1.

Latest research progresses in network fracturing theories and technologies for shale gas
reservoirs- Paper Link

 Leading countries in Shale gas like USA, Canada and China have made plans for
economical production from Shale reservoirs.
 Key technologies for shale gas reservoir fracturing to achieve economic productivity of
shale gas reservoirs, hydraulic fracturing is required to change the stress disturbance
degree between wells, intervals, and clusters, so as to create sufficient fractures.
 Key technologies in the successful commercial development of shale gas are,
1) Horizontal staged multi-cluster fracturing
2) Synchronous fracturing
3) Zipper fracturing and refracturing
4) Refracturing

 Progress in network fracturing theories and technologies for shale gas reservoirs: In
terms of mineral brittleness, the initial understanding of “the higher content of silicoide,
the more developed fractured networks” has been developed to the recognition that
siliceous minerals (quartz, feldspar), carbonate minerals (calcite, dolomite), pyrite and
many other minerals are considered as brittle minerals.

 Based on the research results of Rickman et al. that 40% is the threshold value that can
affect the fracability of the reservoir fracture networks, further studies considered that
brittleness weight of different types of minerals was equally important, thus equivalent
brittleness index was developed for accurate assessment of mineral brittleness.

 At present, fracability evaluation index (or a new brittleness evaluation index) was
introduced, which associated mineral brittleness with mechanical brittleness, to
comprehensively evaluate the fracability of reservoir fracture networks according to the
classified small scaled shale.

 Third, well-developed natural (micro) fractures, reasonable fracture length and spacing
are conducive to the formation of fracture networks with regional communication, while
too high degree of fracture development will cause fracturing fluid loss in the near-
 wellbore zone, consuming the propagation energy of the induced fractures and
suppressing their extension, reducing the SRV.

 Therefore, it is preferable to select the regions for fracturing with low stress difference
and developed natural fractures, so that fracture networks may be fully developed.

 In this paper, by comprehensively investigating the influences of shale reservoir elastic

modulus, Poisson's ratio, fracture toughness, in-situ stress distribution, and natural
fracture characteristic index on the formation of fracture networks, the authors
introduced the probability index of developmental fracture networks and the SRV
probability index, and established the fracability evaluation method of fracture networks
and classification criteria.

 Prospect of shale gas reservoir fracturing theory and technology: The global network
fracturing of shale gas tends to focus on longer and longer horizontal section, more and
more fracturing stages, and increasing amount of fracturing fluid (supporting agents). A
horizontal section of.5652 m long (124 stages) has been fractured in the Well Purple
Hayes H1 in North America.
 Reservoir depth increases as well as the amount of rock that can be fractured in deep
shale gas reservoirs. High-temperature and high-pressure conditions have high
requirements on fracturing equipment and performance. The rapid decline from the
initial high production of deep horizontal shale wells may be related to the rapid
desorption rate and the tapered conductivity.

 Shale gas productivity is not only controlled by SRV but also by porosity, total carbon
content, and stratification. The ultimate goal of reservoir evaluation is to
comprehensively select the reservoirs which is "geological sweet spots" with good
physical properties and artificial high-permeability zones.

 The pressure curve in fracturing is the external performance of dynamic fracturing

expansion, and the subsequent operation process can be adjusted through the
identification and interpretation of fracturing propagation rules. To this end, through a
 diagnostic analysis of the operation pressure (net pressure) in the process of pump
injection, a model can be created to determine the fracturing dynamic expansion rules.

 The pressure curve in fracturing is the external performance of dynamic fracturing

expansion, and the subsequent operation process can be adjusted through the
identification and interpretation of fracturing propagation rules. The different lifting
frequencies and amplitude of various geological features and operation phenomena are
not simple smoothing or rising or falling.
2. Natural Fractures in Unconventional Shale Reservoirs in US and their Roles in Well Completion
Design and Improving Hydraulic Fracturing Stimulation Efficiency and Production- Paper Link

 Most of the shale reservoirs in US land are naturally fractured. Extending

stimulation efficiency without understanding existing natural fractures can be

a challenge. Engineering completion designs that employ accurate knowledge

of natural fracture data can provide opportunities for enhancing stimulation

efficiency and fracturing networks complexity.

 The US shale gas story actually featured natural fractures. William Hart, a

local gunsmith, drilled the first commercial natural shale gas well in US in

Fredonia, Chautauqua County, NY in 1821. Production from the US

unconventional shale oil and gas has grown rapidly in recent years. 1/3 of the

perforated clusters on average were not flowing as measured by production

logs. Moncada et al (2013) showed a case study that two laterals from the

Eagle Ford shale had very similar reservoir quality (RQ) but were on very

different production trends.

 Currently Active Shale Plays in US:
1) Eagle Ford Shale
2) Bakken Shale
3) Permian Shales
4) Marcellus Shale
5) Woodford Shale
6) Niobrara Shale

 Natural fractures can have enormous impacts on well completion design in the
development of unconventional reservoirs (Han, 2011). This includes fracture point
selecting, pump rate, perforation cluster location and stage spacing as well as avoiding
perforating near faults or even through-going large fractures for water problems.
 Natural fractures have a considerable impact on well completions and productivity.
Open fractures enhance both RQ and CQ while closed or healed fractures might
improve CQ only. All fracture/fault data should be part of the inputs for completion
design.
 Hydraulic fracture network complexity can be also strongly controlled by natural
fractures which were proved both by laboratory tests and subsurface micro seismic
data highlighted in this paper. Stimulation efficiency can be improved with better
understanding of the natural fracture distribution along the wellbore.
 The majority of shale well completions have generally underused natural fracture
assessment.
 To date, in the US. There are numerous factors in the stimulating industry with
established impact that possible chances for operators to re-evaluate their
development plans regarding how to classify and then utilise the current natural
fractures more effectively. The return on long-term investments can be increased.
 if we're able to effectively integrate the already existing systems with the little
resources we have available systems of natural fractures. Decisions on completion can
be made with more knowledge if features and locations of natural fractures in
horizontal wells.
 If natural fractures are open and well-connected to the wellbore, they have a
favourable effect on production through hydraulic fractures.
 Vigilance must be exercised to prevent any potential connection to the neighbouring
water zones through significant faults.
 putting those potential water hook-ups too close to perforation clusters. Knowing
where the faults are. It is crucial to identify faults along the wellbore from well logs and
seismic data as well as sub-seismic faults.
3. Engineering geological characteristics and the hydraulic fracture propagation mechanism of
the sand-shale interbedded formation in the Xu5 reservoir- Paper Link

 In the Xu5 formation the sandstone reservoir and shale reservoir are interbedded with
each other. The average thickness of each formation is about 8m, which increases the
difficulty of the treatment. Fracture mechanics theory is then used to establish a
hydraulic fracturing model.
 Xu5 can be further divided into three sub members: the upper, middle and lower sub
members.
 For the upper sub member, the average thickness is 180m; the thickness of the sand is
greater as it’s getting closer to the top boundary, its average thickness being 10–30m.
 This sub member is mainly lacustrine shale deposition (condensation section); the
average thickness of the shale is 155m, and the shale thickness ratio is 76.8%.
 The stratigraphic distribution is comparatively stable, and is an interbedded formation,
of non-uniform thickness, of gray, dark gray, and black gray shale and gray and dark gray
powder—fine sandstones.
 Sand-shale interbedded formation occurs mainly in the lower sub member; the thickness
of single sand is 6–10m, so the sand-shale interbedded type can be simplified into an 8m
sandstone and 8m shale interbed geologic model.
 The brittleness index of sandstone varies from 0.5 to 0.8, and the brittleness index of
shale varies from 0.3 to 0.8; a complex fracture is easily formed by fracturing. Natural
fractures are mainly composed of low angle fractures and horizontal fractures and the
fractures are undeveloped, with 20–35 fractures per 100m.
 A mechanical model of a hydraulic fracture penetrating through a natural fracture was
established. We found that the hydraulic fracture would propagate along the natural
fracture easily when the approaching angle is less than 45°; the hydraulic fracture
propagating direction after penetrating through the natural fracture is within 20° when
the approaching angle is over 45°.
 Based on the engineering geological features of the interbedded deposit of sand and
shale, seepage-stress-damage The hydraulic fracturing coupling model was developed
using on the continuous fracture mechanics theory. The example may recreate the
 interactive dissemination method of the stress interference characteristics of numerous
fractures, a hydraulic fracture, and a natural fracture.
 When the vertical stress is greater than the minimum horizontal principal stress, the
propagation of the vertical fracture has an advantage over the horizontal fracture and
the horizontal fracture still occurs; when the vertical stress is less than the minimum
horizontal principal stress, the propagation of the horizontal fracture has an advantage
over the vertical fracture and vertical propagation is limited.
4. Bacterial communities associated with hydraulic fracturing fluids in thermogenic natural gas
wells in North Central Texas, USA. - Paper Link

 Hydraulic fracturing is used to stimulate natural gas production in shale formations and
involves pumping large volumes of fracturing fluids (2–4 million gallons) into a predrilled
section of the shale (Arthur et al., 2009; Kerr, 2010; Veil, 2010).
 Despite the thermogenic nature of the gas in the Barnett Shale, biogenic sulphide production
and microbially influenced corrosion have been observed near the wellhead and in well
casing, well tubing, separators, water storage tanks, and flowlines at numerous wells in this
formation (Fichter et al., 2008).One possible source of microorganisms in these wells is the
water that is used to prepare fracturing fluids (Fichter et al., 2008).
 To gain a better understanding of how the fracturing process affects the microbial
communities in frac fluids, we examined the geochemical and microbiological properties of
fracturing and flowback fluids from two newly drilled wells in the Barnett Shale in North
Central Texas.
 The goals of this work were to (i) compare the number of heterotrophic bacteria, acid-
producing bacteria, and sulphate-reducing bacteria in frac and flowback water samples using
most probable number (MPN) dilutions to assess the performance of biocide treatments at
these sites, (ii) compare the geochemistry of the fracturing and flowback fluids at the two
sites to assess the impacts of the fracturing process on the geochemical properties of the frac
fluids, and (iii) compare the microbial communities in fracturing and flowback fluids to
determine how factors such as biocide treatment, changes in frac fluid geochemistry, and
exposure of the frac fluids to the anoxic conditions and high temperatures encountered in
the Barnett Shale affected the microbial community structure in fracturing fluids.
 Samples were collected from two newly drilled gas wells in the Barnett Shale. The two sites
that were sampled are located in Denton (SM) and Wise (CT) counties in North Central Texas.
 Geochemical studies were done on this samples.
 Microbial enumeration studies shows that Individual wells in the MPN plates were scored
positive if visible growth (aerobic heterotrophs) or a red-to-yellow colour change (acid
producers) was observed after an incubation period of 48 h at 37 °C.
 The MPN medium for sulfatereducing bacteria was prepared using anaerobic techniques
(Balch & Wolfe, 1976), transferred into an anaerobic glove bag (Coy Laboratory Products,
Grassland, MI), and dispensed into 24-well microtiter plates that had been placed in the glove
bag 48 h prior to media addition to remove residual oxygen.
 Sequences affiliated with the Planococcaceae were detected in frac and flowback water
samples from both study sites, but the frac and flowback populations were very distinct.
 The increase in the number of sequences that were affiliated with spore-forming bacteria in
flowback waters from the two study sites could have occurred as a result of the addition of
biocide to frac pond waters, because spore-forming bacteria are known to be highly resistant
to biocides (Russell, 1995).
 The observation of sequences that were affiliated with non-spore-forming thermophiles from
the genera Thermobia, Thermology, and Petro toga (Takeshita et al., 2001; Dahle & Birkeland,
2006; Miranda-Tello et al., 2007) in SM flowback water, but not in SM frac water, also
suggests that the temperatures in the Barnett Shale may have had an impact on the microbial
communities in fracturing fluids.
 An increase in the number of sequences that were affiliated with halophilic bacteria was
observed in flowback water samples, relative to frac pond water samples, at both study sites.

 The observation of higher numbers of halophilic sequences in flowback water samples was
likely attributable to the higher concentrations of salt in flowback water, relative to frac pond
water, at the two study sites.
 Sequences affiliated with halophiles from the family Halanaerobiaceae (Oren, 2002) were
more abundant in the flowback water samples than frac pond water samples at both study
sites.
 Sequences that were closely related (96–98% similar) to sulphate-reducing bacteria from the
genera Desulfosporsinus and Desulfotomaculum (Widdel & Pfennig, 1977; Robertson et al.,
2001) were only detected in flowback water at the CT site and SM site, respectively, and
accounted for all the Peptococcaceae sequences that were detected in these two flowback
water samples.
 The observation of sequences that were affiliated with sulphate-reducing bacteria in both of
the flowback water samples was surprising because sulphate-reducing bacteria were not
detected in MPN dilutions that were set up using these flowback water samples.
 Therefore, additional work is needed to gain a better understanding of the following: (i) the
populations of microorganisms that survive or are killed by biocide treatments and the
 conditions encountered in shale, (ii) which components in fracturing fluids stimulate the
growth of bacteria, and (iii) what impacts biocide choice, biocide dosage, biocide contact
time, and the amount of time that passes between fracturing have on bacterial growth in
fracturing fluids.
5. Hydraulic Fracture Extending into Network in Shale: Reviewing Influence Factors and Their
Mechanism - Paper Link

 Micro-seismic mapping showed that hydraulic fracture in shale was a complex fracture
network system which consisted of multiple irregular fractures.
 The Barnett shale natural fractures’ direction was the north by west, and the propagation
direction of the induced hydraulic fractures was north by east; therefore, hydraulic fractures
intersected with natural fractures, which led to the complex fracture system and showed
many cross-cutting linear features.
 Several important geological factors affecting the hydraulic fracture propagation include
1) Rock mineral composition
2) Rock mechanics properties
3) Horizontal stress field
4) Distribution of natural fractures.
 The engineering factors which influence fracture network extension in shale formation
include three aspects:
1) Treating net pressure: Considering the natural fractures strike along the horizontal
minimum principal stress direction, fracture propagation direction would be
perpendicular to the natural fractures. During hydraulic fracturing, if hydraulic
fracture propagates along the natural fractures tip when it intersects with natural
fracture, it is possible to induce the branch of hydraulic fracture to form a complex
fracture network.
2) Fluid viscosity: The fluid viscosity gets higher; the complexity of fracture extension
will reduce remarkably. The field treating data showed that the injection of high
viscosity fluid will reduce the complexity of fracture network.
3) Fracturing scale: the fracturing scale gets larger, the hydraulic fracture half-length
will become longer. For the fracturing of shale reservoir, there is the same relevance
between fracturing scale and the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV). The bigger the
pumped fracturing fluid volume is, the more complex the fracture network is and
the longer the total length of fracture network is.
 This paper discusses the controlling factors of fracture extending into network in the shale
reservoir from the geological and the engineering factors: according to reservoir geological
attributes, higher brittle mineral contents of rock, stronger elastic characteristic of rock
mechanical properties, smaller horizontal differential stress, and better developed natural
fractures will be constructive to better extension and propagation of hydraulic fractures
extending into network; according to engineering conditions of fracturing operations, higher
treating net pressure, lower fluid viscosity, and larger fracturing scale will be more helpful to
form a fully propagated fracture network. The forming of fracture network is the key to
obtain effective development in shale formation. The special hydraulic fracture propagation
in shale reservoir broadens the understanding to conventional fracturing technology.
Because of the above research results, this paper has an important theoretical and practical
significance to understand the extending mechanism and regularity of fracture network in
shale formation and can improve the science and effectiveness of fracturing design for shale
reservoir.