AERO

Fig. 1.
5: Shear strain
Volumetric Strain
The ratio of change in the volume of the body to the original volume is known as volumetric
strain.
LINEAR ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the
external force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size (which means
the deformation disappears completely), the body is known as elastic body. This property, by
virtue of which certain materials return back to their original position after the removal of the
external force, is called elasticity. The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the
deformation caused by the external force, is within a certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value
of force up to and within which, the deformation completely disappears on the removal of the
force. The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the
material. If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material loses
to some extent its property of elasticity. If now the force is removed, the material will not return
to its original shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in the material.
1.5 HOOK’S LAW

For elastic bodies, the ratio of stress to strain is constant and is known as Young's modulus or the
modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E, i.e.,
Strain has no units as it is a ratio. Thus, E has the same units as stress.
The materials that maintain this ratio are said to obey Hooke s law which states that within elastic
limits, strain is proportional to the stress producing it. The elastic limit of a material is
determined by plotting a tensile test diagram. Young's modulus is the stress required to cause a
unit strain.
8
Similarly, for elastic materials, the shear strain is found to be proportional to the applied shear
stress within the elastic limit. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus denoted by G is the ratio of
shear stress to shear strain, i.e.,
  G
The ratio between the volumetric (Identical) stress and the volumetric strain is called Bulk
modulus of elasticity and is denoted by K.
1.6 POISON’S RATIO

The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when the
material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio and it is generally
denoted by μ or ν or 1/m. Hence mathematically,
Longitudinal strain:
When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the
body. But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to
the line of action of the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also
deformation at right angles to the line of action of the applied load (i.e., lateral deformation).
The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal (or
linear) strain. The longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of the body per unit
length in the direction of the applied load.
Let L = Length of the body,

P = Tensile force acting on the body,
δL = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P
L
Then, Longitudin al strain =
L
Fig. 1.6: longitudinal and lateral strain

9
Where Wx = weight of the portion below the section = γ A x
Fig.1.10: Elongation due to self weight

The extension of the entire bar can be obtained by integrating above Eq.
If W is the total weight of the bar, then
Note:
The deformation of the bar under its own weight is equal to the half of the deformation, if the body is
subjected to the direct load equal to the weight of the body.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION.
When a number of loads are acting on a body, the resulting strain, according to principle of
superposition, will be the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual loads.
20
While using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a number of direct forces
(tensile or compressive) at different sections along the length of the body, first the free body
diagram of individual section is drawn. Then the deformation of the each section is obtained. The
total deformation of the body will be then equal to the algebraic sum of deformations of the
individual sections.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1) The following observations were made during a tensile test on a mild steel specimen of 40
mm diameter and 200 mm long: Elongation with 40,000 N load (within the limit of
proportionality) = 0.0304 mm, Yield load = 165,000 N, Maximum load = 245,000 N, Length
of the specimen at fracture = 252 mm, Determine the yield stress, the modulus of elasticity,
the ultimate stress and the percentage elongation.
Solution
Given:
Diameter of the specimen = 40 mm
Length of the specimen = 200 mm
Load = 40,000 N
Elongation within the limit of proportionality = 0.0304 mm
Yield load = 165,000 N
Maximum load = 245,000 N
Final length of the specimen = 252 mm
To find the yield stress:

Using the relation for yield stress, we have
To find the modulus of elasticity:

Consider the load within the proportionality Limit. Then, stress is given by
21
ii) Relation between E, K and :
Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses  as shown in the Fig.2.6
Fig.2.6
The total strain in one direction or along one edge due to the application of hydrostatic stress or
volumetric stress  is given as
iii) Relation between E, G and K

The relationship between E, G and K can be easily determined by eliminating  from the already
derived relations.
i.e.,
E = 2 G (1 + ) and E = 3 K (1  )
Thus, the following relationship may be obtained
32
THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS
Fig. 2.8 (a) shows a composite bar consisting of two members, a bar of brass and another of steel.
Let the composite bar be heated through some temperature. If the members are free to expand then
no stresses will be induced in the members. But the two members are rigidly fixed and hence the
composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount. As the co-efficient of linear expansion
of brass is more than that of the steel, the brass will expand more than the steel. Hence the free
expansion of brass will be more than that of the steel. But both the members are not free to
expand, and hence the expansion of the composite bar, as a whole, will be less than that of the
brass, but more than that of the steel. Hence the stress induced in the brass will be compressive
whereas the stress in steel will be tensile as shown in Fig. 2.8 (c). Hence the load or force on the
brass will be compressive whereas on the steel the load will be tensile.
Let
Ab = Area of cross-section of brass bar
ζb = Stress in brass
b = Strain in brass
b = Co-efficient of linear expansion for brass
Eb = Young’s modulus for copper
As, s, s, s = Corresponding values of area, stress, strain and co-efficient of linear expansion for
steel, and
Es = Young's modulus for steel.
 = Actual expansion of the composite bar
35
PURE TORSION
A member is said to be in pure torsion when its cross sections are subjected to only torsional
moments and not accompanied by axial forces or bending moment. Now consider the section of a
shaft under pure torsion as shown in Fig. 8.2.
Fig. 8.2 Pure torsion

The internal forces develop so as to counteract this torsional moment. Hence, at any element, the
force dF developed is in the direction normal to radial direction. This force is obviously shearing
force and thus the elements are in pure shear. If dA is the area of the element at distance r from
the axis of shaft, then,
dF =  dA
where  is shearing stress,
and dT = dF x r
ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF PURE TORSION

In the theory of pure torsion, expressions will be derived for determining shear stress and the
effect of torsional moment on cross-section i.e. in finding angle of twist. In developing this
theory the following assumptions are made.
 The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
 The stresses are within the elastic limit, i.e. shear stress is proportional to shear strain.
 Cross-sections which are plane before applying twisting moment remain plane even after
the application of twisting moment i.e. no warping takes place.
 Radial lines remain radial even after applying torsional moment.
 The twist along the shaft is uniform.
DERIVATION OF TORSIONAL EQUATIONS

Consider a shaft of length L, radius R fixed at one end and subjected to a torque Tat the other end
as shown in Fig. 8.3.
Let O be the centre of circular section and B a point on surface. AB be the line on the shaft
parallel to the axis of shaft. Due to torque T applied, let B move to B’. If  is shear strain (angle
BOB') and  is the angle of twist in length L, then
R = BB' = L
42

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Fig. 1.

LINEAR ELASTICITY AND ELASTIC LIMIT

1.5 HOOK’S LAW

1.6 POISON’S RATIO

Let L = Length of the body,

Fig. 1.6: longitudinal and lateral strain

Fig.1.10: Elongation due to self weight

If W is the total weight of the bar, then

To find the yield stress:

To find the modulus of elasticity:

iii) Relation between E, G and K

Fig. 8.2 Pure torsion

ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF PURE TORSION

DERIVATION OF TORSIONAL EQUATIONS

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