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BACHELOR OF NURSING SCIENCE WITH HONOURS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1

NBHS 1113
SEM (1) SEPTEMBER /2022

STUDENT’S NAME : NORHANANI BINTI BAJURI

STUDENT MATRIC : 890409065510001
IC NUMBER : 890409065510
TEL. NUMBER : 0139725149
EMAIL : hananibajuri89@oum.edu.my

LEARNING CENTRE : OUM KOTA BHARU

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CONTENT PAGES

1.0 INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------------- 3-4

2.0 CELL SYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS------------------------------ 5-9

2.1 Cell system 5-7

2.2 Functions of cells 8-9

3.0 TISSUE SYSTEMS AND FUNCTIONS -----------------------------------10-20

3.1 Epithelial Tissue and functions 11-14

3.2 Connective Tissue and functions 15-17
3.3 Muscle Tissue and functions 17-18
3.4 Nervous Tissue and functions 19-20

4.0 ABNORMAL PROCESS OF CELLS AND TISSUES -----------------21-23

IN CANCER PATIENT

5.0 CONCLUSION -----------------------------------------------------------------24-25

6.0 REFERENCE AND CITATION-------------------------------------------- 26-28

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Every living thing has a specified specific goal to live. As a result, all life forms share
the same significance as their fundamental component. The most basic structural and
functional unit in the organism is the cell. According to O’Connor(2010), Cells have all the
characteristics and expertise variety of tasks to carry out the functions of life.

According to Bechtel(2006), the earliest scientists who are Theodor Schwann,

Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow proposed The Cell Theory. They mentioned in their
theory that all living things on earth are composed of cells, a cell is the basic unit of life, and
all cells are derived from cells that already exist.

However, a modern version of the cell theory was then created. According to Sitte
P(1992), it mentions that energy flows within the cells, genetic information is passed from
one cell to another cell, and the chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Figure 1.1
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/1-2-structural-organization-of-the-human-body/

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In anatomy and physiology, the organization of living things' characteristics develop
and do specified functions to make up an organism. Starting with the cell will make up
tissues. These tissues are made up of similarities between cells and surrounding materials.

As the functional and structural similarity, tissues are categorized into four broad
categories. Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nerve are the different categories. Together,
these basic tissue types support the maintenance and health of the human body. As a result,
any disruption to the tissue's structure is a sign of injury or disease occurs.

Next, the author will briefly explain the components and functions of the cells and
tissue system. Then, the author will briefly discuss the abnormal process of cells and tissues
in a patient diagnosed with cancer such as breast cancer.

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2,0 CELL SYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cells_tissues_membranes/cells/structure.html

Cells are made up of various organelles which had performed their specific functions.
There are 2 types of cells which are prokaryotic and eukaryotic. A human cell is eukaryotic.
It consists of three parts: the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. As an individual unit,
the cell can metabolize its nutrition, create many different types of chemicals, produce its
energy, and duplicate itself to form subsequent generations.

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Figure 2.2

https://socratic.org/questions/which-characteristic-makes-a-cell-membrane-selectively-
permable

The cell membrane also called the plasma membrane, surrounds every cell in the body
and separates between the intracellular and extracellular components of the cell. It is a double
layer made of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. It is called a semi-permeable membrane
which allows specific molecules to pass. It carries nutrients into the cell and also transports
waste products out of the cell.

According to Orchad (2014), intrinsic proteins allow internal and external materials to
cross the membrane. The cell membrane's proteins also allow interaction from one cell to
another cell and serve as structural support, material-passage channels, receptor sites, carrier
molecules, and identification markers.

The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance inside the cell. It is surrounded by the cell
membrane and between the nucleus. It gives the cell shape, holds the organelles of the cell,
and protects them from damage. The cytoplasm contains the following cellular organelles
within it:

1. Mitochondria
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
3. Ribosomes
4. Golgi Apparatus
5. Lysosomes

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The majority of chemical reactions happen in the cytoplasm because it has a large
number of enzymes. Many cellular processes take part in the cytoplasm like glycolysis, a
metabolic process that produces energy in the form of ATPs, which take place in the
cytoplasm. According to Lowe(1962), the cytoplasm is the part of the cell that produces
energy, connecting the oxidation of substrate to the synthesis of ATPs in the mitochondria.

Another metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm is protein synthesis(the

process in which the cell makes protein). According to Lowe (1962), the cytoplasm is the
major site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes, which are tiny non-membranous organelles found
on the rough endoplasmic reticulum, carry out this function. This synthesis functions to
make up the structure of the cell, run the biochemical reactions in the cell, and are
manufactured for export.

The cytoplasm also functions to help materials move (like hormones) around the cells
and dissolve the cellular waste.

Figure 2.3

https://byjus.com/biology/the-nucleus/

Another part of the cell is the nucleus, enclosed by a double membrane eukaryotic cell
organelle, called a nucleus envelope, and connecting to the cytoplasm via the nucleus pore.
Inside the nucleus is the nucleolus, which has several thread-like structures known as

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chromosomes. It carries genetic material and supports in transfer or inheritance of characters
from the parents to the offspring. According to Busch, H. (2012), One of the most important
properties of the nucleus is the presence of DNA, which makes up nearly all of the cell’s
genetics.

It is also known as the “Headquarters of the Cell” because it instructs other cell
organelles on how to function. The nucleus is functioning in carrying the genes, structures
that contain hereditary information, and controls and regulates the functions of the cell (such
as growth and metabolism).

2.1 FUNCTIONS OF CELLS

All cells are identical at the beginning of their lives and are called stem cells. They
differentiate based on the type of organism they are in (plant or animal) and the specific task
they must perform. This indicates that they alter to better carry out a particular task. These
cells are known as specialized cells, and the human body contains numerous varieties of
them.

Figure 2.11

https://www.twinkl.com/teaching-wiki/cells-in-the-human-body

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The figure shows different types of cells which have different functions in our body.

Cells as the basic unit of life

According to Wang, G.(2014), a living organism's fundamental unit of structure and

function is the cell. The organization of the human body is viewed from the cellular level as a
basic unit of life to the organism level. Molecules combine to form organelles and then turn
into functional units of cells.

Inheritance

According to Cooper(2000), The ability to reproduce is perhaps the most fundamental

trait shared by all living things. All living things receive from their parents the genetic code
defining their structure and function. The genetic material must be replicated and transferred
from parent to progeny cell at each cell division because all cells develop from preexisting
cells.

The cells reproduce so that humans keep growing and regenerating. For example,
cells are constantly duplicating so that the nails and hair keep growing.

Cellular metabolism and energy release

Complex chemical reactions occur in the cell, producing energy that is needed by the
body. These reactions are called metabolism. This metabolism process allows organisms to
grow, reproduce, maintain their structures and react to environmental changes.

According to W.Kimball (2016), Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is a nucleotide that

plays a variety of vital functions in cells. It serves as the primary source of energy for the
majority of the cell's energy-intensive processes. It serves as one of the monomers in the
production of DNA and, after being converted to deoxy ATP (dATP), RNA. It controls
numerous biochemical pathways.

Protection and Support

Cells are the building blocks of all life. They serve as the structural foundation for all
organisms. The cell wall and cell membrane are the two basic components that serve to

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support and structure the organism. As examples, skin cells make up the large cell in the
organism which provide protection and support.

3.0 TISSUE SYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS

According to Baxter, R(2017), a tissue is a collection of nearby cells that are arranged
to carry out one or more particular functions.

Although there are many types of tissue in the body. Tissues are organized into 4
broad categories which are:

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

These groups are distinguished by particular functions that support the body's
maintenance and general health.

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3.1 EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Classification of epithelium tissue.

Figure 3.11

https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/epithelial-tissue-characteristics-classification-scheme-
types/

"Epithelial tissue," also known as "epithelium," refers to the sheets of cells that line
internal cavities and passageways, cover external body surfaces, and create some glands. The
specialized epithelial cells also serve as receptors for particular senses (smell, taste, hearing,
and vision).

According to Kurn&Daly (2021), Since epithelial cells are found all across the body,
their function varies according to where they are located.

The number of formed cell layers and the shape of the cells used to classify epithelial
tissues as in the next table:

LAYERS OF THE SHAPE OF CELLS FUNCTIONS

CELLS AND LOCATIONS

SQUAMOUS Functions for diffusion and

Flattened, Tile-like cell. filtration, protection, and
absorption.
SIMPLE
(Single cell Layer) Found in the alveoli of the
lungs where gases diffuse,
segments of kidney tubules,

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and the lining of capillaries.

CUBOIDAL Functions for secretion and

Cube-shaped absorption.

Found in kidneys, Glands,

pancreas, Ovaries, and Testies.

COLUMNAR Functions in secretion and

Narrow cell absorption specialized for
sensory reception.

Found in the stomach,

intestines, nose, ears, and
tastebud of the tongue.

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED Functions on secreting mucus

COLUMNAR and propelling debris out of the
Simple epithelia that appear to respiratory tract.
be stratified but it isn't
Found in the airway, uterus,
and fallopian tubes of females.

SQUAMOUS Functions for protection.

STRATIFIED Have multiple layers, with Found at the mouth,
squamous cells at the apical esophagus, and skin
surface.
Divided into 2 types:
1. Keratinized
2. Non-keratinized

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(Many cell Layer)

CUBOIDAL Functions for protection
Multiple layers of cells where against mechanical and
the outermost layer of cells is chemical stress.
cuboidal in shape.
Found in the conjunctiva of the
eyes, lining of ducts of sweat
glands, salivary glands,
mammary glands, and urethra.

COLUMNAR Functions in the secretion of

Multiple layers of cells where fluids and protection from
the outermost layer of cells is mechanical and chemical
columnar in shape, and the stress.
middle layer is cuboidal.
Founds at the lining of vasa-
differentia, respiratory tract,
and mammary gland.

TRANSITIONAL Functions for expansion of the

EPITHELIUM organ, preventing loss of water
Layers of cells that are similar from the blood, and preventing
in size and may be flattened at the escape of urine to
the top can modify the shape. surrounding tissue.

Founds in areas that are

subjected to stress conditions
such as the urinary bladder,
ureter, and renal pelvis.

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3.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Figure 3.21

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https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/connective-tissue-characteristics-functions-types/

As its name, one of its major functions is connecting tissues and organs. According to
Kamrani&Jan (2019), as its name suggests, connective tissue refers to a variety of bodily
tissues that assist bind, supporting, and linking other tissues in the body.

Connective tissue has cells that are separated from each other by an extracellular matrix,
produced by the cell. This extracellular matrix has three main components:

1. Protein fibers
2. Ground substance (contains a structural protein called fiber)
3. Fluid component

There are 6 types of connective tissue in the body:

1. Loose connective tissue

2. Dense connective tissue
3. Specialized connective tissue
4. Cartilage
5. Bone
6. Blood

Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Connecting tissue to one another.

The main job of connective tissues in the body is to connect and support other tissues.
The connective tissue sheath that surrounds muscle cells, the tendons that connect muscles to
bones, and the skeleton that stabilizes the body in various positions are all part of this.

For example, dense connective tissue binds the bone together, attaches the muscle to
the bone, and then transfers the force from the muscle to the bone.

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2. Protection

Protecting sensitive organs and, of course, the skeletal system is another important
role of connective tissue, which serves in the form of fibrous capsules and bones.

3. Immunity and protection

Connective tissue has specialized cells that protect the body against external pathogens.

4. Transport substances around the body.

Specialized fluid connective tissues like blood and lymph carry fluid, nutrition, waste,
and chemical messengers.

5. Storage

Adipose cells help the body's thermal insulation by storing excess energy as fat.

6. Body support and movement

Another type of connective tissue that contributes to the structure of the body is bone.

3.3 MUSCLE TISSUE

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Figure 3.31

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1917-muscle-structure-muscle-under-the-
microscope

Muscle tissue is a specialized tissue which capable to contract when force is applied
to it. Muscle tissue is made up of sheets and fibers of muscle cells woven together. Together,
these fibers and sheets are referred to as muscles, which regulate many other contractile
processes as well as an organism's movements.

Muscles are categorized into voluntary muscle and involuntary muscle.

Functions of muscle tissue

1. For movement

Skeletal muscle is attached to the bone and responsible for movement such as walking,
chewing, running, lifting, and others.

2. Pumping action of the heart

The cardiac muscle is responsible for the pumping action of the heart. The heart receives the
blood that moves through the blood vessels and delivers it through all body tissue and organs.

3. Heat generation

Heat is produced during muscle contraction, which is necessary for maintaining temperature
homeostasis. For instance, when the core body temperature drops, the body shudders to
produce more heat.

4. Constriction of organs and blood vessels.

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The digestive system absorbs nutrients, excretes urine, and secretions are forced from glands
by the contraction of smooth muscles. Blood pressure and the distribution of blood
throughout the body are controlled by the constriction or relaxation of blood vessels.

3.4 NERVOUS TISSUE

Figure 3.41

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/tissue.html

The nerve tissue refers to clusters of organized cells in the nervous system, which is
the organ system that regulates movement, transmits and receives messages to and from
various body parts, and also plays a part in regulating biological processes like digestion.

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According to Klowden & Palli (2022), the nervous system controls physiological
events by regulating a series of electrical and chemical impulses through a network of
neurons and ganglia.

Nervous tissue is divided into 2 main categories:

1. Neurons, also known as nerve cells, are the conductive part of the nervous
tissue
2. Neuroglia, functions in supporting and protecting neurons.

As in the Figure above, neurons consist of 3 parts which are the cell body, dendrites,
and axon. The cell body has the nucleus, which is the functional part of the cell. The
dendrites have several branches, which provide other neurons a location to connect with the
cell body. While axon, multiple branches of that same axon can communicate with a large
number of target cells. The nerve impulse, which is transmitted to one or more cells, is
propagated by the axon.

Functions of nervous tissue

Electrochemical signals or impulses from other nerves, the brain, tissues, or organs
where the nerves end are channeled via the nerves to cause them to operate. The following
categories of nerves can be determined by how they function:

1. MOTOR NERVE

 All the body's muscles get messages or impulses from the spinal cord and
brain via motor neurons or motor nerves.
 The impulse makes humans capable to carry out basic activities such as
talking, walking, drinking water, blinking their eyes, sitting, sleeping,

2. SENSORY NERVE

 The sense neurons collect data from the sensors found in the muscles, skin,
and other internal organs, such as pressure, pain, temperature, etc., and then
send it back to the brain and spinal cord.

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3. AUTONOMIC NERVE

 The uncontrolled functions are regulated by the autonomic nerves and divided
into 2 functional divisions which are the Sympathetic Nervous System and
Parasympathetic Nervous System,
 Sympathetic Nervous System controlling the speed of heart rate
 Parasympathetic Nervous System controlling activities like excretion and
digestion.

4. CRANIAL NERVE

 The cranial nerves are essential for scent, vision, facial and eye movements,
tongue motions, and salivation.

4. 0 ABNORMAL PROCESS OF CELLS AND TISSUES IN A PATIENT

DIAGNOSED WITH CANCER

Figure 4.1

https://www.verywellhealth.com/cancer-cells-vs-normal-cells-2248794

Cancer is a disease that occurs when a few of the body's cells grow out of control and
spread to other parts of the body. The cancer cell is not responding appropriately to the signal

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that controls normal cell growth and continuously divides and grows. It can invade the other
normal tissues and organs, then spread throughout the body(metastasize).

The new, abnormal growth and uncontrolled cell or tissue in the body are called
neoplasia, while the abnormal growth itself is the neoplasm. The neoplasm can be benign or
malignant.

According to Cooper(2016), only malignant tumors are referred to as cancers, and the
danger of cancer stems from its propensity to infiltrate and spread. Breast cancer is one of the
cancer types, and it happens in the breast.

As an example, the figure below shows the process of breast cancer growth from normal
tissue to malignant.

Figure 4.2
https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/65385

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The breast tissues consist of 2 main types of tissues which are glandular tissues and
stromal tissues. The ducts and milk-producing lobules are housed in the glandular tissues (the
milk passages). Fatty and fibrous connective tissue is included in the stromal tissues.
Symptoms of benign breast problems might arise from any alterations in the stromal or
glandular regions.

The breast tissue changes over the lifetime and some women experience it. These
changes may include hyperplasia, which is an increase in the number of breast cells, or
abnormal breast cell development (atypical hyperplasia).

Figure 4.3
https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/hyperplasia

Atypical hyperplasia is not cancerous, it is an abnormal epithelial proliferative breast

lesion. It can increase the risk of breast cancer. Atypical hyperplasia is classified into two
types: atypical ductal hyperplasia (ADH) and atypical lobular hyperplasia (ALH) (ALH).
This abnormally behaving area of breast tissue has the potential to grow into a malignant
tumor.

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According to Myers&Wallas(2021), the development of metachronous or

synchronous breast cancer is linked to the development of atypical lobular and ductal
hyperplasias, which are regarded as high-risk, precursor, or pre-malignant lesions.

Atypical hyperplasia may proceed directly become to carcinoma in situ. Anything

further advanced than atypical hyperplasia is typically categorized as cancer.

5.0 CONCLUSION

At the organism level, the cells and tissue system have many important specialized
functions as the basic unit. Cells give the body structure, absorb nutrients from meals,
transform those nutrients into energy, and perform specific tasks. They produce copies of
themselves and include DNA, the body's genetic material. The simplest functional unit of the
human body is the cell.

Tissues are made up of interconnecting cell clusters. A tissue's cells could be of

several types or entirely of the same type. In each scenario, the tissue's cells collaborate to
perform a certain task, and they are always specialized to do so better than any other kind of
tissue. Human tissues primarily are divided into four categories: connective, epithelial,
muscular, and nervous.

Any alteration of these systems may be a sign of injury or disease such as cancer.
Cancer is a result of abnormal and continuous growth of the cell. It doesn’t follow the growth
of normal cells which reproduce, grow and die. It can invade the other part of the body.

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Figure 5.1

https://www.verywellhealth.com/cancer-causes-513773

Knowing these processes of abnormal cell growth is crucial to improve the

prevention, detection, and treatment of these cancers, and ensure that survivors live longer
better-quality lives. As the examples, in the figure above, there are many life-risk factors that
can lead to cancer development.

According to Khan, Afaq, & Mukhtar (2010), by consuming foods low in fat,
maintaining a healthy weight, abstaining from tobacco use, consuming alcohol in moderation,
exercising regularly, and avoiding non-diagnostic ionizing radiation, women may improve
their general health and potentially reduce their risk of developing breast cancer.

(Total words: 3196 words)

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Baxter, R. (2017, January 11). Types of cells in the human body.

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Bechtel, W. (2006). Discovering cell mechanisms: The creation of modern cell biology.
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Busch, H. (Ed.). (2012). The Cell Nucleus V3 (Vol. 3). Elsevier.

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Cooper, G. M. (2000). Heredity, Genes, and DNA. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd
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Cooper, G. M. (2016). The Development and Causes of Cancer.

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Eldridge, L. (2013, February 7). Cancer Cells vs. Normal Cells: How Are They Different?
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The Cell Theory.

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ONLINE FORUM PARTICIPATION

1. Acid-base Balance in human body.

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2. Why teenagers often experience acne.

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3. Differentiation between mitotic and meiosis.

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4. How bone repair itself after a fracture.

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5. Reply to friends.

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