Concepts and Principles I

Florida Tech Behavior Analysis

Programs

Outline
q Behavior and the Environment
q Reinforcement

RBT Task A-6

q Describe the behavior and
environment in observable and
measurable terms

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 A-6: A Very Long Task
q Looks like a short task, doesn’t it?
§ “Describe behavior and the environment in
observable and measurable terms”
q We must define and explain several key
terms, so that the following modules will
make sense. A-6 is, by FAR, the longest
single task. When we’re done, new tasks
will follow quickly – but this entire module
covers this one task, in many parts.

Before We Begin
q You are about to learn a new language
called “Applied Behavior Analysis”
q A source of confusion: ABA shares words
in common with the English language, but
they don’t mean the same thing!
§ E.g., Response, consequence, extinction
discrimination, motivation, punishment
§ You will learn these terms, when to use them
behaviorally, and when not to!

The RBT in the Real World

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 “Know ABA language but how to
translate it into ‘English’ when
needed”

Behavior and the Environment

Objective
q Behavior
a. Define
b. Describe the defining
characteristics
c. Identify examples

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 What is Behavior?
q “Anything a person says or does.
Also known as a response” (Tarbox
and Tarbox, 2017, pp. 6)
q Behavior is a person’s action or set
of actions – what they say or what
they do
q Behavior can be observed,
described, and recorded

Behavior Analysts Define Behavior:

A Cautionary Note
q “Behavior is the movement of an organism or its
parts in a frame of reference provided by the
organism or by various external objects or
fields” (Skinner, 1938).
q “The behavior of an organism is that portion of
the organism’s interaction with the environment
that is characterized by detectable
displacements in space through time of some
part of the organism and that results in a
measurable change in at least one aspect of the
environment” (Johnston and Pennypacker,
1980).

What was that

again?

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 What was that
again?
Behavior analysts can
sometimes speak in a way
that is kind of off-putting

The Role(s) of the RBT

q One of the most important things you will
be doing is communicating with the client
about behavior analysis, using clear and
non-technical language
q You will learn the concepts and terms,
and technical definitions, but you will also
learn how to discuss those terms with
non-behavior analysts

Behavior is Life
q “Behavior is the activity of a living
organism. Human behavior includes
everything that people do.” (Cooper et al.,
2007). It is not just the “bad” stuff!
q Inanimate objects do not “behave”
q A snow-covered mountain does not do an
“avalanche behavior,” an autumn leaf
does not “complete the task of falling,”
and the sun does not engage in a “shine”

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 Defining Characteristics of
Behavior
q It involves movement (action) of a
living organism
q Observable
q Measurable

Behavior Involves Movement

q Movement of muscles, glands and
other body parts
q Must be an action, not a state of
being

Behavior or Not? Two Tests

1. The “What am I doing?” test
§ Could also be called the “what is he
doing” or “what is she doing” test
2. The “Dead Person’s” test
§ Could also be called the “stick test”

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 The “What am I doing?” Test:
An Action
q A behavior is an ACTION!
§ Must be described by an active verb
§ “I am talking to you”
§ “You wrote notes during the lecture”
§ “She has been watching the computer”

The “What am I doing?” Test:

Countable
q These actions can be
measured/counted
§ There are many ways to count: e.g.,
how many times the action happened,
or how long the action lasted
§ “I talked for 5 minutes”
§ “You wrote notes 15 times during the
lecture”

The “What am I doing?” Test:

Failed
q “States of being,” traits, attitudes –
these fail the “What am I doing” test:
§ They are not actions
§ “He is frustrated.” Where is the action?
No action = Not behavior
§ They cannot be measured or counted
§ “She knows.” How many “knows” did she
do or how long did her knowing take until
it was finished? Can’t be counted = Not
behavior

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 The “Dead Person’s” Test
q Behavior is only behavior if it can be
done by a living organism!
q If a dead person can “do” it, then it is
NOT behavior!

The “Dead Person’s” Test:

Failed
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground (versus “laying
down”)

The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed

(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river

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 The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed
(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river
§ Sinking like a stone

The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed

(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river
§ Sinking like a stone
§ Being hit, kicked, or bitten

The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed

(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river
§ Sinking like a stone
§ Being hit, kicked, or bitten
§ Just sitting there (or “good sitting”)

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 The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed
(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river
§ Sinking like a stone
§ Being hit, kicked, or bitten
§ Just sitting there (or “good sitting”)
§ Not doing work, and of course…

The “Dead Person’s” Test: Failed

(continued)
q Examples that don’t pass the test:
§ Lying on the ground
§ Floating down the river
§ Sinking like a stone
§ Being hit, kicked, or bitten
§ Just sitting there (or “good sitting”)
§ Not doing work
§ Being non-compliant

Examples and Non-examples of

Behavior
Example Non-example
§ Tara said, “Cookie § Tara was hungry for a
please” cookie
§ Paulo signed for the § Paulo wanted to use
restroom the restroom
§ Caroline hit Patty § Caroline was angry
§ Aaron smoked a § Aaron lacked willpower
cigarette
§ Phoenix gave a present § Phoenix was being
to Akea friendly

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 Question
q “Anything a living person does.” This
defines:
a. Environment
b. Behavior
c. Intelligence
d. Emotion

Question
q Suki is having a bad day.
q Does this example pass the “What is
she doing” test?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
q Carlos wrote a test question.
q Does this example pass the “What is
he doing” test?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
q Kathy is being stubborn again.
q Does this example pass the “What is
she doing” test?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
q Which of the following does NOT
involve an action?
a. Salivating
b. Sitting on a shelf
c. Talking to yourself
d. Turning head to cough

Question
q Which of the following does NOT
involve an action?
a. Talking to someone
b. Being sad when someone yells at
you
c. Turning head to look at something
d. Chewing food at dinner

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 Behavior is Observable
q The person doing the action (or
observers) can sense it, directly or
indirectly
§ Directly: The person or observer(s)
sees, hears, smells or feels it occur
§ Indirect: Some behavior can only be
observed using special instruments
(e.g., blood pressure)

Behavior is Observable (continued)

q If two or more people observe, they must
agree that the behavior occurred
q If only one person (the behaver) can
observe it (e.g., “I think about pie” or “I
have a headache”), it still must pass the
“What am I doing” test
q Generally, behavior programs will focus
on behavior that an observer can see and
measure (i.e., count)

Some Common Behavior Terms

q Topography: What a behavior looks
like (versus function: what it does)
§ A map to a store versus a shopping list
q Operant: A behavior and its
consequence
q Repertoire: A set of behaviors that a
person can do with relative ease

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 What is a Response?
q “Behavior” is a general term
§ “Talking behavior”: Anything a person might
say
§ “Hitting behavior”: Is whenever a person
strikes another person
q “Response” is a specific term
§ “I said, ‘Hi’ to Amy.” = 1 verbal response
§ “Nikita hit Aloshya.” = 1 hitting response

Easiest Way to Remember:

q A “response” is a single instance of
“behavior”

Question
q Observable means:
a. Someone can detect that it
happened
b. Two or more people agree that the
behavior occurred
c. Two or more people can detect its
occurrence

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 Question
q Which of the following can be
counted?
a. Attitudes about marriage
b. Verbal statements about marriage
c. Both of the above

Behavior is Measurable
q Behavior can be counted
q Its duration can be timed
q Other aspects of the behavior can
also be measured
q Much more on this in later material…

Public versus Private Behavior

q Public behavior: can be observed by
others, (sometimes requires special
instruments)
§ Examples: Walking on the beach, eating
cookies, heart rate
q Private behavior: cannot be observed by
other people; can only be experienced by
the individual doing the behavior
§ Examples: Imagining the beach, thinking of
fresh-baked cookies, feeling anxious

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 ABA Programs and Public Behavior

ABA programs focus almost

entirely on public behavior

ABA Programs and Public Behavior

ABA programs focus almost

entirely on public behavior
and
RBT responsibilities focus on
the public behavior of others

Categories of Behavior
q Certain loose terms, such as
“aggression,” may be used to label a
group or category of behaviors
§ E.g., You would not say, “Betty did 2
aggressions today” or even “Betty
aggressed twice.” What does that
mean? Can you tell me what Betty did
that was “aggressive”?

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 Categories of Behavior (continued)

q We may use these terms ONLY if we

clearly define and describe specific,
observable responses that would fall
into the category…

Examples of Categories
q “Aggression” = Punch (closed fist), slap
(open hand), kick, bite, or scratch another
person [“Assaultive behavior” is probably
a better categorical name]
q Other categories often seen in behavior
programs: “Property destruction,” “Social
skills,” “Self-injurious behavior” (aka “SIB”)

Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that ARE examples of behavior:
² Hint: must be an action by a living organism,
observable, measurable
q Telling someone what you ate for
breakfast
q Having a low self-concept
q Making self-disparaging remarks
q Being oppositional

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 Question
q Having a bad attitude
q Why is this NOT an example of
behavior?
a. Not an action, cannot be
measured, or is a broad category
b. Dead person or a stick can “do it”

Question
q Failing to get up
q Why is this NOT an example of
behavior?
a. Not an action, cannot be
measured, or is a broad category
b. Dead person or a stick can “do it”

Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that ARE examples of behavior:
q Sleeping
q Acting stubborn
q Doing one’s laundry
q Hitting another person
q Biting one’s self
q Being aggressive

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 Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that are NOT examples of behavior:
q Having a positive attitude
q Exhibiting poor impulse control
q Lying on the floor
q Climbing a tree
q Knocking over furniture
q Running out the door (into the street)
q Falling off a ledge
q Jumping off a ledge
q Floating in the ocean

Question
q Is opening a door an example of
behavior?
a. Yes
b. No
c. It depends…

Question
q Behavior plans will typically focus on
behavior that can be observed and
measured by more than one person.
q This is what type of behavior?
a. Private
b. Public

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 Question
q A set of behaviors that a person can
do with relative ease is the definition
of:
a. Behavior
b. Response
c. Repertoire
d. Topography

Rule #1
q Rule #1 is: when doing direct
treatment in behavior analysis–
whether you are a BCBA-D, BCBA,
BCaBA, or RBT…

Rule #1
q Always… ALWAYS… ALWAYS

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 Rule #1
q Always… ALWAYS… ALWAYS

FIRST: Identify WHO is doing the

behavior of interest.

Rule #1
q Always… ALWAYS… ALWAYS

FIRST: Identify WHO is doing the

behavior of interest.
Answer This Question:
WHO IS THE BEHAVER?

Rule #2
q And Rule #2 is:

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 Rule #2
q And Rule #2 is:

Clearly define exactly what behavior

you are talking about

Rule #2
q And Rule #2 is:

Clearly define exactly what behavior

you are talking about
Answer This Question:
WHAT IS THE BEHAVIOR?

How To Start
q Always start at the beginning:
q Combine Rule #1 and Rule #2, and
you will ALWAYS begin by asking:

Who is the behaver, and what

behavior (of that person) are we
talking about?

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 Objective
q Target behavior
a. Define
b. Identify observable and
measurable descriptions

Objective
q Operational definitions
a. List three criteria
b. Identify examples

Target Behavior
q A target behavior is the specific
behavior you are interested in
changing
q It is clearly defined, observable, and
measurable
q It is the focus of assessment,
analysis, and intervention

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 Types of Behavior Change
q Learn a new behavior
q Strengthen behavior the learner needs to do
better or more often
q Weaken behavior the learner does too much
q Replace behavior the learner should stop doing
q Get a behavior to occur only in the proper
setting (stimulus control), or
q Firmly establish a behavior, and get it to happen
in many appropriate places and times

Operational Definitions
q Descriptions of target behaviors that
indicate:
§ What the response looks like
(topography of response)
§ When measurement will begin and end
§ What responses will be counted as
“correct” or “incorrect”

Operational Definitions (continued)

q These describe observable behaviors –
not internal states we cannot see

q Operational definitions allow us to:

1. Clearly identify when that event/behavior
happened
AND…
2. Be certain when that event/behavior did
not happen

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 3 Criteria for
Operational Definitions
1. Clear – Readable language, no ambiguity
§ No judgment is needed, no guesses on intent
2. Objective – Observable characteristics
3. Precise and Complete – Boundaries of
the behavior; what it is, what it is not
§ Intensity/severity, context
§ During training, caregivers should be given
clear examples and non-examples

Operational Definition:
Non-Example
q Here is a non-operational definition:
§ Depression: “feeling sad, being upset,
not wanting to participate in things, not
being hungry or being hungry all the
time; sleeping a lot and being tired;
obsessing on death”

Operational Definition:
Example
q Here is an operational definition:
§ Depression: “Engaging in daily
episodes of crying for more than 5
minutes; declining to participate in
preferred activities when offered;
staying in bed for more than 12 hours a
day; eating less than 500 calories or
more than 3500 calories per day;
talking about thoughts of suicide”

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 Operational Definitions
of Target Behaviors
q Target behaviors must have
operational definitions that:
§ Describe the target behavior in terms
of what it looks like (the form of the
response – the topography)
§ If relevant, include intensity and/or
severity as part of the definition
§ E.g., An “open hand slap” versus a “pat on
the back”

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting
q This is too vague (not clear); let’s try:
q Head hitting: “Bringing hand to head”

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 Operational Definition Example
q Head hitting
q This is too vague (not clear); let’s try:
q Head hitting: “Bringing hand to head”
q But…. What if the individual brings
his or her hand to your head, or to
someone else's head? Does that
count?

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting: “Bringing their hand to
their head and making contact”

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting: “Bringing their hand to
their head and making contact”
q It is better, but…
q What about tapping their head? Or
scratching? Or brushing their hair?
These technically meet the definition

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 Operational Definition Example
q Head hitting: “Strikes own head with
hand with force”

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting: “Forcefully strikes own
head with closed fist”

Operational Definition Example

q Head hitting: “Forcefully strikes own
head with closed fist when a
demand is placed and/or during a
task.”

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 Operational Definition Example
q Head hitting: “Forcefully strikes own
head with closed fist when a
demand is placed and/or during a
task.”
q This is now what we call a “functional
response definition” since the
response is linked to an
environmental condition

Operational Definitions and the

RBT
q These definitions will be included in
the assessment documents, skill
acquisition plan, and/or behavior plan
q After reading the definition, you (and
anyone else) should be able to
accurately identify each time the
person does the target behavior

Operational Definitions and the

RBT – Be certain!
q If you are ever unclear about exactly
what the target behavior looks like,
talk to the BCaBA or BCBA as soon
as possible
q It is likely that if you are confused, so
are other members of the team!
§ Connie and the “scream”

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 Examples of Target Behaviors
q Cooking microwave popcorn according to
the directions on the package
q Taking a bus home immediately after work
(within 20 minutes of exiting the worksite)
q Floating on back in pool for one minute
while breathing calmly
q Walking up to a potential dance partner
and saying, “Would you like to dance”
while making eye contact

Video Example or Activity

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “hitting”?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “hitting”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “hitting”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
qBased on the video and the
operational definition, was this an
example of “property destruction”?
a. Yes
b. No

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 Question
q Identify the target behavior
q The RBT says to the learner, “What is
your name?”
a. The learner says their name
b. The learner asks the RBT, “What is
your name?”
c. The learner says, “Hi!”
d. The target behavior can be any of
these

Question
q Identify the target behavior
q Teacher says, “Put your book in your backpack”
to a child in her class.
a. The child puts away all items on his desk
b. The teacher puts the child’s book in his
backpack
c. The child asks his peer to put his book in his
backpack
d. The child puts his book in his backpack

Question
q Which of the following is a good
example of a target behavior?
a. Depression over a bad test score
b. Impulse control in the store
c. Increased self-concept
d. Opening a door to go outside

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 Question
q Physical aggression includes any
behavior which is intended to harm
another person.
q Is this an observable, clear, and
complete description of a target
behavior?
a. Yes
b. No

Question
q Self-injurious behavior consists of
hand-to-face contact.
q Is this an observable, clear, and
complete description of a target
behavior?
a. Yes
b. No

Objective
q Environment
a. Define
b. Describe the relationship to
behavior
c. Identify examples

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 Objective
q Stimulus
a. Define
b. Identify examples
c. List three ways to categorize
d. List the two broad categories in
relation to time

The Relationship Between

Behavior and Environment
q This relationship is the key in
behavior analysis:

The Relationship Between

Behavior and Environment
q This relationship is the key in
behavior analysis:
A person’s behavior is changed by
changes in the environment

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 The Relationship Between
Behavior and Environment
q In other words: If you change some
aspect(s) of the environment where a
particular behavior happens, that
behavior is likely to change in some
way
There is a direct link between
environment and behavior

What is “Environment”
q The environment consists of all the
stimuli (events) and conditions which
can affect behavior
q Loosely speaking, the environment is
everything that a person can
experience that is happening around
them

Environment
q The environment is both outside and
inside the skin of the organism
q “The skin is not that important as a
boundary.”
– B. F. Skinner, 1963, p. 953 (ironically
enough)

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 What Does THAT Mean?
q Outside “the skin”: Everything around
you
§ Look around… What do you see?
What do you hear?
§ Your computer (or viewing device)
§ Me, my voice
§ The room you are in, sounds from outside

Inside the Skin

q What is your “internal” environment?
§ How do you feel? Tired or rested? In
pain (e.g., headache, nauseous)?
§ Is your heart racing?
§ Pre-seizure auras; voices in one’s head
§ These can cause externally observable
behaviors, even though there is nothing
obvious happening in the “external”
environment

The Impact of the Environment

q We look at what happens in the
environment before, during, and after a
target behavior
q This allows us to see how environmental
conditions or changes impact the target
behavior
q This in turn allows us to develop a plan to
consistently change or manipulate the
environment to help teach the person

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 Question
q A person’s environment includes:
a. Everything they do, think, or feel
b. Only the physical events around a
person
c. Events or conditions that can affect
the person’s behavior

Question
q External or internal environment?
q Dizziness and fatigue
a. External
b. Internal

Question
q External or internal environment?
q A dog barking
a. External
b. Internal

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 Examples of Environment
q First: Let’s review

Examples of Environment
(continued)
q First: Let’s review:
q What are the first two rules of doing
behavior analysis?

Examples of Environment
(continued)
q First: Let’s review:
q What are the first two rules of doing
behavior analysis?
q Identify…

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 Examples of Environment
(continued)
q First: Let’s review:
q What are the first two rules of doing
behavior analysis?
q Identify the behaver, and ….

Examples of Environment
(continued)
q First: Let’s review:
q What are the first two rules of doing
behavior analysis?
q Identify the behaver, and which
behavior (of that individual) we are
talking about

Why the Review?

q Reminder: Once we identify the
behaver and the behavior of interest,
we then start looking at the
environment to identify possible…

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 Why the Review?
q Reminder: Once we identify the
behaver and the behavior of interest,
we then start looking at the
environment to identify possible…
relationships between
environmental events and the
target behavior

Identifying and Defining: More

Operational Definitions
q “It is often necessary to operationally
define events that occur in the
environment…Definitions of
environmental events should also be
objective, clear, and complete.”
– Tarbox and Tarbox, 2017

Question
q Identify an element of the
environment
q A bag of chips is on the table. I open
the chips and eat them.
a. The chips on the table
b. Opening the chips
c. Eating the chips

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 Question
q Identify an element of the
environment
q A traffic light turns red. I press the
brake pedal in my car.
a. Pressing the brake pedal in my car
b. The traffic light turning red

Question
q Which of these is part of a behaving
organism’s environment?
a. The spicy taste of a hot pepper
b. Watching a traffic light turn green
c. Trying not to scratch a mosquito
bite
d. Reading a book alone in a room

Question
q Which of these is NOT part of the
behaving organism’s environment?
a. An inflamed tooth
b. Mentally practicing multiplication
c. Hormonal changes
d. The ambient temperature of your
room

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 The Environment Broken Down
q Just as we break down “behavior”
into individual responses…
q We break down “the environment”
into individual events, called:

The Environment Broken Down

q Just as we break down “behavior”
into individual responses…
q We break down “the environment”
into individual events, called:
Stimuli
(and of course, “stimuli” is plural; a single
one is called a “stimulus”)

Stimulus
q A stimulus is a change in the
environment that can affect behavior

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 Stimulus (continued)
q A stimulus is a change in the
environment that can affect behavior
q It is an environmental event

Stimulus (continued)
q A stimulus is a change in the
environment that can affect behavior
q It is an environmental event
q It is common to talk about the onset
and offset of a stimulus, or the
magnification versus the
attenuation of a stimulus

Stimulus Examples
(An Environmental Change)
q Light turns on/off
q Light gets brighter/dimmer/changes color
q Music begins to emanate from stereo
q Music gets louder/softer/turns off
q Mosquito flies around you
q Mosquito bites you
q Itch of a mosquito bite

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 Important Note:
q “For something to count as a
stimulus for a particular person at a
particular time, that person has to
have seen, heard, touched, tasted, or
smelled that object or event”

Tarbox and Tarbox, 2017

Stimuli Outside the Skin

q We typically work with stimuli outside
of the body, that can be changed
§ These are simply easier to observe and
measure, and can be more easily
manipulated to help teach the person
things

Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that are true of a stimulus:
q Is an environmental change
q Can be inside or outside of the
body
q Affects an organism through its
receptors

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 Question
q Is the following an example of a
stimulus?
q The taste of food on your tongue
a. Yes
b. No

Question
q Is the following an example of a
stimulus?
q The sight of your hand flapping in
front of your eyes
a. Yes
b. No

Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that are examples of stimuli:
q Hearing a honk of a car horn
q Scratching your own arm
q Tasting cold snowflakes falling on your
tongue
q Hearing the air conditioner click on in your
house
q Crying alone in your bedroom at home
q Seeing a peer sneezing during math class

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 Some Ways to Categorize Stimuli
q A stimulus may be classified by its:
§ Physical aspects (i.e., topography) – What it
looks, sounds, smells, tastes or feels like
§ Effect on behavior (i.e., function) – Does it
make a behavior more or less likely to happen
now, or in the future?
§ Effect on other stimuli – Does the stimulus
change the effect of other stimuli? (e.g., eat
chips before Coke® , vs. a sundae before Coke)
q We will look more at these effects later on…

Categorizing a Stimulus: By Time

(relative to the specific response)
q First, we look at stimulus/response
relationships based on TIME

Categorizing a Stimulus: By Time

(relative to the specific response)
q First, we look at stimulus/response
relationships based on TIME
q An “environmental change that can
affect behavior” (i.e., a stimulus) can
happen
1. Before a response, or…

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 Categorizing a Stimulus: By Time
(relative to the specific response)
q First, we look at stimulus/response
relationships based on TIME
q An “environmental change that can
affect behavior” (i.e., a stimulus) can
happen
1. Before a response, or…
2. After the response

Two Types of Stimuli

(related in time to the response)
q We can outline a small chunk of time
to focus our efforts on analyzing and
eventually changing most behavior.
q It is a simplified diagram of the flow
of events, the passage of time, that
helps identify relationships between:
Stimulus 1 à Target Responseà Stimulus 2

Names for the Two Types of Stimuli

(related in time to the response)
q Antecedents
§ Always come before the response
q Consequences
§ Always come after the response

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 Two Types of Stimuli
(related in time to the response)
q Thus in ABA we have a quick way to
refer to this relationship:
A-B-C
Antecedent – Behavior – Consequence

(*Also known as S-R-S)

Consequences First
q Although discussing antecedents first
would seem logical, we must cover
consequences first, and for a very good
reason:
§ To understand how antecedents work you
must first learn about the effect
consequences have on behavior
q It is kind of like a mystery story – why do
people do the things they do?

Question
q Short answer
q What are the two types of stimuli in
relation to time of the response?
² Hint: one comes before behavior and the other
after behavior

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 Objective
q Consequences
a. Define
b. Identify examples
c. List two broad types

Consequences
q A consequence is a stimulus that
follows a response
q In other words, a consequence
occurs after a response in time
q Typically, consequences follow the
response immediately, or nearly
immediately

Examples of Consequences
q I am the behaver
Response Consequence
q I flip up a light q The room lights up
switch on the wall
q I hold open a door q Stranger says
for a stranger “Thanks”
q I open my umbrella q Rain stops hitting
and hold it over me my head

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 Non-Examples of Consequences

q I am the behaver
q I pour a glass of water then take a
drink
q I take a bite from a sandwich and
then swallow
q My wife says, “Hi” to me when I walk
into my house, and I say, “Hi”

Question
q Short answer: Student is the behaver
q The teacher asks the student a question
during class. The student answers
correctly. The teacher gives her a gold
star sticker.
q What is the target behavior?

Question
q Short answer
q The teacher asks the student a question
during class. The student answers
correctly. The teacher gives her a gold
star sticker.
q What is the antecedent?

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 Question
q Short answer. Student is the behaver
q The teacher asks the student a question
during class. The student answers
correctly. The teacher gives her a gold
star sticker.
q What is the consequence?

Reinforcement

Types of Consequences
q Two main types:
§ Reinforcement
§ Punishment

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 Types of Consequences
q Two main types:
§ Reinforcement
§ Punishment
q We will discuss both in some detail –
and also discuss a third possibility, a
kind of no-consequence following a
response, called “extinction”

Objective
q Reinforcement
a. Define
b. Identify examples
c. List two main types of
reinforcement

Reinforcement
q Reinforcement occurs when a
particular stimulus follows a
response, and…
q That response is more likely or
equally likely to occur in the future
(that is, behavior is either increased
OR maintained by reinforcement)

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 Reinforcer
q Is a consequence that increased or
maintained a particular behavior in
the future
q Note: Reinforcement is the process
that happens when a behavior is
followed by a reinforcer (i.e., a
reinforcing stimulus)

Is a Reinforcer a “Reward”?
q Rewards are pre-determined by the giver
of the reward, and may or may not
increase the future likelihood (frequency)
of the behavior that earned the reward
q Therefore a “reward” may or may not
work (function) as a reinforcer
q A reinforcer is defined by its future
EFFECT on the behavior

The Effect of Reinforcement

q For reinforcement to have occurred,
the behavior must increase (or
maintain) its future frequency (or
along some other measurable aspect
of the behavior)
q Reinforcement has a delayed effect

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 Question
q A reinforcer is a type of:
a. Antecedent
b. Consequence

Question
q Fill in the blank
q Reinforcement is an environmental
change that follows a response and
________ or maintains the future
frequency of that behavior.

Question
q Reinforcement effects are:
a. Immediate
b. Delayed

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 Video Example or Activity

Question
q Based on the video, was watching
videos on an iPhone® a reinforcer?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure, need more information

Question
q Based on the video, was this an
example of reinforcement?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure, need more information

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 Question
q Based on the video, was this an
example of reinforcement?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure, need more information

Two Types of Reinforcement

q Reinforcement can be positive or

negative
§ This idea can be confusing because
people often think “positive” means
“good” and “negative” means “bad”
q In ABA (like in arithmetic):
§ Positive (+) means “added”
§ Negative (-) means “taken away”

Objective
q Positive reinforcement
a. Define
b. Identify examples

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 Positive Reinforcement
q A consequence, where there is a
change in the behaver’s environment
after a particular response
q A specific stimulus is added
(presented) or increased (magnified)
q And as a result, that type of response
is more likely to happen again in the
future

Positive Reinforcement (continued)

q The symbol for positive

reinforcement is:
§ An “S” (for “stimulus”)
§ Followed by an “R” (for “reinforcer”)
§ Followed by a “+” (a plus sign)
q Often the “R+” is in superscript – so:

SR+

Example #1 of Positive
Reinforcement
q Mario is the behaver
q Giulia is talking to Vincente and ignoring
Mario
q Mario cracks a joke
q Giulia turns around, laughs, and says,
“You’re funny, Mario!”
q In the future, Mario is now more likely to
tell jokes (especially when Giulia is
around)

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 Example #1 of Positive
Reinforcement (continued)
q Response: Mario tells a joke
q Consequence: Giulia saying, “You
are funny” is added to Mario’s
environment following his response
(the joke)
q Effect on future responding: Mario
now tells jokes more often

Question
q What was the “positive” thing in the
previous example?
a. Mario told a joke
b. Giulia stopped talking to Vincente
c. Mario tells more jokes in the future
d. Giulia said, “You’re funny Mario”

Example #2 of Positive
Reinforcement
q Nathan is the behaver
q Nathan frequently hits himself
q Nathan’s caregivers quickly scold
him
q Over the past few weeks, Nathan’s
self-hitting has increased
§ Is this an example of reinforcement?
§ Was anything added following the
response?

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 Example #2 of Positive
Reinforcement (continued)
q Response: Nathan hits himself
q Consequence: Nathan’s caregivers,
scolding him is added to Nathan’s
environment following his response
(hitting himself)
q Effect on future responding: Nathan
now hits himself more often

Scenario
q Jodhi is the behaver
q Jodhi has not eaten all day so she
goes out to a restaurant and orders a
full meal. When the appetizer comes,
a plate of spinach pakoras, Jodhi
tastes them and orders more. Now
whenever she goes to this
restaurant, she orders pakoras.

Question
q What was the “positive” reinforcer in
the previous example?
a. Jodhi going to the restaurant
b. Jodhi had not eaten all day
c. The taste of the pakoras
d. Ordering more spinach pakoras

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 Video Example or Activity

Question
q Fill in the blank
q In positive reinforcement, a stimulus
is _____ following a response.

Question
q Fill in the blank
q In positive reinforcement, a stimulus
is added following a response. This
results in an _______ or
maintenance of that behavior in the
future.

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 What is the
Positive Reinforcement?
q Juan buys a lottery ticket and wins
$1
q Jeremiah buys a lottery ticket and he
wins $5
q Atsuko buys a lottery ticket and does
not win any money
q Which of these is a clear example of
positive reinforcement?

Non-Example of
Positive Reinforcement

None!

Non-Example of
Positive Reinforcement

None!
What?

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 Non-Example of
Positive Reinforcement

None!
What?
Why not?

Non-Example of
Positive Reinforcement

None!
What?
Why not?

Let’s look back and see

Non-Example of
Positive Reinforcement
q Juan buys a lottery ticket and wins $1
q Jeremiah buys one and he wins $5
q Atsuko buys one and does not win
q For Juan and Jeremiah, something was
clearly added – money; not so for Atsuko
q But where is the reinforcement? Do we
see any evidence of an increase in
“lottery ticket buying” behavior for any of
these people? No

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 Take Away Lesson
q Just because you think something
may be a reinforcer, you cannot be
sure until you see an increase in the
target behavior in the future
§ “The future” may be 5 minutes away
(And this is why we take so much data
over long periods of time in ABA)

Objective
q Define aversive

Objective
q Negative reinforcement
a. Define
b. Identify examples

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 Aversive
q A general term in ABA for something
“bad” or “unpleasant”
q If an aversive condition follows a
response (as a consequence), it is
punishing (e.g., pain)
q If it happens before a behavior (as an
antecedent), the person is likely to do
something to escape or avoid it

Negative Reinforcement
q Negative reinforcement is possibly
the most commonly misunderstood
term in behavior analysis
q In ABA, “negative” does NOT mean
“bad”
q “Negative” means “taken away”

Negative Reinforcement
(continued)
q In negative reinforcement, a stimulus
is REMOVED or reduced after a
behavior, and this results in the
behavior happening MORE often in
the future

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 Things are Bad!
q For negative reinforcement to
happen, an unpleasant condition
MUST be present BEFORE the
response occurs
q This is a condition/situation you (as
the behaver) do not like – you want it
to stop!
q This antecedent condition is also
called an “irritant” or an “aversive”

Negative Reinforcement Time Line

q The unpleasant condition is happening
q The person responds
q The unpleasant condition is lessened or
terminated altogether
q In the future when the unpleasant aversive
irritant happens again, a similar response is
now much more likely to occur
q It was negatively reinforced by the termination
or lessening of the aversive condition

Negative Reinforcement
“Reinforcement by Relief”
Irritant – R – SR –
“Negative”

The escape The Irritant

An Aversive
response is removed
Antecedent
or reduced

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 Examples of Negative
Reinforcement
Antecedent Negative
Target Response
Aversive Reinforcement
Pain in ankle Rub the painful area Pain lessens
A burn on Burning sensation
Put ice on the burn
hand goes away
Mosquito bite Scratch Itching reduced

Child screams Mom gives cookie Screams stop

Sound of alarm
Fire alarm Leave building
gets less and less

Question
q The term “aversive” in ABA often
refers to something:
a. Good/preferred
b. Bad/non-preferred
c. New
d. Boring

Question
q In negative reinforcement, “negative”
means that, as a consequence,
something is:
a. Bad
b. Removed

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 Question
q Story of Sean (the behaver), mom on phone,
and his table-kicking
q Sean immediately stops kicking the table when
his mom yells at him
q Over time, however, Sean kicks more often
q The increase in Sean’s kicking in the future is
an example of:
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. Neither A nor B (as it is NOT an example of
reinforcement)

Why Positive?
q When Sean kicked the table the first time,
his Mom provided immediate attention
(yells at Sean)
q Sean experienced Mom’s attention as a
consequence for “kicking table” behavior
q Mom’s attention was ADDED to his
environment and kicking behavior was
strengthened – more likely to occur in the
future

Question
q Story of Sean’s Mom (the new behaver), mom
on the phone, and Sean’s table-kicking,
q Mom yells at Sean when he kicks the table and
Sean immediately stops kicking
q Mom’s “yelling” at Sean increases in the future
q The increase in Mom’s “yelling” in the future is
likely the result of:
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. Neither A nor B (as it is NOT an example of
reinforcement)

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 Ask Yourself a Question
q Would you prefer positive (+)
reinforcement or negative (-)
reinforcement?

Which Would You Choose?

q You are in a locked room in a burning
building
q Someone comes by and says, “I can
either let you out of the room so you
can get out of the building, or I can
tell you where I hid one million
dollars in the room you are in. Which
do you want?”

Question
q The story of the back pain and the shot
q You are the behaver
q Going to the doctor is the behavior
q Getting the shot decreases back pain
q If reinforcement was provided, which
type?
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. Not reinforcement

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 Video Example or Activity

Question
q In the future, the mother continues to
remove the hammer when the child bangs
on furniture.
q What type of reinforcement is this
[remember, the mother is the behaver]?
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. Not reinforcement

Question
q Based on the previous video
scenario, what type of reinforcement
was shown?
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
c. None; this was not an example of
reinforcement

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 Objective
q Unconditioned and conditioned
reinforcers
a. Define
b. Identify examples
c. Identify how stimuli become
conditioned reinforcers

Unlearned Reinforcers
q Some stimuli function as reinforcers
without prior learning, such as:
§ Food, water, air, physical contact
§ Pain reduction or elimination

Unconditioned Reinforcers
q Stimuli that function as reinforcers
with no prior learning are called:
Unconditioned reinforcers

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 Learned Reinforcers
q Other stimuli BECOME reinforcing
through learning, such as:
§ Praise, tokens, money, games, task
completion, etc.

Conditioned Reinforcers
q Stimuli that function as reinforcers
only after learning, through the
process of pairing, are called:
Conditioned reinforcers

Learning through Pairing

q Stimuli become conditioned
reinforcers through learning by a
process known as “pairing”
q Pairing occurs when a stimulus that
has no particular effect (like a clicking
sound) is presented to the behaver
simultaneously (or nearly so) with an
unconditioned reinforcer (like food)

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 Learning through Pairing
(continued)
q It can look like this:
Click-food; Click-food; Click-food

q Soon the “click” sound functions as a

conditioned reinforcer, without the
need for the food
q This is known in the animal training
world as “clicker training”

Learned Reinforcers
q We all engage in behavior that is
reinforced by many such learned
reinforcers
q We learned them over time
q A $100 bill has no meaning to a baby
q Neither do the words “Good job,” “I
am giving you a raise,” or “I love you”
q These are all learned reinforcers

Key Characteristics of Learning

q Two terms will be key to your
understanding of how learning
occurs:
§ Contiguity
§ Contingency

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 Contiguity
q This one is simple and is directly tied to
pairing
q Clicker training (click-food, click-food)
only works if the food is delivered
immediately after the “click” sound
q Contiguity means: nearness in time
q A high degree of contiguity is key in
clicker training—and in most learning (as
you will see in later modules)

Contiguity and the RBT

q When conditioning reinforcers, it is
important that two stimuli are presented
together closely in time
§ E.g., praise presented along with an edible
item
q It is important to deliver the consequence
quickly following the response
§ E.g., praise and or edible item provided
immediately following the response

Contingency
q A contingency is said to exist
between events when one depends
upon the other
q It can be written as an “if / then”
statement (or “when / then”)
§ E.g., if you put the peg in the hole, then
you get a token

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 Contingency and the RBT
q Contingency is a common term in ABA
q A behavior plan specifies contingencies!
It states what the consequence should
be when the target behavior happens
q If plan says to provide a reinforcer
contingent on “X” response, it means
following “X”, give reinforcement
q If “X” occurs, then a reinforcer must be
delivered

Teaching
q Much of what you will do as an RBT,
meaning your role as a teacher, will
be to set up and follow through on
contingencies
q You will also be focused on making
sure these contingencies occur with
as close contiguity between events
as possible, to increase learning

Contiguity, Contingency, and

Reinforcement
q For a reinforcement procedure to
work, the reinforcer must be
delivered:
§ Immediately after the target response
(close contiguity)
§ Only after the target response has
occurred (strong contingency)

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 Question
q Multiple select
q Select all that may be conditioned
reinforcers:
q Food
q Movies
q Water
q Playing basketball
q Tokens or stickers

Question
q Short answer
q Every time the child emits the correct
response, the teacher gives the child
a sticker along with a piece of candy.
q This is an example of:

Question
q Short answer
q Every time the child emits the correct
response, the teacher gives the child
a sticker along with a piece of candy.
q What is the unconditioned reinforcer?

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 Question
q Short answer
q Every time the child emits the correct
response, the teacher gives the child
a sticker along with a piece of candy.
q What is the conditioned reinforcer?

Objective
q Socially mediated and automatic
reinforcement
a. Define
b. Identify examples

Different Sources of Reinforcement

q Reinforcement can be provided by

another person, or it can occur
directly, as a result of the completion
of the target response
§ When another person provides the
reinforcer, it is called “socially mediated”
§ When the completion of the response is
the reinforcer, it is called “automatic”

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 Examples of
Socially Mediated Reinforcement
q You are thirsty so you ask Bob the
waiter for water and he brings you
water
q You are too warm so you ask Bob to
open a window; he does and you get
cool air
q You have an itch on your back and
you ask your spouse to scratch it

Examples of
Automatic Reinforcement
q You are thirsty so you go get water
from a water fountain
q You are hot so you open a window
and get cool air
q You have an itch on your back and
you get a back scratcher for yourself
q A note on “self-stimulatory behavior”

Notes On Reinforcers
q Will be different for different people
q Are determined by their effect (have
to increase behavior when provided
following a response)
q Change or “shift”
q Are different for different responses

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 No Stimulus Always Functions
as a Reinforcer
q Even though we speak of reinforcers,
we must be careful not to assume
that a particular stimulus always has
reinforcing qualities
q The effectiveness of a stimulus as a
reinforcer depends on many
variables

Reinforcers “Shift”
q Something that is reinforcing right
now may not be reinforcing later and
vice versa
q We will discuss this in detail when we
talk about motivating operations
§ For now, just realize this: You are not
ALWAYS hungry, so even though food
is an unconditioned reinforcer, it does
not always function as a reinforcer

Responses and Reinforcement

q Also, just because a particular stimulus
reinforces a specific response, this does
not mean that it will reinforce any
response
§ Example: If you ask your boss for your
paycheck and she says, “Great work,” gives
you a cookie, and then goes away, will that
reinforce your behavior of “asking for
paycheck”?

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 Video Example or Activity

Question
q What type of reinforcement was
shown in the previous video?
a. Socially mediated
b. Automatic

References
q Behavior Analyst Certification Board
(2018). RBT Task List (2nd Ed). Retrieved
from: https://www.bacb.com/wp-
content/uploads/RBT-2nd-Edition-Task-
List_181214.pdf
q Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

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 References (continued)
q Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (1980).
Strategies and tactics of human behavioral
research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
q Skinner, B. F. (1938) The study of behaviorism.
New York, NY: Harper Collins.
q Skinner, B. F. (1963). Behaviorism at fifty.
Science, 140, 951-958.
q Tarbox, J., & Tarbox, C. (2017). Training Manual
for Behavior Technicians Working with
Individuals with Autism. Academic Press.

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