areas where parallel hills known
as drumlins give rise to this pattern and also to some degree in areas of parallel sand dunes, if
surface drainage lines exist on such permeable materials.
In rectangular drainage patterns, both the main stream and its tributaries display right-angled
bends. They reflect control exerted by joint or fault systems. A variant of rectangular drainage is
the angulated pattern. It develops where faults or joints join each other at acute or obtuse angles
rather than at right angles.
Centripetal patterns show drainage lines converging into a central depression. They are found
on sinkholes, craters, and other basin-like depressions.
• Radial patterns have streams diverging from a central elevated tract. They develop on
domes, volcanic cones, and various other types of isolated conical or sub-conical hills.
Parallel patterns are usually found where there is pronounced slope or structural control which
leads to regular spacing of parallel or near-parallel streams.
Deranged or contorted patterns develop from the disruption of a pre-existing drainage pattern
say by glacier. After receding, the glacier leaves behind fine grain material that forms wetlands
and deposits that dammed the stream to impound a small lake. The tributary streams appear
significantly more contorted than they were prior to glaciations.

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Channel Patterns: We frequently have occasion to refer to the channel patterns of individual
stream courses in contrast to the regional drainage pattern. By channel pattern is meant the
configuration of the stream channel as viewed from the air. Although many descriptive terms
may be applied to channel patterns they can be reduced to three basic patterns: straight, braided,
and meandering.
Stream channels are seldom straight for long distances and where they are there is usually an
implication of structural control or the effect of initially steep slopes on homogeneous rocks.
Studies of stream channels suggest that streams are rarely straight for a distance greater than ten
channel widths. Even along straight stream stretches the thalweg of the stream channel (the line
connecting the lowest points along the stream bed) is sinuous and moves from near one bank to
near the other between alluvial bars deposited along alternate banks. A braided stream is one
which is divided into two or more anatomizing channels around alluvial islands. This channel
pattern develops after the formation of channel bars composed of material too coarse to be
transported. It is often assumed that stream braiding is an indication that there is excessive
stream load and that valley aggradations is taking place. The braided stream may be as close to
equilibrium condition as are streams possessing other patterns.
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Since most stream channels possess a degree of sinuosity, the term meandering is commonly
restricted to stream channels whose curves exhibit a notable symmetry. Although stream
meanders have been the subject of numerous hydrologic and mathematical studies, there has not
yet developed any completely satisfactory dynamic theory that quantitatively explains the
geometric relationships that characterize meandering stream channels. However, the size of
meanders does seem to be related to the size of the river; large rivers have large meanders and
small rivers have small ones.
Although distinctions can be made between straight, braided, and meandering stream channels,
all natural stream channels intergrade and a continuum of channel patterns exists which may
make difficult the separation of one type of channel pattern from another.

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