Do you have ac motors in your facility?

Do these motors need a variable output?

Do you use mechanical means to vary the output?
If you anwsered yes to these questions, you need to install variable
frequency drives on these ac motors.

If you are not using VFD's you are wasting energy and throwing money out
the window.

Many utilities are now offering rebates for the installation of VFD's or retro-
fitting existing equipment with variable frequency drives. Contact your local
utility or search VFD rebate or go to the DSIREwebsite, a comprehensive
source of information on state, local, utility and federal incentives and
policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.

Joliet Technologies has partnered with Electrical Solutions Network (ESN), in

our effects to promote energy efficiency through the use of variable speed
drives.

What is a VFD?
By: Dave Polka

You can divide the world of electronic motor drives into two categories: AC
and DC. A motor drive controls the speed, torque, direction and resulting
horsepower of a motor. A DC drive typically controls a shunt wound DC
motor, which has separate armature and field circuits. AC drives control AC
induction motors, and-like their DC counterparts-control speed, torque, and
horsepower.

Application As An Example

Let's take a brief look at a drive application. In Fig. 1, you can see a simple
application with a fixed speed fan using a motor starter. You could replace
the 3-phase motor starter with Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to operate
the fan at variable speed. Since you can operate the fan at any speed below
its maximum, you can vary airflow by controlling the motor speed instead of
the air outlet damper.

Figure 1, Fixed Speed Fan Application

A drive can control two main elements of a 3-phase induction motor: speed
and torque. To understand how a drive controls these two elements, we will
take a short review of AC induction motors. Fig. 2 shows the construction of
an induction motor. The two basic parts of the motor, the rotor and stator,
work through magnetic interaction. A motor contains pole pairs. These are
iron pieces in the stator, wound in a specific pattern to provide a north to
south magnetic field.

Figure 2, Basic Induction Motor Construction

Figure 3, Operating Principles of Induction Motor

With one pole pair isolated in a motor, the rotor (shaft) rotates at a specific
speed: the base speed. The number of poles and the frequency applied
determine this speed (Fig. 4). This formula includes an effect called "slip."
Slip is the difference between the rotor speed and the rotating magnetic field
in the stator. When a magnetic field passes through the conductors of the
rotor, the rotor takes on magnetic fields of its own. These rotor magnetic
fields will try to catch up to the rotating fields of the stator. However, it
never does -- this difference is slip. Think of slip as the distance between the
greyhounds and the hare they are chasing around the track. As long as they
don't catch up to the hare, they will continue to revolve around the track.
Slip is what allows a motor to turn. 

Motor Slip:
120 X F
Shaft Speed = - Slip
P
 Slip for NEMA B Motor = 3 to 5% of Base Speed which
is 1800 RPM at Full Load
F = Frequency applied to the motor
P = Number of motor poles
Example:
120 X 60
Shaft Speed = Hz - Slip
4
Figure 4, Induction Motor Slip Calculation

We can conveniently adjust the speed of a motor by changing the frequency

applied to the motor. You could adjust motor speed by adjusting the number
of poles, but this is a physical change to the motor. It would require
rewinding, and result in a step change to the speed. So, for convenience,
cost-efficiency, and precision, we change the frequency. Fig. 5 shows the
torque-developing characteristic of every motor: the Volts per Hertz ratio
(V/Hz). We change this ratio to change motor torque. An induction motor
connected to a 460V, 60 Hz source has a ratio of 7.67. As long as this ratio
stays in proportion, the motor will develop rated torque. A drive provides
many different frequency outputs. At any given frequency output of the
drive, you get a new torque curve. 

Figure 5, Volts/Hertz Ratio

How Drive Changes Motor Speed (Part 2)

What is a Variable Frequency Drive?

How does a VFD Work?

What is a VFD? (Part 1)
By: Dave Polka

How Drive Changes Motor Speed

Just how does a drive provide the frequency and voltage output necessary to
change the speed of a motor? That's what we'll look at next. Fig. 6 shows a
basic PWM drive. All PWM drives contain these main parts, with subtle
differences in hardware and software components. 

Figure 6, Basic PWM Drive Components

Although some drives accept single-phase input power, we'll focus on the 3-
phase drive. But to simplify illustrations, the waveforms in the following
drive figures show only one phase of input and output. 

The input section of the drive is the converter. It contains six diodes,
arranged in an electrical bridge. These diodes convert AC power to DC
power. The next section-the DC bus section-sees a fixed DC voltage. 

The DC Bus section filters and smoothes out the waveform. The diodes
actually reconstruct the negative halves of the waveform onto the positive
half. In a 460V unit, you'd measure an average DC bus voltage of about
650V to 680V. You can calculate this as line voltage times 1.414. The
inductor (L) and the capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC
component of the DC waveform. The smoother the DC waveform, the
cleaner the output waveform from the drive. 

The DC bus feeds the final section of the drive: the inverter. As the name
implies, this section inverts the DC voltage back to AC. But, it does so in a
variable voltage and frequency output. How does it do this? That depends on
what kind of power devices your drive uses. If you have many SCR (Silicon
Controlled Rectifier)-based drives in your facility, see the Sidebar. Bipolar
Transistor technology began superseding SCRs in drives in the mid-1970s.
In the early 1990s, those gave way to using Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT) technology, which will form the basis for our discussion. 

Switching Bus With IGBTs

Today's inverters use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) to switch

the DC bus on and off at specific intervals. In doing so, the inverter actually
creates a variable AC voltage and frequency output. As shown in Fig. 7, the
output of the drive doesn't provide an exact replica of the AC input sine
waveform. Instead, it provides voltage pulses that are at a constant
magnitude. 

Figure 7, Drive Output Waveform

The drive's control board signals the power device's control circuits to turn
"on" the waveform positive half or negative half of the power device. This
alternating of positive and negative switches recreates the 3 phase output.
The longer the power device remains on, the higher the output voltage. The
less time the power device is on, the lower the output voltage (shown in
Fig.8). Conversely, the longer the power device is off, the lower the output
frequency. 
 Figure 8, Drive Output Waveform Components

The speed at which power devices switch on and off is the carrier frequency,
also known as the switch  frequency. The higher the switch frequency, the
more resolution each PWM pulse contains. Typical switch frequencies are
3,000 to 4,000 times per second (3KHz to 4KHz). (With an older, SCR-based
drive, switch frequencies are 250 to 500 times per second). As you can
imagine, the higher the switch frequency, the smoother the output
waveform and the higher the resolution. However, higher switch frequencies
decrease the efficiency of the drive because of increased heat in the power
devices. 

Shrinking cost and size

Drives vary in the complexity of their designs, but the designs continue to
improve. Drives come in smaller packages with each generation. The trend is
similar to that of the personal computer. More features, better performance,
and lower cost with successive generations. Unlike computers, however,
drives have dramatically improved in their reliability and ease of use. And
also unlike computers, the typical drive of today doesn't spew gratuitous
harmonics into your distribution system-nor does it affect your power factor.
Drives are increasingly becoming "plug and play." As electronic power
components improve in reliability and decrease in size, the cost and size of
VFDs will continue to decrease. While all that is going on, their performance
and ease of use will only get better. 

Sidebar: What if you have SCRs?

With the large installed base of SCRs, you might want to know how these
operate. An SCR (originally referred to as a thyristor) contains a control
element called a gate. The gate acts as the "turn-on" switch that allows the
device to fully conduct voltage. The device conducts voltage until the polarity
of the device reverses-and then it automatically "turns off." Special circuitry,
usually requiring another circuit board and associated wiring, controls this
switching. 
The SCR's output depends on how soon in the control cycle that gate turns
on. The IGBT output also depends the length of time the gate is on.
However, it can turn off anytime in the control cycle, providing a more
precise output waveform. IGBTs also require a control circuit connected to
the gate, but this circuitry is less complex and doesn't require a reversal of
polarity. Thus, you would approach troubleshooting differently if you have an
SCR-based drive. 

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) (also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable-

speed drive, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) is a type of adjustable-speed
drive used in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC
motor speed and torque by varying motor inputfrequency and voltage.[1][2][3][4]
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the largest of mine mill
drives and compressors. However, about a third of the world's electrical energy is
consumed by electric motors in fixed-speed centrifugal pump, fan and compressor
applications[citation needed] and VFDs' global market penetration for all applications is still
relatively small. This highlights especially significant energy efficiency improvement
opportunities for retrofitted and new VFD installations.
Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and
size and improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices,
drive topologies, simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.
VFDs are available in a number of different low and medium voltage AC-AC and DC-AC
topologies.

Controller[edit]
The variable frequency drive controller is a solid state power electronics conversion
system consisting of three distinct sub-systems: arectifier bridge converter, a direct
current (DC) link, and an inverter. Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic
topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common type of drives. Most drives
are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output. However, in
some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications, drives are configured
as DC-AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a
three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of
a capacitor which smooths out the converter's DC output ripple and provides a stiff input
to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC voltage
output using the inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide higher power
factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI)
and load-commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below).
The drive controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single-phase
converter input and three-phase inverter output.[7]
Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current
ratings and switching frequency of solid state power devices over the past six decades.
Introduced in 1983,[8] theinsulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has in the past two
decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device.[9][10][11]
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts per Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor
characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be
adjusted to match the required load torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example,
for 460 volt, 60 Hz motors this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While
suitable in wide ranging applications, V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high performance
applications involving low speed or demanding, dynamic speed regulation, positioning
and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives can also operate
in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz
paths.[12][13]
The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque control (DTC),
adjust the motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference and frequency[14] so as to
precisely control the motor's magnetic flux and mechanical torque.
Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming increasingly
popular,[15] sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary
drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-
sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is constructed from intersections of a saw-
toothed carrier frequency signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in
operating frequency as well as in voltage (or current).[9][16][17]
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible, but is
limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the
motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating
at less than rated V/Hz and above rated nameplate speed. Permanent
magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the
constant magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors
have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4
pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75
= 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.[18] At higher speeds the
induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway
torque[a] of the motor. Thus rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150%
of the rated nameplate speed. Wound rotor synchronous motors can be run at even
higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300% of the base speed is used. The
mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor.

Fig. 1: SPWM carrier-sine input & 2-level PWM output

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller.
Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user inaccessible firmware.
User programming of display, variable and function block parameters is provided to
control, protect and monitor the VFD, motor and driven equipment.[9][19]
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power
components and accessories as follows:

 Connected upstream of converter - circuit breaker or fuses,

isolation contactor, EMC filter, line reactor, passive filter
 Connected to DC link - braking chopper, braking resistor
 Connected downstream of inverter - output reactor, sine wave filter, dV/dt filter.[b][21]

Operator interface[edit]
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and
adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include
reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from
an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes
an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about
the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often
provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The
keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the
VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for
connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control
signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be
configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.[9][22][23]
Drive operation[edit]

Electric motor speed-torque chart

Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized as single-

quadrant, two-quadrant or four-quadrant; the chart's four quadrants are defined as
follows:[24][25][26]

 Quadrant I - Driving or motoring,[27] forward accelerating quadrant with positive

speed and torque
 Quadrant II - Generating or braking, forward braking-decelerating quadrant with
positive speed and negative torque
 Quadrant III - Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with negative
speed and torque
 Quadrant IV - Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating quadrant with
negative speed and positive torque.
Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I, such as in
variable-torque (e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain constant-torque (e.g.
extruders) loads.
Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the
speed is positive but the torque changes polarityas in case of a fan decelerating faster
than natural mechanical losses. Some sources define two-quadrant drives as loads
operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is same (positive or
negative) polarity in both directions.
Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads (Quadrants I to IV)
where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists, elevators and hilly
conveyors. Regeneration can only occur in the drive's DC link bus when inverter voltage
is smaller in magnitude than the motor back-EMF and inverter voltage and back-EMF
are the same polarity.[28]
In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus avoiding
high inrush current associated with direct on line starting. After the start of the VFD, the
applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to
accelerate the load. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its
rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains
in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting
torque from standstill right up to full speed.[29] However, motor cooling deteriorates and
can result in overheating as speed decreases such that prolonged low speed motor
operation with significant torque is not usually possible without separately-motorized fan
ventilation.
With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The
frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When
the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque
is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were
simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by
adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking
energy. With a four-quadrant rectifier (active-front-end), the VFD is able to brake the
load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line.
Benefits[edit]

Energy savings[edit]
Many fixed-speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power
can save energy when they are operated at variable-speed, by means of VFD. Such
energy cost savings are especially pronounced in variable-torque centrifugal fan and
pump applications, where the loads' torque and power vary with the square and cube,
respectively, of the speed. This change gives a large power reduction compared to
fixed-speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed. For example, at 63%
speed a motor load consumes only 25% of its full speed power. This is in accordance
with affinity laws that define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables.
In the United States, an estimated 60-65% of electrical energy is used to supply motors,
75% of which are variable torque fan, pump and compressor loads.[30] Eighteen percent
of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient
energy improvement technologies such as VFDs.[31][32]
Only about 3% of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC drives.
[33]
 However, it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30-40% of all
newly installed motors.[34]
An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is
as shown in the following table:

Global population of motors, 2009[35]

General Purpose - Medium-

Small Large
Size

10W to 375 kW to
Power 750W to 375 kW
750W 100MW

3-ph., 1kV to
Phase, voltage 1-ph., <240V 3-ph., 200V to 1kV
20kV

 % total motor
9% 68% 23%
energy

Total stock 2 billion 230 million 0.6 million

Control performance[edit]
AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in industrial and
commercial applications' acceleration, flow, monitoring, pressure, speed, temperature,
tension and torque.[36]
Fixed-speed operated loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current
surges that are up to eight times the full-load current. AC drives instead gradually ramp
the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress, reducing
maintenance and repair costs, and extending the life of the motor and the driven
equipment.
Variable speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize
mechanical and electrical stress. For example, an S-curve pattern can be applied to a
conveyor application for smoother deceleration and acceleration control, which reduces
the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating.
Performance factors tending to favor use of DC, over AC, drives include such
requirements as continuous operation at low speed, four-quadrant operation with
regeneration, frequent acceleration and deceleration routines, and need for motor to be
protected for hazardous area.[37] The following table compares AC and DC drives
according to certain key parameters:[38][39][40]

Drive type DC AC VFD AC VFD AC VFD AC VFD

V/Hz Vector Vector Vector

Control platform Brush type DC
control control control control

Open- Open- Closed- Open-loop

Control criteria Closed-loop
loop loop loop w. HFI^

Motor DC IM IM IM Interior PM

Typical speed
0.01 1 0.5 0.01 0.02
regulation (%)

Typical speed
range at constant 0-100 10-100 3-100 0-100 0-100
torque (%)

Min. speed at
Standstill
100% torque (% of Standstill 8% 2% Standstill
(200%)
base)

Multiple-motor
operation No Yes No No No
recommended
Fault protection
(Fused only or Fused only Inherent Inherent Inherent Inherent
inherent to drive)

Maintenance (Brushes) Low Low Low Low

Tachometer or encode
Feedback device N/A N/A Encoder N/A
r

^ High frequency injection

VFD types and ratings

Generic topologies[edit]

Topology of VSI drive

Topology of CSI drive

Six-step drive waveforms

Topology of direct matrix converter

AC drives can be classified according to the following generic topologies:[c][41][42]

 Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drive topologies (see image): In a VSI drive, the

DC output of the diode-bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply
stiff voltage input to the inverter. The vast majority of drives are VSI type with PWM
voltage output.[d]
 Current-source inverter (CSI) drive topologies (see image): In a CSI drive, the
DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy in series-reactor connection to
supply stiff current input to the inverter. CSI drives can be operated with either PWM
or six-step waveform output.
 Six-step inverter drive topologies (see image):[e][43] Now largely obsolete, six-step
drives can be either VSI or CSI type and are also referred to as variable-voltage
inverter drives, pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) drives,[44] square-wave drives
or D.C. chopper inverter drives.[45] In a six-step drive, the DC output of the SCR-
bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to
supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage or
current input to an induction motor.[46]
 Load commutated inverter (LCI) drive topologies: In a LCI drive, a special CSI
case, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor
circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six-step current output of a second SCR-
bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine.
 Cycloconverter or matrix converter (MC) topologies (see
image): Cycloconverters and MCs are AC-AC converters that have no intermediate
DC link for energy storage. A cycloconverter operates as a three-phase current
source via three anti-parallel connected SCR-bridges in six-pulse configuration,
each cycloconverter phase acting selectively to convert fixed line frequency AC
voltage to an alternating voltage at a variable load frequency. MC drives are IGBT-
based.
 Doubly fed slip recovery system topologies: A doubly fed slip recovery system
feeds rectified slip power to a smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC supply
network via an inverter, the speed of the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC
current.
Control platforms[edit]
See also: Dqo transformation and Alpha–beta transformation

Most drives use one or more of the following control platforms:[41][47]

 PWM V/Hz scalar control
 PWM field-oriented control (FOC) or vector control
 Direct torque control (DTC).
Load torque and power characteristics[edit]
Variable frequency drives are also categorized by the following load torque and power
characteristics:
 Variable torque, such as in centrifugal fan, pump and blower applications
 Constant torque, such as in conveyor and displacement pump applications
 Constant power, such as in machine tool and traction applications.
Available power ratings[edit]
VFDs are available with voltage and current ratings covering a wide range of single-
phase and multi-phase AC motors. Low voltage (LV) drives are designed to operate at
output voltages equal to or less than 690 V. While motor-application LV drives are
available in ratings of up to the order of 5 or 6 MW,[48] economic considerations typically
favor medium voltage (MV) drives with much lower power ratings. Different MV drive
topologies (see Table 2) are configured in accordance with the voltage/current-
combination ratings used in different drive controllers' switching devices[49] such that any
given voltage rating is greater than or equal to one to the following standard nominal
motor voltage ratings: generally either 2.3/4.16 kV (60 Hz) or 3.3/6.6 kV (50 Hz), with
one thyristor manufacturer rated for up to 12 kV switching. In some applications a step
up transformer is placed between a LV drive and a MV motor load. MV drives are
typically rated for motor applications greater than between about 375 kW (500 hp) and
750 kW (1000 hp). MV drives have historically required considerably more application
design effort than required for LV drive applications.[50][51] The power rating of MV drives
can reach 100 MW, a range of different drive topologies being involved for different
rating, performance, power quality and reliability requirements.[52][53][54]

What is a Variable Frequency Drive?

What is a VFD?
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric
motor by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names
for a VFD are variable speed drive,adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency
drive, AC drive, microdrive, and inverter.

Frequency (or hertz) is directly related to the motor’s speed (RPMs). In other words, the
faster the frequency, the faster the RPMs go. If an application does not require an
electric motor to run at full speed, the VFD can be used to ramp down the frequency
and voltage to meet the requirements of the electric motor’s load. As the application’s
motor speed requirements change, the VFD can simply turn up or down the motor
speed to meet the speed requirement.

How does a Variable Frequency Drive work?

The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter. The
converter is comprised of six diodes, which are similar to check valves used in plumbing
systems. They allow current to flow in only one direction; the direction shown by the
arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-phase voltage (voltage is similar
to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C phase voltages, then that
diode will open and allow current to flow. When B-phase becomes more positive than A-
phase, then the B-phase diode will open and the A-phase diode will close. The same is
true for the 3 diodes on the negative side of the bus. Thus, we get six current “pulses”
as each diode opens and closes. This is called a “six-pulse VFD”, which is the standard
configuration for current Variable Frequency Drives.

Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V rating is
“rms” or root-mean-squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As you can see,
the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage with an AC ripple. The voltage runs between
approximately 580V and 680V.
We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor
operates in a similar fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system. This
capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a smooth dc voltage. The AC ripple on the
DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the voltage on the DC bus becomes
“approximately” 650VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage level of the AC
line feeding the drive, the level of voltage unbalance on the power system, the motor
load, the impedance of the power system, and any reactors or harmonic filters on the
drive.

The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC, is sometimes just referred to as a
converter. The converter that converts the dc back to ac is also a converter, but to
distinguish it from the diode converter, it is usually referred to as an “inverter”. It has
become common in the industry to refer to any DC-to-AC converter as an inverter.

Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.

When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is
connected to the positive dc bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive. When
we close one of the bottom switches in the converter, that phase is connected to the
negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any phase on the motor
become positive or negative at will and can thus generate any frequency that we want.
So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or zero. 
The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does not
generate this sine wave.

Notice that the output from the VFD is a “rectangular” wave form. VFD’s do not produce
a sinusoidal output. This rectangular waveform would not be a good choice for a
general purpose distribution system, but is perfectly adequate for a motor.

If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the inverter
output transistors more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30Hz, then we must
also reduce the voltage to 240V in order to maintain the V/Hz ratio (see the VFD Motor
Theory presentation for more on this). How are we going to reduce the voltage if the
only voltage we have is 650VDC?

This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the
pressure in a water line by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed. While
this would not be practical for plumbing systems, it works very well for VFD’s. Notice
that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the time and OFF half the time.
Thus, the average voltage is half of 480V or 240V. By pulsing the output, we can
achieve any average voltage on the output of the VFD.
See the Pictures below to understand what the different parts of a drive look like.

Why should I use a VFD?

Reduce Energy Consumption and Energy Costs

If you have an application that does not need to be run at full speed, then you can cut
down energy costs by controlling the motor with a variable frequency drive, which is one
of the benefits of Variable Frequency Drives. VFDs allow you to match the speed of the
motor-driven equipment to the load requirement. There is no other method of AC
electric motor control that allows you to accomplish this.

Electric motor systems are responsible for more than 65% of the power consumption in
industry today. Optimizing motor control systems by installing or upgrading to VFDs can
reduce energy consumption in your facility by as much as 70%. Additionally, the
utilization of VFDs improves product quality, and reduces production costs. Combining
energy efficiency tax incentives, and utility rebates, returns on investment for VFD
installations can be as little as 6 months.
Increase Production Through Tighter Process Control
By operating your motors at the most efficient speed for your application, fewer
mistakes will occur, and thus, production levels will increase, which earns your company
higher revenues. On conveyors and belts you eliminate jerks on start-up allowing high
through put.

Extend Equipment Life and Reduce Maintenance

Your equipment will last longer and will have less downtime due to maintenance when
it’s controlled by VFDs ensuring optimal motor application speed. Because of the VFDs
optimal control of the motor’s frequency and voltage, the VFD will offer better protection
for your motor from issues such as electro thermal overloads, phase protection, under
voltage, overvoltage, etc.. When you start a load with a VFD you will not subject the
motor or driven load to the “instant shock” of across the line starting, but can start
smoothly, thereby eliminating belt, gear and bearing wear. It also is an excellent way to
reduce and/or eliminate water hammer since we can have smooth acceleration and
deceleration cycles.

Understanding AC Motor-Drive Systems

(Sometimes called Variable Frequency Drives or VFDs)

Maybe your objective is to learn how to troubleshoot variable frequency drives or

maybe you want to know how to properly set-up a drive through programming.
Maybe you just want the question answered: how does an AC variable frequency
drive work?

During this article I will definitely cover the theory of operation of the variable
frequency drive (VFD) and several typical AC drive applications including multi-
motor AC drive applications.

In any case, to gain a useful working knowledge of the drive it is mandatory that
you understand how AC induction motors produce mechanical force, called
torque, and the limitations of AC motors. Therefore, what follows includes quite a
lot of AC motor theory followed by heavy AC drive theory.

The very first thing you need to know is that the AC drive does not produce any
torque - in fact, it does not produce even one ounce of load moving torque. All the
mechanical force that moves your machine and al of the mechanical force that is
produced by the motor & drive system is produced by the motor. The drive itself
just has to provide the motor with the proper voltage and current necessary in a
form that is usable by the motor. The drive itself, is only an electrical power supply.
The motor is the all-important prime mover. If a particular motor does not have the
capability to produce the required torque and speed there is absolutely nothing
you can do to the drive, programmatically or otherwise, to enable the motor to
power your machine!

Therefore, when designing a motor-drive system proper motor selection is crucial.

Above all never, never, never match a "High Efficient" design motor to an AC

drive! I am emphatic about this because I see it happen all the time and it is the
worst thing you can do. (Well, not really the worst thing you can do, but I do want
to get my point across.)

Do not buy a high-effecient motor to operate on an AC drive!

Interested?
If you have an interest in this topic you should consider registering in my AC drive
seminar and bring a co-worker (because no one else back on the job is going to
believe what I told you during the seminar.) Also, keep reading, I will tell you things
about AC drives you never before heard and never will hear anywhere else.

Exactly what is an AC drive?

The word "drive" is used loosely in the industry. It seems that people involved
primarily in the world of gear boxes and pulleys refer to any collection of
mechanical and electro-mechanical components, which when connected together
will move a load, as a "drive". When speaking to these people, an AC drive may
be considered by them as the variable frequency inverter and motor combination.
It may even include the motor's pulley - I am not sure.

People in the electrical field and electrical suppliers usually refer to a variable
frequency inverter unit alone, or an SCR power module alone (when discussing
DC drives) as the "drive" and the motor as the "motor".

Manufacturers of variable frequency drives (VFD) used to refer to the drive as just
that, a "variable frequency drive". More manufacturers are referring to their drive
as an "adjustable speed AC drive". To make matters worse when a motor is
included in the package it may be referred to as an "adjustable speed AC drive
system".

A variable frequency drive is an adjustable speed drive. Adjustable speed drives

include all types; mechanical and electrical. Now is it clear? Don't worry about it.
It's not clear to anyone. As you read on, when I refer to the "drive" I  am referring
to the variable frequency inverter alone.

A Little About AC Drives

The main power components of an AC drive, have to be able to supply the
required level of current and voltage in a form the motor can use. The controls
have to be able to provide the user with necessary adjustments such as minimum
and maximum speed settings, so that the drive can be adapted to the user's
process. Spare parts have to be available and the repair manual has to be
readable. It's nice if the drive can shut itself down when detecting either an internal
or an external problem. It's also nice if  the drive components are all packaged in a
single enclosure to aid in installation but that's about it.
The Dumb Trap
The paradox facing drive manufacturers today is that as they make their drives
easier to use,  the amount of training with which they must provide their users
increases. This is because as drives become easier to use they are purchased
more and more by people of less and less technical capability. As less technical
people get involved in drive purchases the number of misapplications goes way
up. I call this phenomenon the "dumb trap". (When manufactures discover this
phenomenon they simultaneously discover how dumb they've been. Some have
not yet discovered it.)

Ambiguous Motor Theory

The real action in an AC variable frequency drive system is in the motor. This is
really where it all happens.
To be an AC drive application Wizard (which is several levels higher then Guru)
one must understand how motors use electric power. It is essential. I cannot
emphasize the importance of this.

All loads moved by electric motors are really moved by magnetism. The purpose
of every component in a motor is to help harness, control, and use magnetic force.
When applying an AC drive system it helps to remember you are actually applying
magnets to move a load. To move a load fast does not require more magnets, you
just move the magnets fast. To move a heavier load or to decrease acceleration
time (accelerate faster) more magnets (more torque) are needed. This is the basis
for all motor applications. 
  
Where does the real action happen in a AC drive system?

Above is a cross-sectional view a motor rotor and field magnetic core. Looking
from the side would look something like a looking at a can:
We can add magnets (and torque) to our drive system by using a motor with a
core that is either longer, larger in cross-sectional diameter, or some combination
of both.
A Side Note About Fishing, Electro-magnets, Current, and Magnetic
Conductivity 
When we go fishing we put bait on a hook and throw it in water knowing that
according to generally accepted theory, a hungry fish will sooner or later, bite. Well
the truth is we don't know why the fish bite. No one to date, has talked to a fish
(well maybe a few people talk to fish). The fact the we get hungry and therefore
fish must too, seems like a safe assumption. But it doesn't really matter because
we do know that putting bait on a hook will get fish into the boat.

Magnetism and electricity are the same way. We have some well accepted
theories that we can use to explain how magnets can move our load but no one
really knows what magnetism and electricity are (regardless of what they say).
When it comes to using magnetic force to move our load, how it works just doesn't
matter. We do know that it works. We have even noticed a few peculiar things.

We have noticed that when you wrap a coil of wire around a piece of iron and
apply electric current the piece of iron becomes magnetic. We call this an electro-
magnet.
Schematic of Electro-Magnet Electro-Magnet

About Electro-Magnets (The Torque Producers Inside Every Motor)

We have noticed a lot of things about electro-magnets that are very important to
the drive application wizard (you'll see why later):

 After we apply the electric current, the magnet field grows at a finite rate to
a finite size .
 After voltage is applied and full current is reached, which always takes a
little time, the field quits growing and becomes a constant size. If we
increase the applied voltage the field grows and becomes stronger,
decrease the voltage and the field weakens and shrinks.
 When we remove electric power to the coil the field does not just disappear.
It just decreases in size until it does disappear. It collapses over time so to
speak.
  The more current our coil draws (which we can force by increasing the
applied voltage level ) the stronger and larger our magnetic field becomes. I
know I said it twice. It's that important.
 When we increase voltage to our electro-magnet, current will increase
directly proportional up to a point. After that point current increases
exponentially. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Generally accepted theory says that
the iron core or any material, can only conduct a limited amount of
magnetic flux. Once that point is reached current can become very high
with a very small increase in voltage. This is called magnetic saturation and
is sometimes seen in motor applications. Motor life becomes very short
when the core reaches saturation - about 15 seconds in some cases. We
will look at this and some of the causes later.
 Some energy is consumed by simply magnetizing the iron core. Different
materials consume different amounts of energy. This is usually considered
an energy loss.
 Some energy is converted into heat within the iron core. Different materials
convert different amounts of energy. This is also usually considered an
energy loss.
 Once a core is magnetized, demagnetization and reverse polarity re-
magnetization consumes more energy and takes quite a long time,
relatively speaking. (Remember, an existing field has to collapse over time.)
The amount of this loss is proportional to the frequency of polarization
reversals. This happens 120 times per second when operating an AC motor
at 60 hertz. We will touch on the importance of this later. (Are you
beginning to see where all this is going?)

The Magnets Within the Motor and Torque

The motor stator shown below is a two-pole motor meaning it is wound with with two
field coils for each phase. In the industry this would be called a "2-pole motor".

For simplicity, only one phase is shown. In reality, a 3-phase,  two pole motor requires
six coils, evenly spaced around the core - a minimum of two coils is required, to
generate two electro-magnetic poles, for each of the three phases.

(A 4-pole motor will have four coils per phase or 12 total coils for a 3-phase motor.)

Motors are designed so that the 

electro-magnets are made as strong as
possible with acceptable risk of core
saturation. This will maximize the
torque capability of the motor but also
means that during normal operation
every motor may at some point,
operate close to saturation. How close
a motor runs to saturation depends
upon the amount and type of core
material used. So naturally, this point
varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer. There really is a
difference in motors and you get what
you pay for.
When the voltage applied to a motor is
increased current to the electro-
magnets increases resulting in higher
field strength and increased motor
torque output. This is a commonly used
technique, especially in AC drive
applications. It is a very good way to
gain torque capability when needed.

This technique can increase motor torque it will also cause higher than normal motor
heating resulting in reduced motor life. Close monitoring of the motor is required. Avoid
saturating the core!

All Three Phases of a 2-Pole Motor 

The image to the right shows all three phases
wound into a 2-pole motor.

Note how the end connections of each phase are

connected together at the "Y" point. This allows for
three lead wires to be brought out of the terminal
box to be connected to a 3-phase power system.

A Coil-Ectomy
If you could remove the coils from the above motor without breaking a connection,
and lay them side-by-side, this is what you would have. What is shown are three
phases: A, B, and C phase connected together (see the arrow) at a "star" or "Y"
point. There are other motor connection schemes but this is the most typical:

AC Generator
If a magnet is passed along the coils, an electric current is generated in each of
the three phases. In fact, there is little difference between AC generator and motor
field windings.
The faster you move the magnet the higher the AC output frequency. Variable
frequency drives control the frequency electronically. We'll get to more on that
later.

When an iron core is placed so a moving magnetic field passes through it, a
magnet field is generated within the iron core. It takes time to generate a field
therefore, the new field reaches peak strength after the peak of the generating
field has passed. The bar (rotor) is "pulled" by the magnetic field thus producing
torque.

The magnetic field has to pass through the rotor to generate a rotor field and pull.
If the rotor travels at the same speed as the magnetic field, induction into the rotor
will cease, the magnetic field will disappear and the rotor will loose its pull and
slow down. Pull (torque) is obtained when fields are passed through the rotor in
quick succession. Remember though, it takes a long time to generate a field. If the
frequency of fields passing through the rotor is too low, effectiveness is lost.  If the
frequency of the generating field is held constant, and the torque is great enough
to move the rotor, the rotor will reach an equilibrium speed, where at any higher
speed induction and torque are reduced and the rotor slows back down to
equilibrium.

More About AC Induction Motors

Typical Rotor (Rotating Part) Typical Stator (Stationary Part)
Important Motor Formula - Calculating the Synchronous Speed:

("120" is a constant in the formula - don't worry about it.)

"Synchronous RPM" is the RPM the motor would run if the rotor did not slip. All AC
induction motors slip. ("Synchronous motors", a special kind of induction motor, do
not slip- at least least they are not supposed to. More about synchronous motors
will have to be covered in another article.)

A note about nominal RPM ratings:

An AC motor referred to, in the industry, as an 1800 RPM motor will be name-
plated with a speed of something less, usually around 1735 RPM. 1735 RPM is a
typical RPM rating but can be higher or lower but is always less than the
synchronous speed (1800 RPM). The difference between the synchronous and
the actual RPM is called "slip". Adjusting slip is an important technique in AC drive
applications. A lot more about slip will come later.

The following is surprisingly simple but important! Don't let it scare you.
You do not have to memorize it - just understand it.

Calculation of Synchronous Speed

(The "Poles" are the number of electro-magnetic poles wound into the motor.
Motors can have any even number of poles wound into them but a minimum of 2
poles for each of the 3 phases are required. The most common AC motors are
wound with either 2, 4, 6, or 8 poles.)

Looking at the calculation above you can see that a motor name-plated
approximately 3450 RPM and 60 HZ is obviously a 2-pole motor with a
synchronous speed of 3600 RPM.
Calculation of % Slip
(Typical induction motors slip anywhere from 3% to 5% when they are fully
mechanically loaded.)

Example of % Slip Calculation

Why are some motors called "induction motors" and what is induction?
When an electric current is applied to a conductor a magnetic field builds around
that conductor. If another conductor is in close proximity so that the building
magnet field "cuts" through that conductor, a current of equal potential is produced
with flow in the opposite direction of the original current. This conductor is called
the secondary circuit and the principal is called induction.
When an electric current is
applied to a conductor a magnetic
field builds around that conductor.
If another conductor is in close
proximity so that the building
magnet field "cuts" through that
conductor, a current of equal
potential is produced with flow in
the opposite direction of the
original current. This conductor is
called the secondary circuit and
the principal is called induction.
If the number conductors in the
secondary is increased the output
potential is increased in direct
proportion. The inverse is also
true.

This is called transformeraction.
It is because of transformer
action that a current is created in
the rotor (secondary circuit) of an
AC induction motor and a
resulting magnetic force, within
and around the rotor, is also
created. 

Note:
If the magnetic field reaches
maximum strength and quits
growing, the current flow in the
secondary returns to zero
regardless of the level of current
flow in the primary. In other
words, there is a secondary
current induced only when the
magnetic field around the primary
is either increasing or decreasing
in size.

This article will be continued on our sister web site:www.drivesys.com

There is not much sense in having two long articles on two web sites and causing
you to wait so long for this web page regarding AC drives, to take a long time to
load into your browser. (And you may not even be interested in it.)

The continuation of this article will therefore be found, sooner or later, based on
when I have time to write, at www.drivesys.com

If you would like to drop us a note just click here. I read everyone of our comments
from readers.

Thanks for reading so far. .... James Shumberg

Understanding variable frequency drives
VFD use is increasing because users say VFDs improve manufacturing
processes and reduce cost. Understanding how they do their job can help as you
consider deployments.
Stephen Prachyl, Siemens

04/08/2011

Share

If you’re involved with trying to save energy in your plant, at some point you have
probably looked into variable frequency drives (VFDs) for ac motors. Reports from all
directions say they can help save energy, reduce maintenance, and cut utility costs. The
questions are: are they as good as they sound, and how do they work?

A VFD controls the speed of an ac motor, which provides flexibility to the process since
speed can be changed easily for process optimization. It takes the fixed power supplied
to it and converts it into a variable frequency and variable voltage source which then
feeds a motor. This allows the drive to control the speed and torque the motor
produces.  

A VFD may enhance the user’s profitability by improving the process, which in turn
produces a fast return on investment (ROI). Process improvements may come from
better:

 Speed control;
 Flow control;
 Pressure control;
 Temperature control;
 Tension control;
 Torque control;
  Monitoring quality; and
 Acceleration/deceleration control.

Many applications that use ac motors would benefit from the use of such drives
because they can also reduce operating costs while improving the process. Reduced
costs come from:

 Increased system reliability;

 Reduced downtime;
 Reduced equipment setup time;
 Energy savings;
 Lower maintenance;
 Smoother operation—less wear and tear; and
 Power factor control.

The net result of these improvements is increased profitability.

Evaluating applications

Different drive applications have different criteria that should be evaluated individually.
For example, when used in a centrifugal pump or fan application, an ac drive saves
energy by allowing the user to adjust the speed of the motor to the most efficient level.
This can often be as much as a 60% energy saving over fixed-speed motors with valve
controls. This is usually enough to pay for the drive within a short period of time.

When discussing VFDs and energy savings, the attention often focuses on this type of
centrifugal fan or pump application. However, there are other applications that also have
large potential energy savings and/or recovery based on easily applicable concepts that
should not be overlooked. These applications are power factor correction, regeneration,
common bus applications, or a combination of all three. Let’s examine all these and see
how using the right drive generates its benefit.

Centrifugal applications: laws of affinity

The cost savings in a centrifugal fan or pump application are primarily derived from two
components:

 The laws of affinity, which shows an operating range that produces the most flow
or pressure per horsepower. (See Figure 1.)
 Removal of any mechanical flow device that limits the flow of a fan or pump while
the motor turns the application at a fixed speed. (See Figures 2 and 3.)

The ac drive installation continues to save energy for many years after the initial
payback period, as well as lowers the maintenance costs and provides a more
consistent flow of product. When a centrifugal fan or pump is used with mechanical flow
control, converting the application to an adjustable-speed ac drive will save from 10% to
60% of energy cost if the fan or pump system is designed to operate between 40% to
80% percent of full speed. This application typically produces a return on investment in
the 6- to 24-month time frame.

The laws of affinity state:

 Flow is proportional to shaft speed;

 Head (pressure) is proportional to the square of shaft speed; and
 Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed.
When comparing the different methods of mechanical flow control, the graphs clearly
show that the only one that gets close to the maximum efficiency of the theoretical fan
curve or pump flow is a VFD.

Power factor

What is power factor (PF)? AC power has two basic components: voltage and current.
When these two components are not in sync, power is wasted due to inefficiency. This
is called power factor displacement. To make matters worse, when the ac power has a
high level of harmonic content called power factor distortion, the displacement and
distortion are multiplied by each other, which further decreases efficiency.

If you have ever received a bill from your electric utility company penalizing your plant
there is a good chance that a power factor displacement issue exists. Even if the power
company does not charge an extra penalty, you are still paying for the excess energy
that is used. Therefore, getting the power factor displacement close to unity is very
important.

Here is a graphic example of total power factor, power factor displacement and power
factor distortion (harmonics):
Power factor penalties

While each utility may charge differently, two common ways that utilities charge are by
KVA (Lower PF = higher Amps) or by kW with a PF penalty.

If the power factor is less than 90%, the measured kW demand will be multiplied by the
ratio of 90% divided by the actual power factor:

                  100 kW motor with 0.85 power factor: (100 kW*0.9) / (0.85 PF) = 105 kW

In this case the increase in cost is 5% of your bill in addition to the wasted kvar as in the
previous example.

The second method is an adjustment of demand for power, where demands will be
adjusted to correct for average power factors lower than 95%. Such adjustments will be
made by increasing the measured demand 1% for each 1% or major fraction thereof by
which the average power factor is less than 95% lagging.

In this case the penalty increase is 1% for every 1% that the power factor is below 0.95
in addition to the wasted kvar.

While there are power factor correction devices available, such as capacitors and filters,
an ac drive is often overlooked as a method for correcting power factor displacement
while at the same time having a low distortion level. A VFD with an active front end
(AFE) has the ability to adjust its power factor operating point as well as limit harmonics
to less than 4%. As a comparison, when using a standard six-pulse ac drive with a
diode rectifier that converts input ac voltage to dc bus voltage, the typical harmonics
level is 30% to 40%. There is at least one AFE ac drive available today that has the
ability to adjust its power factor from 0.8 leading to 0.8 lagging and that meets IEEE 519
harmonic standards for low power factor distortion. This means the drive can improve
the present power factor displacement in a facility.

Distortion power factor describes the decrease in average power transferred due to
harmonics and to phase shift between current and voltage.

How much this costs and how much can be saved depends on the amount of
displacement and distortion that currently exists. 
Regeneration

An ac motor may act either as a motor that turns electrical power into mechanical power
or as a generator that converts mechanical power into electricity. It depends on whether
the motor is turning a machine that requires power to turn the machine or whether the
load of the machine will at times overhaul the motor. (Overhauling is a condition where
the mechanics or physics of the load mechanically cause the motor to attempt to turn
faster than the motor speed the drive is commanding and the drive is used to slow down
the motor speed.) This overhauling condition may exist in several types of applications.

1. Constant deceleration: When a load such as a decline conveyor operating under the

influence of gravity will overhaul the motor’s speed and the drive is used to control the
conveyor speed to a slower level than what the natural physics of the application would
produce.

 2. Periodic deceleration: When a load is stopped quickly and the inertia of the load
wants to keep turning, such as a large drum. In this case the cycle time, or how many
times the load is stopped over time, as well as the magnitude of the stopping power
required, determines how much energy can be saved.

3. System tension/holding torque: When two sections of a machine are used to create

tension on the material between them, such as on the metal strip in a strip mill. The two
sections may be running at the same speed, but the process requires a certain amount
of tension on the strip to run properly. This means the lead section will run in the
forward direction and pull the strip, and the following section will also run in the forward
direction and at the same time provide the needed torque in the reverse direction of the
strip, thus creating the proper tension.

In each of these examples the motor and drive combination has the ability to recover
the electrical power produced by the motor when it is acting as a generator, and sends
that power to the utility company. How much energy is saved is dependent on the
application, but it can be significant. One such application where significant savings can
be recovered is a gearbox test stand. When the gearbox is tested, one drive and motor
are used to turn the gearbox while another drive and motor are used on the other end of
the gearbox to simulate the load. Done correctly, this application will operate with a very
low amount of total energy, as the amount of energy used to turn the gearbox is the
same amount of energy that is recovered from the simulated load on the gearbox, less
the losses in the system. The one question you should ask when trying to determine if
the application is regenerative is, “Does the load, at any time, try to turn the motor
(regenerative recovery), or is the motor being used to turn the load?”

Common bus

When there are multiple ac drives in one location, a common bus system is usually the
most efficient way to operate. It can incorporate the energy savings and recovery
concepts that have just been discussed. If there is a regenerative ac drive and motor
section in the system, it is ideally suited for maximizing energy recovery and cost
savings. The reason for this is that losses are generated when power is converted from
the ac supply to the dc bus or from the dc bus to the ac supply. When you have multiple
stand-alone drives, the power must go through two or more ac-to-dc conversions, and
two dc-to-ac conversions. (See Figures 8 and 9.) In a common bus configuration, power
goes through only one ac-to-dc conversion in the motoring direction, and when an
inverter section of the drive regenerates power to the dc bus, the power goes straight to
another inverter via the common dc bus link, which is motoring and does not have to
travel through a converter at all. This method eliminates two conversion points where
energy would be lost. This increases efficiency by 2% to 4% for each regenerative
section. If you have more sections that are regenerative, you will accumulate more
energy savings. In addition to the savings of a common bus solution, if you have an
AFE, the system will have the ability to do power factor correction, which increases the
savings of a common bus system. The gearbox test stand is a great example of a
common bus solution. Here there is one forward motoring drive motor section and one
regenerative drive motor section. In this specific case the two drive and motor sections
were rated at 1,000 A at 690 Vac each. Yet the incoming ac line and input modules
were able to be sized at less than 1,000 A at 690 Vac. This was possible because one
of the two sections required 1,000 A in the motoring or torque producing direction, while
the other section that provided the load was able to recover through regeneration close
to 1,000 A, less the losses in the system. Therefore, the amps generated from the
recovery section almost canceled out the 1,000 A from the section providing torque to
turn the gearbox, and the input ac could be sized at slightly larger than the losses of the
system, which in this case was roughly 200 A at 690 Vac. This resulted in a lower
installation cost due to the smaller ac-to-dc section. The application recovered $75,000
per year in energy costs, which translated to a four-year payback.

This application combined the efficiency of a regenerative system in a common bus

configuration. If the plant would have had a power factor correction issue, the common
bus solution would have been able to accumulate those savings into this total as well.

In conclusion, when using an ac drive and motor combination, there are many different
applications and methods for which the energy savings and energy recovery can be
significant. While there is typically much focus on the drive’s initial cost, each application
should be reviewed to determine the maximum amount of increased productivity and
decreased operating cost due to energy savings and energy recovery. In many cases
energy savings and operating cost are much higher than the cost of installing the drive.