Chapter 04
Chapter 04
Chapter 04
BIOENERGETICS
“Capturing and conversion of energy from one form to another in the living system and its utilization in metabolic
activities is called bioenergetics”
Photophosphorylation:
In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is
called photophosphorylation.
Oxidative Phosphorylation:
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which ATP synthesis is coupled to the movement of electrons through the
mitochondrial electron transport chain and the associated consumption of oxygen.
Photosynthesis:
“The process of conversion of light energy into chemical/food energy in the presence of chlorophyll and electron carriers
is called photosynthesis.”
Reactants of Photosynthesis:
The reactants of photosynthesis are:
1. Water:
Water is absorbed by the roots from soil and transported up to the photosynthetic organs through xylem vessels in
vascular plants
2. Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide enters into the plant through the stomata.
3. Light Energy:
Light is obtained from the sun.
Products of Photosynthesis:
Products of photosynthesis are:
1. Oxygen:
It diffuses in the surrounding through stomata.
2. Glucose:
Glucose may be utilized for the synthesis of complex carbohydrates such as starch, or may be used in the formation of
lipids or proteins. Some of the glucose is used to provide energy.
Role of Pigments:
When plants come in contact with the light, they absorb it with the help of colored compounds called pigments. There are
various types of pigments, which give different colors to the plants and absorb light of different wavelength. The
important pigments are:
1. Chlorophyll:
It can be distinguished into Chlorophyll a, b, c, d and e. Chlorophyll a and b more important and are present in a specific
region of chloroplast called “antenna” complex which absorb photons and transmit it to a chlorophyll-a rich region called
“reaction center”. Important features of chlorophyll a and b are
a. Chlorophyll-a:
The empirical formula of chlorophyll-a is C 55 H 72 O 5 N 4 Mg . It is blue-green in color
b. Chlorophyll-b:
The empirical formula of chlorophyll-b is C 55 H 70 O 6 N 4 Mg. It is yellow green in color
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2. Carotenoids:
The chloroplast also contains carotenoids, which are various show different shades of yellow and orange. Thes eare
present in the thylakoid membranes. Carotenoids can absorb wavelength of light that is outside the absorption spectrum of
chlorophyll and transfer it to chlorophyll-a. Some carotenes also accept excess energy from chlorophyll preventing it from
damage.
Role of Light:
Light is composed of packets of energy called photons or quanta. When a photon of light his chlorophyll-a molecules, it
raises their energy and elevates electrons from the ground state to excited state. The excitation depends upon the type of
incident photons.
1. The red photons contain less energy and elevate photons to excited state I
2. The blue photons contain less energy and elevate photons to excited state II.3
Role Of Pigments
The set of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment is its absorption spectrum. the absorption spectra of three key
pigments in photosynthesis: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and β-carotene. .
Chlorophyll a:
This pigment is found in all higher plants. It is the most vital pigment used in photosynthesis. Some
algae, cyanobacteria and anaerobic phototrophs also show the presence of chlorophyll a. It has a strong rate of
absorption. It absorbs violet-blue as well as orange-red light and reflects blue-green light. C ₅₅H ₇₂O ₅N ₄Mg is the
formula representing Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b:
This type of chlorophyll is seen in green algae and plants. It is an accessory pigment that aids chlorophyll a. This
pigment usually absorbs the orange-red light and reflects a yellow-green colour. C55H70O6N4Mg is the formula
representing Chlorophyll b.
Carotenoids:
Carotenoids are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments, and include the familiar compound
carotene, which gives carrots their color. Carotenoids cannot transfer sunlight energy directly to the
photosynthetic pathway, but must pass their absorbed energy to chlorophyll. For this reason, they are
called accessory pigments.
Role of Water:
+¿¿
Photosynthesis is a redox process and requires H and electrons, which are provided by water. H 2 O is split and
electrons and transferred along with Hydrogen ion from H 2 O and C O2 reducing it to sugar.
1 +¿+2 e −¿¿
¿
H 2 O → O2 +2 H
2
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Role of C O2:
C O2 provides the carbon for the glucose. It enters through the stomata from the environment. Some of C O2 is produced
as a result of respiration
Process of Photosynthesis:
Process of photosynthesis takes place in two distinct steps
Electron Transport:
a. The light reactions start from the reaction center of PSII, which contain chlorophyll-a, it absorbs energy and
electrons get excited.
b. The excited electrons produced with P680 are rapidly transferred to the primary electron acceptor phaelophtin and
then to plastoquionone Q A and Q B , which are associated with a ferrous ion
c. Plastoquinone also accepts two protons and releases them in the lumen. It passes the electrons to Cyt b/f complex,
which donate electrons to Plastocyanin
d. Plastocyanin donates electrons to photosystem I, which transfer its electrons to Ferrodoxin through three
molecules of FeS.
e. These electrons are used in the reduction of NADP to NADPH.
f. The oxidized P680 produced by electron transport is re-reducted by an electron from H 2 O which is generated by
the water-splitting complex that is present on the luminal side of the thylakoid membrane and produces electrons,
+¿¿
H and O2
i. Non-Cyclic Phosphorylation
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+¿¿
When there is a linear transfer of electrons from water to NADP , and do not get back to initial source,
the process is called non-cyclic phosphorylation
ii. Cyclic Phosphorylation:
When there is a cyclic transfer of electrons and they are transferred back to Plastoquinone from PSI, the
process is called cyclic phosphorylation.
Result:
Three important events take place during light reactions:
i. Photolysis of water
ii. Reduction of NADP to NADPH
iii. Synthesis of ATP by photophosphorlation
iii. Regeneration:
Due to rearrangements, three carbon compounds are rearranged to form five carbon compounds and
RuBP is regenerated.
5(3−PGAL)+3 ATP → RuBP+ 3 ADP+ 2 Pi
Result:
a. During the cycle, 3 molecules of C O 2 fix three molecules of RuBP to produce 6 molecules of 3 Carbon
compounds
b. Five 3-carbon compounds are used in the generation of RuBP and one 3- Carbon compound is left, which can
i. Re-enter the cycle
ii. Used for starch synthesis
iii. Transported to cytosol for the production of Sucrose
+¿¿
c. A total of nine ATPs and six NADPH are used during the dark reactions for the formation of G3P, which is
the basic compound used in the formation of larger organic compounds.
Cellular Respiration:
“The process of breakdown of glucose with the synthesis of ATP is called cellular respiration”
Carbon dioxide and water are produced as by-products
C 6 H 12 O6 + 6O2 → 6C O2+ 6 H 2 O+673. KCal/mole
There are two types of respiration
Anaerobic Respiration:
a. The breakdown of sugar in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration
b. Some anaerobic organisms such as yeast, certain bacteria, some annelids and gut parasites can respire without
oxygen. Some tissues and plant roots also have the capability to respire anaerobically.
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c. There are two types of anaerobes.
i. Obligate anaerobes, which cannot survive in oxygen
ii. Facultative anaerobes, which survive aerobically in the presence of oxygen but can survive in its absence.
d. When oxygen is absent or in short supply. The products of anaerobic respiration are either ethyl alcohol and
carbon dioxide or lactic acid
e. The process is inefficient in terms of energy production and only a small amount of energy is released because of
incomplete oxidation of glucose.
Aerobic Respiration:
a. The process of breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration
b. The process of aerobic respiration is divided into three main stage.
1. Glycolysis:
Glycolysis is the universal energy harvesting process in all organisms. It occurs freely in anaerobic
environment within the cytoplasm. It is the process of breakdown of six-carbon sugar glucose into two
molecules of 3-carbon sugar pyruvic acid. It consists of two phases.
Summary:
Glycolysis can be summarized as
Glucose → 2 Pyruvic acid + 2 H 2 O
2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2ATP
+¿¿
2 NAD + 4 H +¿→ ¿ 2 NADH +2 H
4 ATP molecules are produced in the energy-yielding phase but two have been consumed in the energy investment phase,
so there is a gain of 2ATPs. The pair also yields two pairs of energized electrons and two NADHs
i. Alcohol Fermentation:
Each pyruvic acid molecule is broken into ethyl alcohol, which is toxic compound so they must revert to
aerobic respiration before the concentration exceeds their tolerable limit. The process occurs in two steps
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First Step:
The 3-Carbon pyruvic acid is decarboxylated to produce 2-Carbon acetaldehyde
CH 3 COCOOH →CH 3 CHO+C O2
Second Step:
NADH + H +¿¿ reduces acetaldehyde to ethyl alcohol + ¿¿
+¿→ CH CH 2 OH + NAD ¿
CH 3 CHO+ NADH + H 32
Aerobic Breakdown:
Pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis is converted to Acetyl-CoA by decarboxylation and conjugation with
Coenzyme A and transferred to mitochondria
+¿¿
Pyruvic acid + CoA + NAD +¿→¿ Acetyl CoA + C O2 + NADH + H
Krebs Cycle:
Acetyl coenzyme A participates in a series of cyclic reactions called Kreb’s cycle or Citric acid cycle. It
consists of following steps.
i. An enzyme separates CoA from Acetyl CoA and the acetyl fragment combines with four-carbon
compound oxalo acetic acid to form 6-carbon compound citric acid. During this process one molecule of
water is used and co-enzyme A is recycled again.
ii. Citric acid is isomerized to isocitric acid
iii. Isocitric acid undergoes decarboxylation reaction and forms α -ketaglutaric acid. A molecule of NADH
also forms.
iv. α −¿ ketoglutaric acid is again oxidatively decarboxylated and hydrated to form Succinic acid with the
formation of one molecule of CO 2, ATP and NADH each.
v. Succinic acid is converted to fumaric acid with the formation of FADH 2
vi. Fumaric acid is hydrated and converted into malic acid
vii. Regeneration of oxalic acid occurs with the oxidation of malic acid, which also results in the formation of
one molecule of NADH.
Summary:
As glucose molecules split into two molecules of pyruvic acid during glycolysis, two cycles are required for each glucose
molecule. for each pyruvic acid molecules, there carbon atoms are removed as CO 2 and five pairs of hydrogen atom are
+¿¿
used to reduce NAD and FAD to NADH + H and FADH 2. The inputs and outputs of Kreb’s cycle are
+¿¿
Pyruvic acid + 3 H 2 O → 3CO 2 +5 ×2 H (in carriers)
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It starts with the oxidation of NADH2 which releases 2 electron and 2 Proton. The energy is also released duri g this
breakdown. This energy will be you utilized to synthesis first molecule of ATP. the NADH2 is oxidized by coenzyme
Q. The FADH2 is also oxidized by co enzyme and now the CO enzyme Q is oxidized by cytochrome b which is
oxidised by cytochrome C. At this stage energy is available which can be used by ATPase Complex for the formation
of ATP. After it, cytochrome is oxidized by cytochrome a and a3. The last cytochrome a3 is oxidised by an atom of
Oxygen and the electrons arrived with Proton. A molecule of water is formed by this combination. The synthesis of
ATP during electron transport chain in the presence of oxygen is called oxidative phosphorylation it takes place in the
inner membrane Cristae of Mitochondria
PHOTORESPIRATION:
Occasionally plant oxidise sugar during day time without the production of energy called as photo respiration. During this
process carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed like aerobic respiration. It means RuBisCO performs
oxygenation instead of carboxylation during photo respiration.
RUBP reacts with oxygen producing one molecule of three phosphoglycerate and one molecule of glycolate .
The glycolate produced during this process diffuses into membrane bounded organelle called peroxisomes where
glycolate is converted into amino acid glycine.
The glycine rapidly diffuses into the mitochondria where two glycine molecules are been converted into amino acid
Serine and a molecule of carbon dioxide is formed.
1. C 4 Plants:
a. These plants replace Calvin’s cycle with an alternate mode that forma a four carbon compounds called
oxaloacetate as its first product
b. Oxaloacetate releases C O2 which is reassimilated into organic material by Rubisco and Calvin’s cycle.
c. Example: Sugarcane, Corn and Grasses.
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.
BIO-ENERGETICS
1. Quantitative study of energy relationships and its conversion inside biological system is called _________
a) Biotechnology b) bioenergetics c) biocoenotics d) ecology
2. Of all the living species in this world, only about ________ million are autotrophs
a) 0.5 b) 1 c) 1.5 d) 0.25
12. _______shows the phenomenon of Photoreception (Phenomenon in which one pigment molecule accepts energy
of another pigment molecule)
a) Chlorophyll-a b) chlorophyll-b c) carotenoids d) phyccbilin
13. A photon of red light can elevate electron from ground state to _______
a) Excited state-1 b) excited state-2 c) excited state-3 d) excited state-4
14. A photon of red light can elevate electron from ground state to _____
a) Excited state-1 b) excited state-2 c) excited state-3 d) excited state-4
22. Major groups of complexes present in the Thylakoid membrane are _____
a) 5 b) 4 c) 6 d) 3
23. Complexes present in the stacked (Appresed) portion of Thylakoid membrane are _____
a) PSI, ATP synthase and Cyt b/f complex
b) PSII, LHCII and Cyt b/f complex
c) PSI, LHCII, Cyt b/f complex
d) PSII, ATP synthase, Cyt b/f complex
24. Complexes present in the Stacked (appresed) portion of thylakoid membrane are ________
a) PSI, ATP synthase and Cyt b/f complex
b) PSII, LHCII and Cyt b/f complex
c) PSI, LHCII, Cyt b/f complex
d) PSII, ATP synthase, Cyt b/f complex
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30. Transport of __________ protons (H+) through ATPase complex produce 1ATP
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
36. One complete Calvin cycle consumes a total of __________ molecules of ATP and ____molecules of NADPH+H
a) 6, 9 b) 6, 8 c) 9, 6 d) 9, 8
37. The plants which form Oxalo-acetate as first compound during carbon fixation are called _____plants
a) CAM b) C4 c) C3 d) None
42. Net ATP gain at substrate level phosphorylation through one complete Kreb’s cycle
a) 3ATP b) 4ATP c) 2ATP d) 5ATP
44. Total NADH + H produced through one complete Kreb’s cycle from Acetyl co-A
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
46. Total FADH2 produced through one complete Kreb’s cycle from Acetyl co-A
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
48. Of the total solar energy that reaches the earth only _______% is absorbed by green plants
a) 2-3 b) 3-4 c) 4-5 d) 5-6
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49. An ecosystem may have _____trophic levels
a) 2-3 b) 3-4 c) 4-5 d) 5-6
50. The rate at which the plants convert solar energy to chemical energy is called ________
a) Primary productivity b) gross primary productivity c) net primary productivity d) All
52. The average efficiency of energy transfer from plants (Producer) to Herbivores (Primary Consumer) is about
________%
a) 10 b) 20 c) 30 d) 40
53. The average efficiency of energy transfer from one Consumer to another consumer is about ________%
a) 10 b) 20 c) 30 d) 40
55. The generation of ATP by ETC coupled with H+ ion pump process is called _____
a) Photophosphorylation b) substrate level phosphorylation
c) Oxidative phosphorylation d) chemi osmotic phosphorylation
ANSWERS
1. B 13. A 25. A 37. B 49. C
2. A 14. B 26. A 38. A 50. B
3. C 15. C 27. A 39. C 51. C
4. A 16. B 28. B 40. C 52. A
5. D 17. D 29. D 41. B 53. B
6. D 18. C 30. B 42. C 54. B
7. B 19. B 31. B 43. A 55. C
8. C 20. D 32. A 44. B 56. A
9. B 21. C 33. C 45. A 57. B
10. A 22. B 34. A 46. A 58. C
11. C 23. B 35. A 47. B
12. C 24. A 36. C 48. A
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