National 5 Chemistry

Unit 1
Chemical changes and structures

Topic Page
1 – Rates of Reaction 1
Minitest 7
2 – Elements & Atomic Structure 10
Minitest 14
3 - Bonding Related to Properties of 15
Materials
Minitest 19
4 – Chemical Formulae 21
5 – Balancing Equations 23
Minitest 24
6 – The Mole 25
Minitest 27
4 – Acids and Bases 28
Minitest 33
Glossary 34

Material sourced from BBC Bitesize Revision Website

 1 - Rates of reaction
There are four factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction:
 temperature
 concentration
 particle size
 use of a catalyst
For a reaction to occur, the particles that are reacting must collide with each other.
Only some of all the collisions that take place cause a chemical change to happen.
These are called 'successful' collisions. The greater the number of 'successful' collisions,
the faster the rate of a reaction. This is called the 'collision theory'.

a) Temperature
If the temperature is increased, the particles have more energy and so move quicker.
Increasing the temperature increases the rate of reaction because the particles
collide more often and with more energy. The higher the temperature, the faster the
rate of a reaction will be.

Look at the graph of the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
Notice how an increase in temperature leads to an increase in the speed of release of
carbon dioxide, but not the total volume of carbon dioxide released.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 1 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

b) Concentration
If the concentration of reactants is increased, there are more reactant particles
moving together. There will be more collisions and so the reaction rate is increased.
The higher the concentration of reactants, the faster the rate of a reaction will be.

c) Particle size
By decreasing the particle size of a reactant, we are increasing its surface area. The
greater the surface area, the higher the chance of collisions, thus the faster the rate of
reaction. The smaller the particle size the faster the reaction.

Think of a cube where the length of every side is 2 cm.

The area of one face of the cube will be 2 x 2 = 4 cm2.
The cube has six faces, so the total surface area is
4 cm2 x 6 = 24 cm2.

We could cut that cube horizontally and vertically along each face so that we have
eight smaller cubes.

Each of the small cubes has a face area of 1 cm x 1 cm = 1 cm 2.

The six faces give a total surface area for each smaller cube of 6cm 2.
There are eight cubes so the total surface area is 6 cm2 x 8 = 48cm2.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 2 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

d) Use of a catalyst
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction but it is not used up in the reaction. If a
catalyst is present, the reacting particles can collide more successfully with less energy
and so the reaction can take place at a lower temperature.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts.
They occur naturally in the body and help with digestion. They are used in the
production of alcohol (zymase) and digestion of food (amylase). Enzymes are specific.
This means that they can only catalyse one reaction.
Many enzymes work best at body temperature. While they do work at lower
temperatures, they are less effective. At high temperatures, the enzyme molecule
changes shape (denatures) and no longer speeds up the reaction.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 3 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

d) Monitoring the rate of a reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reactants are being used
up and how fast the products are being made.
The rate can be determined by measuring:
 changes in the concentration of the reactants or products
 changes in the mass of the reactants or products
 changes in the volume of the reactants or products
For example, when dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal, zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas are produced.
There are two simple ways to measure the rate of this reaction in the lab.
1. If the reaction is set up on a balance as shown, the mass of the apparatus can
be monitored throughout the reaction. As hydrogen bubbles escape, the
apparatus will lose mass.

2. An alternative way to monitor the reaction is by collecting and measuring the

volume of the gas as it is produced. The gas can be collected in a gas syringe or
over water (as long as it is insoluble in water).

Two different ways to measure the volume of a gas that is produced

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 4 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

e) Calculating the rate of a reaction
Using the results of experiments like these, the average rate of the reaction can be
calculated. No matter which quantity is measured during the course of a reaction, the
average rate of reaction can be calculated using the equation below.

The change in measurable quantity can be read from a table of results or from a
graph produced from results.
As the rate is changing throughout the reaction, we are calculating the average rate
over a given time period.
For example, the graph below could be used to calculate the average rate over any
period of time

Using this graph, we can calculate the average rate between 30 seconds and 120
seconds.

The unit that rate is measured in depends on the measurable quantity. Since a change in mass is
measured in grams and a change in time in seconds in this example, the unit of rate would be grams
per second (g s-1). Similarly, if a change in concentration is measured (in mol l -1), then rate will have the
unit moles per litre per second (mol l-1 s-1) or a change in volume measured in cubic centimetres,
centimetres cubed per second (cm 3 s-1).

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 5 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

f) Rate graphs
In chemistry, graphs can be used to follow the course of a reaction. A graph can tell
us many things about a reaction.
The graph below shows two similar reactions.

The magenta line has a steeper gradient and represents conditions favouring a faster
reaction than the green line. When the reaction is finished (the end-point) the graph
goes flat as no more products are being produced.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 6 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Rates of Reaction Minitest

1 Which of the following factors will not speed up a chemical reaction?

o Increasing the temperature of the reaction
o Increasing the particle size of reactants
o Increasing the concentration of reactants

2 A pupil places 10g of potato into 1 mol/l hydrogen peroxide solution.

The potato has a biological catalyst inside it that breaks the hydrogen peroxide
down to water and oxygen gas.
What term is used to describe a biological catalyst such as catalase?

o Fermentation
o Enzyme
o Protein

3 A pupil places 10g of potato into 1 mol/l hydrogen peroxide solution.

The potato has a biological catalyst inside it that breaks the hydrogen peroxide
down to water and oxygen gas.
The pupil counts 15 bubbles of oxygen given off every minute.
What could she do to the 10g of potato that would increase the number of
bubbles per minute?

o Cook it before use

o Cut it into smaller pieces
o Use 5g instead

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 7 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

4 A pupil places 10g of potato into 1 mol/l hyrogen peroxide solution.
The potato has a biological catalyst inside it that breaks the hydrogen peroxide
down to water and oxygen gas.
What would happen to the number of bubbles per minute if she used a less
concentrated hydrogen peroxide solution instead of the original 1 mol/l?

o Stay the same

o Increase
o Decrease

5 A pupil places 10g of potato into 1 mol/l hyrogen peroxide solution.

The potato has a biological catalyst inside it that breaks the hydrogen peroxide
down to water and oxygen gas.
What would happen to the number of bubbles if the temperature was increased
to 30°C?

o Increase
o Decrease
o Stay the Same

6 Which of the following reactions would be the fastest?

o 1 mol/l hydrochloric acid reacting with zinc powder
o 1 mol/l hydrochloric acid reacting with a lump of zinc
o 0.5 mol/l hydrochloric acid reacting with zinc powder

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 8 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

7 In which of the following reactions would hydrogen be produced the fastest?
o Calcium powder and 2 mol/l hydrochloric acid
o Calcium lumps and 2 mol/l hydrochloric acid
o Calcium powder and 4 mol/l hydrochloric acid

8 What does a catalyst do?

o Speeds up a reaction and is not used up in the reaction
o Slows down a reaction and is not used up in the reaction
o Speeds up a reaction and is used up in the reaction

9 A pupil monitors the rate of a reaction by measuring the volume of gas that is
being produced every 15 seconds.
What will her units be when calculating the rate of reaction?
o g s-1
o cm3 s-1
o mol l-1 s-1

10 Which line on this rate graph shows the slowest reaction?

o A
o B
o C

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 9 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 2 – Elements and Atomic Structure

a) The Periodic Table

The periodic table brings order to information about the chemical elements. It helps
chemists to understand why elements react as they do.
There are more than 100 elements which are arranged in the periodic table and each
is represented by a symbol. A section of the periodic table is shown below which
illustrates how the elements are arranged.
The SQA Data Booklet gives more information.

The chemical elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called groups.
Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same group of elements.

The properties of the main groups of elements

o The elements in group 1 are known as alkali metals. They react rapidly (very fast)
with water, producing an alkaline solution and hydrogen gas. The metals become
more reactive as you go down the group.
o The elements in group 7 are known as halogens. Fluorine and chlorine are gases.
Bromine is one of only two liquid elements. Iodine is solid. They exist as diatomic
molecules - they have two atoms in each molecule. As you go down the group
the halogens become less reactive.
o The elements in group 0 are known as noble gases. They are very unreactive and
exist as individual atoms (monatomic).
o The transition metals are elements which are found between groups 2 and 3. Well
known examples are iron, copper and gold. They are generally quite dense
(heavy) and many form brightly coloured compounds.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 10 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

b) Structure of the atom
Everything in the world is made up of atoms. The structure of the atom is what gives an
element its chemical and physical properties.
Atoms are made up of three smaller particles called electrons, protons and neutrons.

Electrons
Negatively charged particles that spin around the positive centre of the atom in
circles called energy levels. Their mass is so small it is nearly zero.

Protons
Positively charged particles that are contained in the nucleus of the atom (the centre)
they have a mass of 1amu (atomic mass unit).

Neutrons
Particles with no charge are also contained in the nucleus of the atom. They too have
a mass of 1amu.

The nucleus has an overall positive charge as it contains the protons.

Particle Mass Charge Location

Electron Approx 0 -1 Energy level

Proton 1 amu +1 Nucleus

Neutron 1 amu 0 Nucleus

Every atom has no overall charge (neutral). This is because they contain equal
numbers of positive protons and negative electrons. These opposite charges cancel
each other out making the atom neutral.

Atomic number
Each element has its own atomic number.
Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. For
example hydrogen has the atomic number of one, helium two, lithium three etc.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 11 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

Mass number
The mass number is given at the top left of the element's symbol, for example, sodium
has a mass number of 23.

We know that the atomic number of sodium is 11. This tells us that sodium has 11
protons and because it is neutral it has 11 electrons.
The mass number of an element tells us the number of protons AND neutrons in an
atom (i.e. the two particles that have a measureable mass).
Sodium has a mass number of 23amu. Since sodium has 11 protons, the number of
neutrons is given by mass number – number of protons (23 - 11) = 12 neutrons.

Element Mass number Protons Neutrons

Magnesium 24 12 12
Potassium 39 19 20
Carbon 12 6 6

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass number.

These two carbon atoms are isotopes. Each has the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.

Relative atomic mass

Elements are made up of isotopes so the mass given in the data booklet is called the
relative atomic mass (RAM).
The relative atomic mass of each element shown in the data book is calculated from
the masses of all the isotopes of an element taking into account the percentage
proportion of each.
Example: There are two isotopes of chlorine:

Since the RAM of chlorine is 35.5, chlorine-35 must be more abundant because its
mass number is closer to the RAM.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 12 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

Electron Arrangement
The electron arrangement of all atoms can be found in the data booklet. All the
electrons are arranged into energy levels. These energy levels can only hold a certain
number of electrons.
The first energy level (the one nearest the nucleus) can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
with the others being able to hold up to a maximum of 8 electrons (only true for the
first 20 elements).
Example: sodium has the electron arrangement 2,8,1.

An atom of sodium has 11 electrons. The first two fill the innermost energy level. The
second energy level is also full, holding eight electrons and one electron remains in
the outer energy level.
Elements in the same group of the periodic table have the same number of outer
electrons.
It is the number of outer electrons that give an element its chemical properties. This is
why elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar properties.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 13 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Atomic Structure Minitest

1 What is the centre of an atom 6 Where are the electrons inside an

called? atom?
o The protons o The electrons are in the nucleus
o The nucleus of an atom
o The electrons o They are arranged in energy
levels
2 What is the charge on an o The electrons are spread
electron? equally throughout the atom
o One positive
o No charge 7 Which of the three sub-atomic
o One negative particles is the lightest?
o The proton
o The neutron
3 If atoms contain charged o The electron
particles, why do they not have a
charge?
8 Which elements have similar
o They contain the same number chemical properties?
of protons as electrons
o Elements in the same period of
o The charge is locked away in the Periodic Table
the nucleus
o Elements with the same number
o They contain equal numbers of of electrons in their outer
protons and neutrons energy level
o Elements with similar mass
4 What is the atomic number of an numbers
atom equal to?
o The number of protons in the 9 How many neutrons does this atom
nucleus of carbon have?
o The number of neutrons in the
nucleus
o The numbers of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus
o 6
5 What are isotopes? o 8
o Compounds with the same o 14
molecular formulae but
different structural formulae 10 Hydrogen has three isotopes and a
o Atoms with the same mass relative atomic mass of 1.0079.
number but different atomic Which isotope is the most
number abundant?
o Atoms with the same number of o Hydrogen with atomic mass of 1
protons but a different number o Hydrogen with atomic mass of 2
of neutrons
o Hydrogen with atomic mass of 3

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 14 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 3 – Bonding Related to Properties of Materials
Atoms can be held together by chemical bonds. When atoms form bonds, they can
achieve a stable electron arrangement. To achieve a stable electron arrangement
atoms can lose, gain or share electrons. There are different types of bonds that hold
atoms together.

a) Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons between atoms of two non-metal
elements.
A covalent bond happens when the positive nuclei from
two different atoms are held together by their common
attraction for the shared pair of electrons held between
them.
Covalent bonds are strong bonds.
Atoms that share pairs of electrons form molecules. A molecule is a group of atoms
held together by covalent bonds.

A diatomic molecule is a molecule containing only two atoms. There are seven
diatomic elements that you have to remember and a simple mnemonic to help with
this. If you remember "I Bring Clay For Our New House” then you will have remembered
that the seven diatomic elements are Iodine, Bromine, Chlorine, Fluorine, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
Diagrams can be used to show how the outer electrons are shared to form the
covalent bonds in a molecule.

Hydrogen (H2)
Both hydrogen atoms have only one electron, but by forming a
single covalent bond, both can have a full outer shell. The shape
of the molecule formed is called linear.
A shared pair of electrons between two hydrogen atoms
This can also be shown as H-H.

Methane (CH4)
Carbon atoms have four outer electrons so need four
more for a full outer shell. The carbon forms four single
bonds to the hydrogen atoms, so all the atoms now
have a full outer shell of electrons. The shape formed is
called tetrahedral.

A methane molecule has four shared pairs of electrons

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 15 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrogen atoms have five outer electrons so needs three more for a full
outer shell. Nitrogen forms three single covalent bonds to hydrogen
atoms. The shape formed is called pyramidal.

Water (H2O)
Oxygen atoms have six outer electrons so need two more for a full outer
shell. The oxygen forms two single covalent bonds with the two
hydrogen atoms. The shape formed is called bent.

More than one bond can be formed between atoms leading to double and triple
bonds. Examples of these are diatomic oxygen (double bond) or nitrogen (triple
bond).

Oxygen molecules have a double

bond: two shared pairs of electrons
This could also be written as:

Substances that consist of covalent molecules are usually gases or liquids at room
temperature. Covalent substances that are solids with high melting points have much
larger molecules.

A covalent network structure consists of a giant 3-dimensional lattice of covalently

bonded atoms.
Boron, carbon and silicon are all examples of covalent network elements. Diamond
and graphite, two forms of carbon and compounds like silicon dioxide and silicon
carbide are all covalent networks.

Diamond has a tetrahedral structure. Graphite has a layered, planar structure.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 16 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

b) Ionic bonding
Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and non-metal, for example sodium
chloride.
o An atom of sodium will lose an electron and form a positive ion.
o An atom of chlorine will gain an electron and form a negative ion.
The ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between a positively charged
metal ion and a negatively charged non-metal ion.

Metals form positive ions because they lose electrons to become stable.
Example:
Magnesium (Mg) has the electron arrangement 2,8,2.
To become stable it must lose its two outer electrons to obtain a full outer energy level.
Atoms are neutral because they have equal numbers of protons and electrons
however, when they lose two electrons they are no longer neutral. They change into
ions with a two positive charge.

Non-metals form negative ions because they gain electrons to become stable.
Example:
Chlorine (Cl) has an electron arrangement 2,7.
To become stable it must gain an electron to obtain a full outer energy level.

When these two charged particles come together

they form an ionic bond because the positive
magnesium ion is attracted to the negatively
charged chloride ion.
Ionic compounds form what is known as a lattice
structure. This is a regular repeating arrangement
of metal and non-metal ions which creates
compounds with very high melting points which
conduct when molten or in solution but never
when solid.
Ionic compounds dissolve in water easily, when
they do this their lattice breaks up completely.
Therefore they can conduct as their ions are free
to move.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 17 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the breaking
up of an ionic solution using
electricity.
The copper chloride
solution is broken up
because electricity is
passed through the solution.
A direct current (DC) power
supply must be used if the
products of electrolysis are
to be identified.
The positive copper ions are attracted to the negative electrode. When the copper
ions get to the electrode they pick up two electrons to form copper metal.

The negatively charged chloride ions are attracted to the positive electrode. When
the chloride ions get to the electrode they lose their extra electrons to become
chlorine gas.

c) Summary of bonding

Discrete covalent
Ionic lattice Covalent network
molecules

Boiling and melting

High Very high Low
points

State at room
Solid Solid Liquid or gas
temperature

Conduction of Only when molten or Never (except

Never
electricity in solution graphite)

Ionic lattice
All ionic compounds have a high melting point and boiling point. They conduct when
molten or in solution as the ions are free to move. They can be broken down by
electrolysis.
Covalent network
All covalent network structures have very high melting points and boiling points. They
are all hard and do not conduct electricity.
Covalent molecular
They have low melting points and boiling points. They do not conduct electricity. Some
covalent molecular compounds have higher melting points than expected.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 18 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Bonding Related to Properties of Materials Minitest

1 Which of the following pairs are 4 In the compound tin(IV) chloride, a

both diatomic elements? small group of atoms are held
together by shared pairs of
o Hydrogen and helium
electrons. What type of bonding is
o Iodine and nitrogen present in tin (IV) chloride?
o Boron and fluorine o Ionic
o Discrete covalent molecular
2 How can the bonding in silicon o Covalent network
dioxide (SiO2) be described?

5 Which of these compounds are

made up of diatomic molecules?
o Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
o Magnesium oxide (MgO)
o Carbon dioxide (CO2)

6 Which of these does not have a

covalent network structure?
o Chlorine
o Ionic
o Diamond
o Discrete covalent molecular
o Graphite
o Covalent network

7 How can the shape of methane

3 Why do ionic compounds not (CH4) molecules be described?
conduct when they are solid?
o Bent
o Their atoms are not free to
move o Tetrahedral

o Their electrons are not free to o Pyramidal

move
o Their ions are not free to move

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 19 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

8

Boiling Electrical Electrical Electrical

Melting
Substance Point conductivity as conductivity as a conductivity in
Point (°C)
(°C) a solid liquid aqueous solution

A 1538 2862 Good Good Insoluble

B 1414 3625 Poor Poor Poor

C 650 1091 Good Good Insoluble

D 801 1413 Poor Good Good

E -182 -162 Poor Poor Poor

F 851 1633 Poor Good Good

The table shows the properties of some different substances. Which substances
are covalent?
o B+E
o A+C
o C+E

9 Which of these diagrams best represents the attractions that form the covalent
bond holding the atoms together in the molecule?

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 20 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 4 – Chemical formulae
a) Formula from names of compounds
The chemical formula of a covalent molecular substance gives the number of atoms
per molecule. The formula of a covalent network or ionic compound gives the simplest
ratio of atoms/ions in the substance.
Sometimes the name of the compound gives information about the formula of that
compound. Names of these compounds have prefixes that give the number of atoms
of certain elements in each molecule.

Prefix Number of atoms

Mono- One

Di- Two

Tri- Three

Tetra- Four

Penta- Five

Hexa- Six
For example, carbon monoxide contains one carbon atom joined to one oxygen
atom, so it has the formula CO.

b) Valency
Valency is the combining power of an element. Elements in the same group of the
periodic table have the same valency. The valency of an element is related to how
many electrons are in the outer shell.

Group number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
The noble gases have the valency 0 as they do not usually combine with other
elements.

To write the chemical formula for a compound it is best to use the S.V.S.D.F system.
o Step one - write down the symbols of both the elements involved.
o Step two - beneath each symbol, write it’s valency. Memorising the above table
is useful.
o Step three - swap the valencies over.
o Step four - if the valencies can be simplified, divide them both by the smaller of
the two numbers. If one of the numbers is already one, then they cannot be
divided and simplified any further.
o Step five - write the formula.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 21 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

Example one Example two :
What is the formula for potassium oxide? What is the formula for
carbon sulfide?

c) Formulae of compounds containing group ions

Group ions contain two or more atoms and usually have a negative charge. The
formulae of these ions can be found in the data booklet. We can take the number of
charges on the ion as the valency of the ion.
Example:
What is the formula for calcium nitrate?

d) Formula using Roman numerals

Some elements, particularly the transition metals, do not always have the same
valency in their different compounds. The valency of these elements is usually given in
roman numerals inside brackets.

Roman Numeral Number

I One
II Two
III Three
IV Four
V Five
VI Six
Example
What is the formula for copper (I) oxide?

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 22 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 5 – Balanced equations
A chemical equation is said to be balanced when there are the same number of the
same type of every atom on both sides of the equation.
Copper and oxygen reaction - getting a balanced equation
Balanced symbol equations show what happens to the different atoms in reactions.
Take a look at this word equation for the reaction:
Copper and oxygen are the reactants because they are on the left of the arrow.
Copper oxide is the product because it is on the right of the arrow.
If we just replace the words shown above by the correct chemical formulae, we will
get an unbalanced equation, as shown here:
Notice that there are unequal numbers of each type of atom on the left-hand side
compared with the right-hand side. To make things equal, you need to adjust the
number of units of some of the substances until you get equal numbers of each type
of atom on both sides.
Here is the balanced symbol equation:
You can see that now there are two copper atoms
and two oxygen atoms on each side. This matches
what happens in the reaction.
2 copper atoms react with an oxygen molecule to
form 2 units of copper oxide (CuO)

Balancing equations
To balance equations on your own, follow these simple rules:
 Check that all the formulae in the equation are correct.
 Deal with only one element at a time.
 Balancing is adding BIG numbers. You cannot change any of the small numbers
in a chemical formula. If balancing is required, put the number in front of the
substance.
 Check each element again and repeat step 3 again if needed.

Example
This equation is unbalanced. There are four carbon atoms on the left hand side and
only one on the right. To balance the carbon, add a big '4' in front of the carbon
dioxide.
Next, to balance the hydrogen. We have 8 atoms of hydrogen on the left hand side in
C 4 H 8 and only 2 on the right hand side. To balance the hydrogen atoms, add a big
'4' in front of H 2 O.
We’re not finished yet. Now that the carbon and hydrogen have been balanced, we
only have to balance the oxygen. We have 2 atoms of oxygen on the left, but in total
on the right (taking into account what we have balanced already) we have 12
oxygen atoms. This can be balanced by adding a big '6' in front of the diatomic
oxygen molecule on the left hand side.
The balanced equation will be:

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 23 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Chemical formulae and balanced equations Minitest
1 What is the chemical formula for 5 What is the chemical formula for
sodium bromide? ammonium sulfate?
o o
o o
o o

2 What is the chemical formula for 6 What is the chemical formula for
calcium phosphide? iron(II) chloride?
o o
o o
o o

3 What is the chemical formula for 7 What is the chemical formula for
titanium tetrachloride? copper(II) hydroxide?
o o
o o
o o

4 What is the chemical formula for 8 What is the chemical formula for
dinitrogen trioxide? calcium hydroxide?
o o
o o
o o

9 Which of the following values are the correct values for a, b and c required to
balance the equation

o a = 2, b = 1 and c = 2
o a = 3, b = 1 and c = 3
o a = 2, b = 2 and c = 4

10 Which of the following values are the correct values for a, b and c required to
balance the equation

o a = 1, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 4
o a = 1, b = 3, c = 2 and d = 2
o a = 1, b = 2, c = 2 and d = 2
National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 24 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures
 6 – The Mole
a) Gram Formula Mass (GFM)
The gram formula mass (GFM) of a substance is known as the mass of one mole.
Relative atomic masses of selected elements can be found in the SQA Data Booklet.
These can be used to calculate the gram formula mass of a substance.
For example
What is the mass of one mole of calcium chloride?
To calculate this, work out the formula of calcium chloride then add all the mass
numbers together.

One mole of calcium chloride has a mass of 111 g.

b) Mole calculations based on mass

To calculate the mass of a higher number of moles, or even calculate the number of
moles in a certain mass, a formula triangle can be used.

Using the formula triangle is straightforward. Simply cover whatever part of the triangle
you are trying to work out.
Example
How many moles are present in 25 g of calcium carbonate?
Step One: Calculate GFM of calcium carbonate

Work out the formula we need to use, given by covering up number of moles.
Step Two : Put the numbers in to the formula:

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 25 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

c) Concentration of solutions
Solutions are formed when solutes dissolve in solvents. If the number of moles of solute
and the volume of solvent used is known, the concentration of the solution can be
calculated.
The concentration of a solution is measured in moles per litre (mol l-1) and can be
calculated using this formula triangle:

Using the formula triangle gives three useful formulae:

Example one
Calculate the concentration of the solution formed when 0.25 moles of potassium
nitrate are dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.
The formula we need to use, given by covering up concentration is:

Remember that the volume always has to be changed into litres.

Example two
Calculate the number of moles in 200cm3 of 0.5 mol l-1 sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution.

Example three
Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide used in 1 mol l -1 solution containing 2 mol of
solute.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 26 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 The mole and concentration of solutions Minitest

1 What is the gram formula mass of 7 What is the mass of 0.5 moles of
oxygen? magnesium chloride?
o 16g o 47.75g
o 32g o 95.5g
o 8g o 59g

2 What is the gram formula mass of 8 What is the number of moles of

lithium chloride? potassium hydroxide used to make
o 42.5g 100cm3 of 0.1 mol l-1 solution?
o 7g o 10 moles
o 35.5g o 0.1 mole
o 0.01 moles
3 What is the mass of 1 mole of
carbon dioxide? 9 What is the concentration of
o 12g hydrochloric acid solution used if 2
moles are dissolved in 100cm3 of
o 28g
water?
o 44g
o 20 mol l-1
o 2 mol l-1
4 What is the mass of 1 mole of
sodium sulphate? o 0.02 mol l-1

o 119g
10 What volume of sodium hydroxide is
o 71g
needed to produce a 0.1 mol l-1
o 142g solution containing 0.5 moles of
solute?
5 How many moles are there in 24g of o 5 litres
carbon? o 5 cm3
o 2 moles o 50 litres
o 1 mole
o 0.5 moles

6 How many moles are there in 50g of

calcium carbonate (CaCO3)?
o 2 moles
o 1 mole
o 0.5 moles

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 27 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 7 – Acids & bases
The pH scales measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Acids and bases have a
wide variety of uses and can react together in neutralisation reactions.

a) The pH scale
How acidic or alkaline a substance is (the pH of the substance) can be measured
using the pH scale, a continuous range that stretches from below 0 to above 14. Most
common pH values occur between 0 and 14.
Acids have a pH of less than 7.
Alkalis have a pH more than 7.
Water and neutral solutions have a pH of exactly 7.

The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

b) Forming acids and alkalis

 Metal Oxides
Alkalis are soluble bases. An alkaline solution can be formed when a metal oxide is
dissolved in water. An acidic solution can be formed when a non-metal oxide is
dissolved in water.
For example, magnesium oxide dissolves to form alkaline solutions.

Soluble metal oxides produce alkalis when dissolved in water.

Example one
What will happen to the pH of water if barium oxide is added?
Using the data booklet we find that barium oxide is a metal oxide. Checking its
solubility on page 8 of the data booklet we see that it will dissolve. It is therefore a
soluble metal oxide and it will increase the pH.

Example two
What will happen to the pH of water if aluminium oxide is added?
Using the data booklet we find it is a metal oxide. Checking its solubility on page 8
we find it is insoluble. It will therefore have no effect on the pH of water.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 28 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Non-metal Oxides
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide however, will dissolve to form acidic solutions.

Soluble non-metal oxides produce acids when dissolved in water.

c) Hydrogen and hydroxide ions

Acidic and alkaline solutions can conduct electricity because they have ions that are
free to carry charge. Look at the formulae of these acids. They all contain H+ ions.
Acid name Formula Ionic Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl H+(aq) Cl-(aq)
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 2H+(aq) SO42-(aq)
Nitric acid HNO3 H+(aq) NO3-(aq)
When an acid is diluted the concentration of H+ ions is decreased and the pH
increases towards 7. Look at the formulae of these alkalis. They all contain OH- ions.
Alkali name Formula Ionic Formula
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+(aq) OH-(aq)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca2+(aq) 2OH-(aq)
Lithium hydroxide LiOH Li+(aq) OH-(aq)
The more concentrated an acid or alkali the better it conducts. When an alkali is
diluted the concentration of OH- ions is decreased and the pH decreases towards 7.

d) Water and neutral solutions

Water molecules can break down into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.

This is a reversible reaction. A small proportion of water molecules break up to form

hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions. Some of these hydrogen and hydroxide ions then
react together again to form water molecules.
This is called an equilibrium and is present in water and all aqueous solutions.
In water and neutral solutions, the concentration of hydrogen ions is equal to the
concentration of hydroxide ions.
All acidic solutions contain more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.
All alkaline solutions contain more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 29 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

e) Diluting acids and bases
Adding water to an acid or base will change its pH. Water is mostly water molecules so
adding water to an acid or base reduces the concentration of ions in the solution.
When an acidic solution is diluted with water the concentration of H+ ions decreases
and the pH of the solution increases towards 7.
To make the pH change by 1, a tenfold dilution is required (eg adding 9 cm 3 of water
to 1 cm3 acid). The acid is becoming less acidic.
Similarly, when an alkali is diluted with water the concentration of OH- ions decreases.
This causes the pH of the alkali to fall towards 7, making the solution less alkaline as
more water is added.

f) Neutralisation
Neutralisation is the reaction of an acid with a base that results in the pH moving
towards 7.
It is a useful process that occurs in everyday life such as in the treatment of acid
indigestion and the treating of acidic soil by adding lime.
Neutralisation also moves the pH of an alkali down towards seven.
Several different bases can neutralise acids, and water is always produced as a result
of these reactions.

 Equations for neutralisation

Metal oxides and alkalis are two types of base. Basic substances neutralise acids,
resulting in the pH of the acid increasing towards 7, and water being produced. A
soluble base dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution.
Acids can also be neutralised by metal carbonates. In the neutralisation reaction
between an acid and a metal carbonate, there are three products. The hydrogen
ions (H+) from the acid react with the carbonate ions (CO32-) to form water and
carbon dioxide gas. A salt is also produced.

Carbon dioxide can be tested for using lime water (turns from colourless to chalky
white).

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 30 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Naming salts
To name the salt, the metal ion from the alkali (or base) replaces the hydrogen ion
from the acid - (alkali to front, acid to back).
For example:

Acid name Salt name ending

Hydrochloric acid ...chloride
Sulfuric acid ...sulfate
Nitric acid ...nitrate

During neutralisation the H+ ion from the acid joins with the OH- ion from the alkali. This
is why water is formed in these reactions.

This is true for all neutralisation reactions.

g) Ionic equations and spectator ions

Ionic equations are different to symbol equations.
For example, an equation showing hydrochloric acid being neutralised by sodium
hydroxide:

The ionic equation for the above process shows the charges involved. State symbols
are added and ions in solution are separated with a sign.

Spectator ions are ions that are present during the reaction but are unchanged by the
reaction, and so are present in the same state and charge on both sides of the
equation.
This ionic equation can be shortened further by removing the spectator ions.

Re-writing the equation without the spectator ions gives:

This change occurs in every neutralisation reaction.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 31 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

h) Titrations
A titration experiment can be carried out to accurately measure the volume of
substances that react in chemical reactions.
This technique is commonly used in neutralisation reactions and can also be used to
calculate an unknown concentration (of either the acid or alkali).
When titrating, it is essential to measure things as accurately as possible.
The experiment is carried out by following these steps:
1. If the sample is a solid, it is weighed using an accurate balance, and then
dissolved to make up a known volume of solution (usually 100 cm 3).
2. A pipette is used to measure accurately a volume of this solution - for example,
10 cm3. A safety pipette filler is used to draw solution into the pipette. This is
emptied into a conical flask.
3. A few drops of an indicator may be added to the conical flask. This will show a
change of colour when the titration is complete.
4. A second chemical is placed in a burette. This other solution is of a chemical
that will react with the sample in the conical flask. Often the solution in the
burette is an acid of a precise, known concentration.
5. The solution from the burette is run into the conical flask. The solution is added
one drop at a time, with swirling to mix the solutions as the end-point is
approached. Eventually, a colour change shows that the correct amount has
been added to react completely with the sample in the conical flask.
6. The volume of solution added from the burette is noted. The titration results can
then be used to calculate the concentration of the sample in the conical flask.

Titration apparatus: a burette, conical flask, safety pipette filler and pipette.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 32 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Acids and Bases Minitest

1 Omitting the spectator ions, which 6 Which of the following are the
of the following is the ionic equation correct products from the reaction
for the reaction of an acid and an between magnesium hydroxide
alkali? and sulfuric acid?

o o Magnesium sulfate + water

o o Magnesium sulfate + water +

carbon dioxide
o o Magnesium sulfate + hydrogen

2 What type of solution would be

formed when sulfur dioxide dissolves 7 If equal volumes of equimolar (same
in water? concentration) solutions of the
chemicals below were measured,
o Alkaline solution which would contain the most
o Acidic solution hydrogen ions?
o Neutral solution o Sodium sulfate
o Lithium carbonate
3 What would be the pH of the
solution formed when sodium oxide
o Nitric acid
dissolves in water?
o Above 7 8 Which of the following happens to
the pH of an acid when it is
o Equal to 7 neutralised?
o Less than 7 o The pH does not change
o The pH increases towards 7
4 Potassium chloride dissolves to form
a neutral solution. What does this tell o The pH decreases towards 7
you about the ions involved?
o There are more hydrogen ions 9 Which of the following has the
than hydroxide ions correct pH values for acids, alkalis
and neutral solutions?
o There are more hydroxide ions
than hydrogen ions o Acid , Alkali and
Neutral
o There are the same
concentrations of hydrogen ions o Acid , Alkali and
as hydroxide ions Neutral
o Acid , Alkali and
5 Which salt is made when calcium Neutral
carbonate reacts with hydrochloric
acid?
o Sodium chloride
o Calcium chloride
o Carbon chloride

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 33 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures

 Term Meaning
atom All elements are made of atoms. An atom consists of a
nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded
by electrons.
atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Also
called the proton number.
electron Sub-atomic particle, with a negative charge and a
negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons
electron The order electrons are arranged into between different
arrangement energy levels.
mass number The number of protons and neutrons found inside the
nucleus of an atom.
neutron Uncharged sub-atomic particle, with a mass of 1
relative to a proton.
nucleus The central part of an atom. It contains protons and
neutrons, and has most of the mass of the atom. The
plural of nucleus is nuclei.
proton Sub-atomic particle with a positive charge and a
relative mass of 1.
catalyst Changes the rate of a chemical reaction without being
changed by the reaction itself.
enzyme Proteins which catalyse or speed up chemical
reactions.
product A substance formed in a chemical reaction.
reactant Chemicals present at start of a reaction.
acid Substance producing more hydrogen ions than
hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.

alkali Substance producing more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions

when dissolved in water
pH A measure of hydrogen ion concentration
salt The substance formed when the hydrogen ion in an acid is
replaced by a metal ion.
spectator ion An ion that is exactly the same on both sides of an ionic
equation.
titration A method for accurately finding volumes involved in chemi-
cal reactions.

National 5 Chemistry Revision Page 34 Unit 1 – Chemical Changes & Structures