ETHICS

Chapter 1: Introduction
Notion of ethics
Ethics from its Greek word ethos means a characteristic
Ethics or Morality is essentially a Philosophy subject. way of doing things or body of customs. Ethics, therefore, is a
practical science which is meant t trach how human ought to
Philosophy is something obscure, weird, and idiosyncratic live.
(Santiago, 1996). It is the systematized study of general &
fundamental question; about existence, knowledge, values, Imperatives of Ethics
mind, language. “sine qua non” of ethics for without which, ethics would
collapse. In her book, Emerita Quito (2008) has clearly
Traditionally, philosophy is defined in two fashions: expounded these imperatives.
etymologically and essentially/classically.
Imperatives of Ethics according to Emerita Quito:
1. Etymological definition 1. Human Freedom
The term philosophy was first coined by Pythagoras, a Freedom is an inherent human power to act or not to act
Greek philosopher. It came from the 2 Greek words; philos that makes them responsible for their actions. Justice is
which means love, & sophia which means wisdom. When deserved only to humans who are free to choose their course
compounded, its literal meaning is the ‘love of wisdom’. of action. Freedom always entails the right to choose.
3 classifications of love: 2. Existence of God
1. Eros (Greek erasthai) – that part of love constituting a God’s presence is a salient factor that makes sense in
passionate, intense desire for something, it is often referred to the study of ethics. When one talks about morality, it refers to
as a sexual desire. Hence, the modern notion of ‘erotic’ (Greek the goodness or evilness of the acts which presupposed
erotikos). rectification. Reward & punishment can be dispensed only by
2. Philia – fondness & appreciation of the other. It is the love the Supreme Being; God alone can give the final judge.
that seeks the truth.
3. Agape – paternal love of God for man but is extended to 3. Immortality of the Soul
include brotherly love for all humanity (Moseley, 2001). Good deeds and immoral deeds are not rewarded or
punished if there is no afterlife. Thus, it makes no sense to
3 classifications of men: improve one's life, sacrifice, or avoid the world's temptations.
1. Lovers of pleasure - gusto lagi gawin yung nakakapag Immortality of the soul is, indeed, a cornerstone in ethics.
pasaya sa kanila
2. Lovers of success - hindi sanay mag fail, gusto nila lagi
successful ang kanilang ginagawa; perfectionist Ethics and Morals
3. Lovers of wisdom - the most superior of all for it pertains Moral – “mos” which means custom.
to the human endeavor of seeking the truth for its own sake. Ethics – “ethikos” which means character.
Hence, attaining wisdom. Thus, philosopher belongs to this Put simply morals are the customs established by a group
classification (Agdalpen et al., 2011) of individuals whereas ethics defines the character of an
individual.
While morals are concerned w/principles of right & wrong,
2. Essential definition ethics is related to right & wrong conduct of an individual in a
Classically, philosophy is the “search for meaning”. But particular situation.
many have described philosophy as the ‘science of all
science’; as ‘mother of all science’, or the “search for the 1. Rule
ultimate meaning of reality”. - these are instructions that tell what we are allowed to do
Philosophy is an examination of life upon which one will & what we are not allowed to do (Collins Dictionary).
formulate a fundamental principle as a standard for a more
organized ideas where human life & experience is based upon. 2. Importance of Rule
Rules are important because they tend to protect human
rights & freedom especially the “weaker members” in the
Philosophy & other sciences society as they might be exploited if no rules to shield them.
1. Philosophy & Science – both discuss the fundamental The following are concrete importance of rules:
truths about universe. a. Rules organize relations between individuals;
2. Philosophy & history – both are interrelated fields that are b. Rules make it clear what is right to do/follow in a society
dependent to each other. & what are wrong to refrain from;
3. Philosophy & mathematics – both logical bodies of c. Rules provide opportunity to achieve personal & societal
knowledge. goals;
4. Philosophy & religion – both are inseparable fields in a d. Rules regulate various social institutions to fulfill their
sense that one justifies the other. integral roles for the common welfare.
 ETHICS

Definition of Morals Meanwhile, ethical standards are principles that when

Morals refer to the social, cultural, and religious beliefs or followed, promote values such as honesty, patience, respect, &
values practiced overtime by an individual or group which kindness.
direct people to do what is customarily allowable. Morals are
the rules & standard made by the society or culture which is to
be followed by us while deciding what is right. Some moral Development of Moral Standards
principles are here to be examined: Morality is learned from family, friends, and society as a
a. Do not cheat constructive way to assure proper behavior. Later in life,
b. Be loyal experiences, learning, and intellectual development enable a
c. Be patient person to conform with these principles and establish a
d. Always tell the truth personal moral guide to reaching life goals.
e. Be generous Cultural norms and societal expectations also shape
Definition of Ethics morality. When behaviors become irrelevant, moral standards
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals w/the principles are developed to fix them.
of conduct of an individual or group. It guides good or bad
actions. These rules control one's life. Ethics is moral Moral Standards v. Non-Moral Standards
philosophy. Some ethical principles are: Moral standards deal with matters, which can seriously
1. Truthfulness/Honesty – leads us to humility, to remorse injure or seriously benefit human beings while it is not the
for that imperfection& the wrongs we all have certainly case with non-moral standards. Etiquette and law, which we
committed. use to measure morality, are non-moral standards. The
2. Loyalty – “the willing & practical & throughgoing legitimacy of moral standards depends on the quality of the
devotion of a person to a cause”. reasoning used to support and defend them. Even if it conflicts
3. Respect – Maintains that human beings have intrinsic & with other ideals or self-interest, a person must do what is
unconditional moral worth & should always be treated as if morally right.
there is nothing of greater value than they are. Meanwhile, non-moral standards refer to rules that are
4. Fairness – characterized by equity, respect, justice & unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Etiquette, fashion,
stewardship of the shared world among people & their relation gaming, and house rules are examples of NMS.
to other.
5. Integrity – an obligation on all individuals to be straight The following 6 characteristics of moral standards further
forward & honest in professional & business relation. differentiate them from non-moral standards:
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant
benefits
Key differences between Morals & Ethics (Grannan, 2018) Morality addresses issues that can harm or help people.
1. Morals deal with what is right or wrong. Ethics deals with Unlike many non-moral principles. For instance, basketball
what is good or evil. regulations may matter in games but not in life.
2. Morals – general guidelines; Ethics – a response to a b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values
particular situation. Morality is dominant. Even if it conflicts with other non-
3. Morals – dictated by society, culture or religion; Ethics – moral standards or self-interest, a moral standard requires a
chosen by the person himself who governs his life under the person to do something.
dictate of right reason. c. Moral standards are not established by authority
4. Since morals are set by the community, individuals must figures
either accept or reject them. Conversely, people are free to d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability
think and choose their ethical life beliefs. e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations
5. Morals may vary from society and culture to culture. As f. Moral standards are associated w/special emotions &
opposed to Ethics, this remains same regardless of any culture, vocabulary.
religion or society.
6. Morals don't apply to business, but in ethics, it does which
is called business ethics.

Both morality & ethics loosely have to do w/distinguishing the

difference between “good & evil” or “right & wrong.”
Chapter 2: Dilemma & Foundation of
Morality
Moral Standards
These are set of norms in society in accord to moral principles
that supposed to determine about the kind of actions people believe Dilemma
are morally right & deter them from doing what is considered as A dilemma is a difficult situation in which an individual is
wrong. Moral standards therefore are those laws or commands that confronted to choose between two or more alternative actions
allow specifics actions to be committed or those that disallow actions to resolve the problem.
contrary to these norms.
 ETHICS

1. Types of dilemma
a. Classic dilemmas – different criteria, same behavior.
A classic dilemma is a choice between two or more 2. Moral Dilemma
alternatives, in which the outcomes are equally undesirable, or A moral dilemma is defined as any situation in which the
equally favorable. The dilemma usually doesn't entail a moral person making the decision experiences a conflict between the
or ethical issue, yet the character's life may change. moral rightness of a decision and the quality of the results it
1. Order /\ Freedom produces.
2. Empowerment /\ Alignment
b. Temporal Dilemmas – same process, different criteria 3. Types of Moral Dilemma
applied at a different time. 1. Personal Dilemma – situations in which an individual
A basic dilemma arises when an activity is complicated has a choice to be made between two options., neither of
enough to be a work process or project. Initial criteria can which resolves the situation in an ethically acceptable fashion.
contradict with subsequent ones. For example, accurate sales Example: Let’s say you’re in a situation in which you
cycle data is needed to execute orders quickly. Good process can choose whether your child dies or the man who can cure
design and project management pull for merging criteria and cancer. If you had a choice to save your child, or the person
designing them into the job. who can cure cancer, who would you choose?
1. Innovation /\ Manufacturability 2. Organizational Dilemma – organizational ethics are the
2. Speed /\ Accuracy principals & standards by which businesses operate, according
c. Orthogonal Dilemmas – different behaviors, different to reference for business. They are best demonstrated through
criteria. acts of fairness, compassion, integrity, honor, and
Two opposing behaviors exist. They create different responsibility.
cultures, structures, and employees. There may be a better 3. Systematic Dilemma – the process of systematic moral
hybrid, but a corporation can survive by exploiting just one analysis is predicated on moral rule violations, which result in
part of the dilemma. harm to another person or persons.
1. Centralization /\ Decentralization This refers to the conformity & compliance of each
2. Service orientation /\ Product orientation member to the expected code of conduct to be manifested in
d. Sequential Dilemmas – different behaviors, different the agency/workplace.
times.
Different actions conflict, but the most likely answer is
to sequence them appropriately; the dilemma becomes one of Foundation of Morality: Freedom as requisite on moral
relative emphasis, timing, and transitioning. responsibility
1. Performance /\ Development "We do have some freedom of choice," which might signify
2. Work /\ Home the power or right to act, speak, or think freely. Politically,
The key strategies for sequential dilemmas are: freedom means freedom from foreign rule or dictatorial
1. Proportion of time to spend in each. government. People cherish independence, self-government,
2. Sequencing of the activities through transitioning. self-domination, self-rule, home rule, sovereignty, non-
e. Unequal Dilemmas – the dilemma is split across alignment, and autonomy, which they turned into democracy.
unequal status. In philosophy, freedom involves freewill as contrasted with
Sometimes a person in authority will assert one side of a determinism. The difference between free will and
dilemma. For example, the CEO announces that the company determinism is that determinism holds that every event is
will commit to high growth rates, severe cost cutting, or caused in a predictable way by events before it. Free will
product innovation. And he or she ignores the corresponding means that we make choices from a variety of options. Thus,
position that defines a dilemma: the determinist perspective implies that there is a reason
1. High growth /\ Organization integrity behind every action and that these reasons can be anticipated.
2. Fiscal stability through cost cutting /\ Preserving Meanwhile, there is no such thing as free will; rather, our
capability actions are determined by forces either internal or external to
3. Product innovation /\ Support for existing product ourselves over which we have no control. Hence, freedom is
lines essentially difficult to define for it is integral to all inherent
The executive celebrates business expansion while qualities of human beings.
employees struggle with the shredding of work processes, the This is in consonance to the substantive claim of Kant that
burden of onboarding more staff, or the deteriorating customer freedom is the source of all value.
Bruta necessitas - All animals have the ability to use their powers
satisfaction from lower service quality. Due to player status, as they please. This will, however, is not free. Stimuli make it
just one side of the dilemma is considered. The executive can necessary, and animals act in a bruta necessitas way when they do
fire or degrade personnel who express sympathy for the something. If everyone will be so tied to their senses, the world
opposite side. They are pessimists or "not team players". would not be worth living in. Sa madaling salita, ang bruta necessitas
Unfortunately, the imbalance will worsen if the target tension ay ang incitement of stimuli. Incitement means to provoke, and
is ignored. stimuli or stimulus is anything that can trigger a physical or
behavioral change. So, ay pag-uudyok to make an action or to
cause change.
 ETHICS

Summum bonum – freedom in accordance with a will is e. Multiculturalism – depicted to be very similar to cultural
not necessitated to action. Freedom is thus “the inner value of diversity, other definitions align multiculturalism w/different
the world.” ethnic groups living alongside each other.
Saint Augustine showed that human is free physically, yet f. Global culture – a key feature of globalization, they
bound to obey the law. emerged due to patterns of migration, trends in international
travel and spread of the media, exposing people to the same
Reason & Impartiality: Requisites for Morality images of same dominant world companies.
Immanuel Kant argued that “morality was based on reason
alone, and once we understood it, we would see that acting Importance of culture
morally is the same as acting rationally.” a. culture affects perceptions
Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions or b. culture influences behavior
judgement on something or someone should be objective not Our environment, which has cultural influences, shapes our
on the basis of bias or prejudice to favor someone irrationally. behavior.
c. culture shapes personalities
d. our culture shapes our value & belief systems

Moral Behavior
Morals are the prevailing standards of behavior that people
Chapter 3: The moral Agent and Culture have to follow & act in accordance with one’s beliefs in order
to live cooperatively in groups.
A moral agent is “a being who is capable of acting with Moral behaviors are what one believes to be the right
reference to right & wrong.” things to do.

However, not all agents are automatically considered moral Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
agents. For a moral agent must also be capable of conforming Culture undeniably does play a significant pseudo role
to at least some of the demands of morality. within shaping moral behavior & extends even further to
social norms. Arguably, rather than defining our moral
A “moral agent” is therefore someone who is capable of doing behavior per se, it influences & changes our definitions of
things rightly or wrongly. Human is a being that acts, one what out to be deemed morally acceptable by consistent
who acts with will & knowledge & holds responsible for the exposure to it.
acts.
Culture Relativism
Characteristics of Moral Agent Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs,
Human being is the moral agent endowed w/all possibilities values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that
& capabilities to act upon actions w/moral considerations. culture itself.
Thus, a moral agent can distinguish right from wrong and Factor as diverse geography is the primary shaper of one’s
take responsibility for their acts. Moral agents must not harm culture.
unjustly. Meanwhile, ethical relativism is the theory that holds that
morality is relative to the norms of one’s culture.
Culture Moreover, ethical relativism denies the existence of one
Culture is an aggregate of the learned beliefs, attitudes, universal moral law.
values, norms, and customs of a society or group of people,
shared by them & transmitted from generation to generation Moral Relativism
within the society. It changes also with time. It is the view that moral judgements are true or false only
relative to some particular standpoint.
Types of culture Moral relativism is the idea that there is no universal or
a. High Culture – linked with the elite, upper class society, absolute set of moral principles.
those families & individuals w/an ascribed status position. It This can be understood in several ways:
maintains its elite & exclusive position. a. Descriptive moral relativism, a.k.a cultural relativism,
b. Cultural Diversity – a concept relating to culturally says that moral standards are culturally defined, which is
embedded differences within society, it’s the fact that different generally true.
cultures exist alongside each other. b. Meta-ethical moral relativism states that there are no
c. Subculture – culture enjoyed by a small group within objective grounds for preferring the moral values of one
society. culture over another.
d. Popular culture – it borrows the idea from high culture & c. Normative moral relativism – the idea that all societies
popularizes it, making it available for the masses; a product of should accept each other’s differing moral values, given that
media dominated world; it is a positive force for it brings there are no universal moral principles.
people of different backgrounds together in a common culture.
 ETHICS

Moral relativism is on the opposite end of the continuum Filipino Moral Character
from moral absolutism, which says that there is always one 1. Filipino character & personality
right answer to any ethical question. To be shamed is the greatest form of disgrace.
Meanwhile, Jeff Landauer & Joseph Rowlands (2001) Filipinos are generally more easy-going than other Asians.
believed that moral relativism is an ethical judgment which 2. Strengths & weaknesses of Filipino moral character
claims that no ethical system is better than another. Every country has its differing values & stereotypes, and the
Philippines is no exception. We, Filipinos, firmly believe &
show values to the world that make us one of the many
individuals loved & appreciated by people across nations.

Strengths of the Filipino Character

Chapter 4: Asian Moral a. Pakkikipagkapwa-tao
1. Pakkikipagkapwa-tao – basic sense of jutice & fairness,
Character/Behavior concern for others & ability to empathize w/others.
2. Pakikiramdam
Asians stress personal orientation rather than task orientation, 3. Trust
the needs of the group are given priority than for the 4. Utang na loob
individual. 5. Very dependent on interpersonal relationships; gives
sense of security
Another distinct & prevalent influence of Asian b. Strong Family Ties
behaviors/moral traits can be attributed to Confucianism that 1. The generosity towards kin in need
has deeply influenced East Asian behavior. Three behavioral 2. Sense of family results in a feeling of belongingness &
traits in East Asians are prominent. First, the East Asian’s rootedness in a basic sense of security.
lack of “personality” is traced to the Confucian social c. Joy & Humor
institution of Li-rules of propriety. Second, the East Asian’s Filipinos are cheerful, fun-loving, and happy, which
lack of principled moral thinking. Third, the East Asian’s contributes to their charm and indomitability.
lack of assertiveness. d. Flexibility, Adaptability & Creativity
We can adapt to conditions and the physical and social
1. Buddhism Character surroundings, even unexpected happenings. Our tolerance for
Buddhism shapes character in Southeast Asia as ambiguity lets us handle uncertainty and lack of information.
Christianity does in Europe. e. Hard Work & Industry
Moreover, like most Filipinos, Buddhism also provides We have the capacity for hard work given proper
guidelines for village justice, namely in the form of the 5 basic conditions; to raise one’s standard of living & to possess the
moral prohibitions: essentials of a decent life for one’s family.
1. Refrain for taking life f. Faith & Religiosity
2. Don’t steal
3. Avoid illicit sexual activity Filipino Positive Values
4. Don’t speak falsely a. Hospitability
5. Refrain from consuming inebriating substances b. Helpful to others/Bayanihan
Buddhists believe that humans want many things & want to c. Respectful (mano, po & opo, halik sa kamay)
keep them forever, which is impossible & creates a constant d. Bravery
state of desire, which in return causes suffering & fear of e. Jolliness & Sense of humor
further loss. f. Discretion & dignity - delicadeza
g. Gratefulness
2. Confucian Character h. Honesty & Commitment – palabra de honor (assurance, word of
Confucian values include love & respect for the family, honour/honor)
integrity, loyalty, honesty, humility, industriousness, etc. i. Helpfulness
Hence, the same characters are also unique in Filipino j. Family-oriented
communities. Love & respect are principals that were k. Adaptability & resilience
l. Resourcefulness & creativity
practiced more in the context of the family than in society & m. Faitfulness
humanity as a whole. Confucianism is a social code based on n. Thriftiness – matipid
morality rather than laws; recognizes 5 cardinal virtues:
1. benevolence in terms of sympathy for other (jen) Weakness of the Filipino Character
2. Duty reflected in the shame felt after doing something a. Extreme personalism
wrong (yi) b. Extreme family centeredness
3. manners, propriety & feelings of deference (li) c. Lack of discipline
4. wisdom, in terms of discerning right & wrong (chih) d. Passivity & lack of initiative
5. loyalty & good faith (hsin) e. Colonial mentality
f. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
g. Lack of self-analysis & self-reflection
 ETHICS

Identified Filipino Negative Values

1. Fatalism Moral values
An attitude of “what goes around, comes around” or “come Everyone should follow moral values like integrity,
what may.” determination, loyalty, truthfulness, honesty, respect, etc. As
2. Crab mentality mentioned, moral principles assist us decide what's right and
The behavior of preventing someone from achieving wrong for you and society. Moral values are principles that
something due to jealousy or envy. guide our lives and beliefs that help us recognize the
3. Ningas – Kugon significance of life and our aspirations. Values are what people
“Burning cogon grass” care about and inspire them.
The eagerness on something fades overtime.
4. Filipino Time 2. Types of Moral values (Kathy Slattengren, 2018)
Mañana habit Everyone desires a wonderful life. However, obtaining one
requires being good to oneself and practicing morality with others.
Filipinos’ own unique brand of time, which is known to be a. Acceptance: having an objective attitude toward others' ideas
minutes or hours behind the standard time. and practices that differ from your own.
5. Colonial Mentality b. Compassion: understanding the suffering of others ourselves
Patronizing foreign instead of local brands, favoring values and wanting to do something about it.
over our own & even desiring to look more “Western.” c. Courage: willingness to do difficult things.
6. General Disregard for Rules d. Equality: believing everyone deserves equal rights and to be
Example of hindrance to follow the law is the so called treated with respect.
padrino system where one contacts relatives or known e. Fairness: acting in a just way, sharing appropriately.
enforcement officer, public officials or prominent individual f. Generosity: willingness to give resources, help or time to others.
g. Honesty: being truthful and sincere.
wo will make areglo on their behalf. h. Integrity: sticking to your moral and ethical principles and
7. Procrastination or “Mañana Habit” values.
Leaving things undone i. Kindness: being considerate and treating others well.
8. Corruption j. Perseverance: persisting in a course of action, belief or purpose.
Let’s face it, our “culture of corruption” is embedded deep k. Politeness: using good manners, acting in socially acceptable
within our system & reinforced by a complex web of ways.
economic & social factors which include personal ambitions & l. Respect: showing consideration for the worth of someone or
a twisted sense of loyalty to friends and kin. something.
9. Gossiping m. Responsibility: being reliable in your obligations.
n. Self-control: staying in control of your words and behavior.
Gossips are passes around, they tend to be twisted until the
final story becomes too far from the original – thus, causing 3. Formation of Moral Values
more damage. Moral values are the standards of good and evil, which
10. Passivity (lack of leadership) govern an individual's behavior and choices.
One of our excuses I the lack of faith that our small actions
can bring change. 4. Virtue & its Formation
If one intends to live a virtuous life, they must nurture that
value leading to attaining the relative virtue by habitually
practicing the same value.
Formation of virtue then is the acquisition of the true
Chapter 5: The Moral Agent: Developing knowledge in the mind which is the "good". The following are
some of the principal virtues that one can acquire to truly
Virtue as Habit live a good life. These will, however, be further discussed in
Saint Thomas' moral philosophy.
Values or good moral values once they are habitually practiced, they a. Cardinal virtues
turned into virtues. Prudence is the virtue of knowing what to do under
peculiar circumstances which enables one to see the best
If one wants to know the origin of the term ‘VALUE’, it may be means to approach a given situation.
stated firmly that the term ‘VALUE’ comes from the Latin word Justice is a virtue of giving anyone their due under no
‘VALERE’ which means to be of worth.
condition.
In the words of John Dewey, “Value means primarily, to price, to Temperance is the virtue of curbing or managing the
esteem, to appraise, to estimate. It means the act of cherishing sensitive appetites.
something holding it clear & also, the act of passing judgement upon Fortitude is a virtue of keeping resolute in the face of
the nature & amount of its value a compared w/something else.” overwhelming odds.
b. Theological virtues
Human Values Faith is the virtue of believing in God's word without seeing.
1. Types of Human Values Hope is the virtue of keeping trust in Divine Providence.
Human values that are practically universally valued include the Charity is the virtue of loving God and His creatures.
following: Human dignity, peace, and life sanctity.
 ETHICS

5. Moral Character & its Formation Stage 3: Good boy, nice girl Orientation
Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, and Aquinas believed that ethics Children at this period want approval and avoid rejection. Good
is intrinsically tied to who we are. Plato's dialogues, for behavior and "niceness" are valued.
instance, discussed our ideal selves. Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying
rules by doing one is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and
6. Formation of Moral Character important.
Moral character is formed by one's actions. The habits, c. Level 3: Post-Conventional
actions, and emotional responses of the person of good Throughout the post-conventional level, a person's sense of
character all are united and directed toward the moral and the morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values.
good. People who believe that some laws are addressed and should be
changed or eliminated.
7. Moral Development Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
Moral development occurs as we grow and helps us At this stage, the world has different opinions, rights, and
choose between right and wrong. The theory of Lawrence values. Respect each person's or community's unique perspective.
Laws are social contracts, not edicts. Change those that don't benefit
Kohlberg states that the moral development of most people everyone to maximize good. Majority rule and compromise
begins with a desire to avoid personal punishment and may accomplish this. Stage 5 reasoning underpins democracy.
evolve over time to a desire to make the world a better and Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
more just place for all people. Abstract moral reasoning employing universal ethical principles
is used in this stage. Principles like equality, dignity, and respect are
usually abstract. Unjust laws are invalid, hence a commitment to
Stages of Moral Development justice requires disobeying them. If they break their morals, people
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development feel bad. Thus, the individual acts because it is ethically correct (not
Lawrence Kohlberg is the psychologist who is known for his to escape punishment), in their best benefit, expected, lawful, or
theory on the stages of moral development. previously agreed upon. Kohlberg believed stage 6 existed but
Kohlberg's theory focuses on thinking process thus, the struggled to find anyone who regularly operated at that level.
emphasis on what one does in a moral dilemma.
He used Piaget's storytelling technique to tell people stories Conscience-based moral decision
involving moral dilemmas. Conscience from its Latin origin kwon as cum alia scientia;
One of the best known of Kohlberg's (1958) stories concerns it means the application of knowledge. It's an act of
a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. knowledge and reason that applies to the deed and its morality
The framework of Kohlberg’s theory consists of 6 stages (Gualdo, 2000).
arranged sequentially in successive tiers of complexity.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development states that we The moral conscience is a person's judgment about a given
progressed through 3 levels of moral thinking that build on our action's ordering to man's ultimate end based on the person's
cognitive development. knowledge of the action, its end, and circumstances. The act of
Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive the moral conscience is an efficacious practical judgement.
development, follows a series of stages. Without conscience, a person without even the smallest
decisions (Velez, 2009).
Kohlberg’s of Moral Development
Kohlberg identified 3 levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, Circular Relation of Acts and Character
conventional, & post-conventional. Aristotle says that humans act because "our nature" has
a. Level 1: Pre-conventional many things to do. However, "human nature" and societal
Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child's sense of roles and talents affect human behavior. Yet an act is of a
morality is externally controlled. certain kind because the agent has certain traits as he executes
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation it. The act springs from a strong individual character, yet the
Focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being act shapes character.
punished.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
1. Acts that build character
Stage 2's "what's in it for me?" attitude defines action as what's
Experiences, learning, and doings shape character. Every act
best for the person. Stage two reasoning only considers others' needs
creates character, including conflict resolution, hard work, civil
if it benefits the individual. Thus, compassion for others is predicated
debate, problem solving, sports, etc. We can all improve our
on "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" rather than loyalty or
character, which will determine our success.
respect. An example would be when a child is asked by his/her
parents to do a chore. The child asks, "what's in it for me?" and the
2. Acts that Emanate from Character
parents of the child an incentive by giving him/her an allowance.
Many human actions build a strong character, good or evil.
b. Level 2: Conventional
Through their actions, people attempt to develop character qualities
Personal and social ties shape a child's morals at the
that reflect their purpose, inclinations, and beliefs. Thus, character is
conventional level. Children follow authority figures' norms because
what we are, concealed and molded over time, whereas acts are how
they think it's required for good relationships and social order. During
we show our character.
early stages, rules and customs are rigidly followed and fairness is
rarely questioned.