A PIG PRODUCTION MODULE TRAINING MANUAL FOR DILPOMA STUDENTS

COMPILED BY

MICHAEL MZIREKELENGE NKOSI

(MSc. An.Sc.; BSc. Agric.; DIP. Agric.; Cert. Vet.Sc.)

NATURAL RESOURCES COLLEGE

TRAINING DEPARTMENT
P.O. BOX 143
LILONGWE
MALAWI
TEL: (265) 1 766644

DATE: 19TH AUGUST, 2005

PIG PRODUCTION ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. III

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1
FACTORS DETERMINING PROFITABILITY OF PIG PRODUCTION ................................................................ 1

POLICY OBJECTIVES FOR THE NATIONAL LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT.................................................... 1

TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 2

REASONS FOR KEEPING PIGS.................................................................................................................... 3

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION OF PIGS....................................................................................... 3

PIG POPULATION IN THE WORLD ............................................................................................................... 3

PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA ...................................................................................................................... 3

FACTORS LIMITING PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA ...................................................................................... 3

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE GETTING INTO PIG PRODUCTION ........................................................ 4

MERITS OF PIG FARMING............................................................................................................................ 4

DEMERITS OF PIG FARMING ....................................................................................................................... 5

2. MAJOR PIG BREEDS................................................................................................................................ 6

2.1 BREEDING AND SELECTION.................................................................................................................. 7

2.2 SELECTION ............................................................................................................................................ 8

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION PROGRESS ...................................................................................... 8
2.3 SELECTION METHODS ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 SINGLE TRAIT METHODS ................................................................................................................ 8
2.3.2 MULTIPLE TRAITS METHODS .......................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 MATING SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.3.5 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BREEDING STOCK ............................................................................. 11
2.3.5.1 SELECTING A SOW..................................................................................................................... 11
2.3.5.2 SELECTING A BOAR ................................................................................................................... 12
REASONS FOR CULLING THE HERD BOAR ........................................................................................... 13
HANDLING A HERD BOAR ......................................................................................................................... 13

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE BOAR............................................ 13

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS .......................................................................................................... 18

PROBLEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS........................................................................... 18
ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION ....................................................................................... 18
GILT BREEDING MANAGEMENT................................................................................................................ 18
MANAGEMENT OF GILTS (SIX MONTHS ONWARDS) ................................................................................... 18
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ONSET OF OESTROUS .................................................................................. 19

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 SIGNS OF HEAT IN GILTS AND SOWS .................................................................................................... 20
CARE OF THE PREGNANT GILT / SOW...................................................................................................... 21
CONDUCT PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS: .............................................................................................................. 21
3.1 SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE (TRADITIONAL) BACKYARD OR ......................................................... 22
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM (PIGS KEPT AS SCAVENGERS) .................................................................................... 22
3.2 SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM ............................................................................................................... 22
3.3 OUT-DOOR SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................ 23
3.4 INTENSIVE PRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 23
4.0 CHOOSING A SITE FOR THE PIGGERY: FACTORS TO CONSIDER ....................................................... 24

6.0 FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF PIGS ....................................................................................................... 24

FLUSHING AND GESTATION PHASE...................................................................................................... 24
FEEDING SOW/GILT DURING GESTATION................................................................................................. 25

DISTRIBUTION OF FEED OVER GESTATION ............................................................................................. 25

ONE THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM ............................................................................. 25
HALF GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 25
TWO-THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM ............................................................................ 25
FLAT RATE FEEDING SYSTEM .............................................................................................................. 25
FEEDING LACTATING SOW ................................................................................................................... 25
FARROWING PHASE ............................................................................................................................. 26
7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE .................................................................................................. 26

MANAGEMENT OF THE SOW AND LITTER ................................................................................................ 27

PREPARATION FOR FARROWING ......................................................................................................... 27
SIGNS OF FARROWING ......................................................................................................................... 27
FARROWING PROCESS ........................................................................................................................ 28
FARROWING PROBLEMS ...................................................................................................................... 28
FARROWING FACTS AND FIGURES....................................................................................................... 28
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ATTENDANT DURING FARROWING............................................................... 28
ARTIFICIAL REARING OF PIGLETS ........................................................................................................ 29
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOSTER MOTHER ............................................................................... 29
IRON DEFICIENCY SYNDROME OF PIGLETS ............................................................................................. 29
PREVENTION OF PIGLET ANAEMIA ....................................................................................................... 30
TREATMENT ......................................................................................................................................... 30
FEEDING PIGLETS ................................................................................................................................ 30
FACTORS AFFECTING LITTER SIZE IN GILTS ........................................................................................... 30

FACTORS AFFECTING MILK PRODCUTION IN A SOW OR GILT ................................................................ 31

COMMON CAUSES OF PIGLET MORTALITY .............................................................................................. 32

FEEDING REGIME SOON BEFORE WEANING ............................................................................................ 33

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS.................................................................................................... 34

HOW TO PREVENT PIGS FROM DUNGING IN THE SLEEPING AREA ......................................................... 34

CREEP FEEDING ................................................................................................................................... 37
9. ANIMAL FEEDS AND FEEDING .............................................................................................................. 38

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 9.1 UTILIZATION OF ENERGY PRESENT IN THE FEED ........................................................................... 38
9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE ............................................................................................... 39
9.3 COMMON PIG FEEDS ....................................................................................................................... 39
TYPES OF RATIONS REQUIRED BY PIGS .............................................................................................. 41
9.4 FEED FORMULATION ....................................................................................................................... 41
9.5 METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION ................................................................................................ 42
EXAMPLES OF ON FARM FORMULATED PIG RATIONS USED AT NRC FARM ......................................... 44
FEED MANUFACTURING ....................................................................................................................... 45
FEEDMILL OPERATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 46
5.0 PIG HOUSING ....................................................................................................................................... 47
FARROWING PEN ............................................................................................................................ 50
GROWING / FATTENING PENS ......................................................................................................... 50
10. HEALTH AND DISEASES ...................................................................................................................... 50
INFECTIOUS DISEASES ........................................................................................................................ 51
PARASITES ........................................................................................................................................... 54
UDDER PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................................... 55

11. PIG IDENTIFICATION & RECORDING SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 58

SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................ 59
PIG IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS............................................................................................................. 59
• ELECTRONIC IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 63
IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS ......................................................................................................................... 63
TYPES OF RECORDS KEPT AT THE FARM............................................................................................. 63
12. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PIGS ............................................................................................ 64
SLAUGHTER PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................. 65
➢ STUNNING................................................................................................................................... 65
➢ BLEEDING ................................................................................................................................... 66
➢ SCALDING DEHAIRING ................................................................................................................ 66
➢ EVISCERATION ........................................................................................................................... 66
PIG MEAT AS HUMAN FOOD ..................................................................................................................... 66

SYSTEMS OF MARKETING ........................................................................................................................ 66

APPENDICES......................................................................................................................................... 69

REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................................... 69

PIG PRODUCTION v
1. INTRODUCTION
The Pig was first domesticated by the Chinese in about 4900 BC. The first use Pigs for food
probably occurred in the Neolithic age. Breeds of pigs came from two wild stocks: the European
wild pig (sus scrofa) and the East Indian wild pig (sus vittatus). Pig production is a big business
globally. The uses of improved breeds, good feeding, management practices and disease control
have been important factors in developing the pig industry.

The major purpose of pig farming is the production of meat (pork, bacon, or fat.) The secondary
reason is the production of pigskin and manure.

What should one know about pigs?

➢ They are monogastrics
➢ They have fast growth rate
➢ They produce more than two litters per year
➢ The litter size ranges from 5 – 20 piglets
➢ They show heat signs every 21 days
➢ They are social animals
➢ They are fighters
➢ They are clean animals
➢ They are homeotherms
➢ They have little hair
➢ They have body insulation in fat form
➢ They are prone to stress

In Malawi, pig production is not a large-scale enterprise because of the following reasons;

❑ Feeding is expensive.
❑ Religious and local beliefs may keep people from raising pigs.
❑ Diseases and disease control is a problem.

Factors determining Profitability of pig production

❑ Price of pig meat

❑ Production costs
❑ Efficiency levels

Breeding herd performance is the key factor to pig production. The following factors should be
taken care of:

❑ Conception rate
❑ Litter size
❑ Milk production in order to sustain the piglets.

PIG PRODUCTION POLICY

It states that the government of Malawi wants to improve Pig production by promoting increased
availability of pigs, pig meat and products.

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TERMINOLOGY

Sow: A female pig that has given birth to a litter or above.

Gilt/ Maiden: It is a female pig from weaning to time before farrowing or is one
that has never given birth to a litter before.

Boar: It is an uncastrated male pig usually used for breeding purposes.

Farrowing: It is the act of giving birth by a female pig.

Runt: It is the smallest undersized piglet in a litter.

Rig: Male pig with cryptorchidism.

Heavy Hogs: Fattened pigs weighing 120 kg and above live weight.

Barrow/Hog: It is a male pig castrated before secondary sexual characteristics

develop.

Stag: It is a male pig castrated after secondary sexual characteristics have

developed.

Piglets/ Sucklings: These are young pigs of either sex before weaning.

Pork: Flesh pig meat from porkers weighing about 50- 60 kg live weight.

Bacon: Salted or smoked (cured) pig meat from baconers weighing about 90
-120 kg live weight.

Creep Feed: Meal in pellet form given to piglets from 10th day.

Service crate: A crate or pen designed specially to accommodate two animals for
mating.

Thermo-neutral or Comfort zone: is the range of effective ambient temperatures within which
an animal does not have to increase normal metabolic heat production to offset heat loss to the
environment. The Thermo-neutral zone varies with livestock species and may shift up and down
as an animal becomes acclimatized to warmer or colder temperatures. E.g. as cattle gets
accustomed to winter season their thermo-neutral zone may shift downward as much as 15 Oc.
Feed efficiency is reduced when the temperature is outside the animal’s comfort zone.

Upper critical temperature: is the temperature at which animals will show symptoms of heat
stress feed intake is generally lower as animals attempt to reduce the rate of metabolic heat
production.

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Lower Critical temperature: is the temperature at which animals will show symptoms of cold
stress, feed intake increases as does metabolic heat production.

REASONS FOR KEEPING PIGS

1. For meat production
2. For manure
3. For production of industrial goods e.g. pig skin for leather; pig hair for brush.
4. For source of income
5. For Medical and Scientific research.
6. For prestige

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION OF PIGS

1. Feed availability for the pigs
2. Social and religious beliefs and customs
3. Climate: In hot areas pigs do not do well because they have no sweat glands.

PIG POPULATION IN THE WORLD

There are 935 million pigs worldwide. This translates into one pig per 7 people.
Europe 205.7 million
Rest of Asia 467.5 million
South America 56.1 million
N & Central America 93.5 million
Africa 18.7 million
Former Soviet Union 93.5 million
World Population 935 million

NB: Denmark and Europe generally has the best pigs in the world.

PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA

❑ Republic of South Africa
❑ Madagascar
❑ Mozambique
❑ Angola
❑ Seychelles

Malawi is not a big pigs producer in Africa she has a pig population of only 254,000

FACTORS LIMITING PIG PRODUCTION IN AFRICA

1. CLIMATE: Pigs do not do well in very hot areas, as they do not possess sweat glands.

2. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL BELIEFS: Moslem opposition towards pigs limits pig
industry expansion in Africa.

3. The Nomadic way of life in some parts of Africa

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 4. The general preference of other meats than pig’s meat.

5. Most governments in Africa do not provide loan schemes for pig production hence lack
of expansion of the pig industry.

6. Disease incidences e.g. African Swine Fever, Foot and Mouth disease.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE GETTING INTO PIG PRODUCTION

1. PROFITABILITY: Compare with other enterprises at the farm.

2. SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT: Is he/she going to use intensive or extensive systems?

Which breeds then, is he / she to use Baconers or Porkers?

3. CAPITAL AVAILABILITY

4. LABOUR SUPPLY

5. Market availability

6. FEEDSTUFFS AVAILABILITY: The Khola should be sited close to the source of

feedstuffs.

7. CLIMATE: consider temperature, rainfall and prevailing winds.

8. LAND AVAILABILITY-for future expansion

9. FARMERS’ EXPERIENCE: Is the farmer experienced in pig production? Does he/she

have technical know how?

MERITS OF PIG FARMING

❑ Efficient conversion of animal feed to human feed – The pig is more superior to beef
cattle, goats and sheep when the feed provided is of high quality. When the feed is of low
quality e.g. rice bran, grass hay etc the pig is not as efficient as ruminant livestock.

❑ Financially rewarding – The capital invested can be realized and turn over is within a
relatively short time. It takes 6 to 7 months of feeding a weaner pig to raise it to a market
weight of about 80 to 105 kg under average feeding and management conditions in
tropical climates.

❑ They are omnivores – Pigs are eaters of farm crop waste products and offals of livestock
and poultry that are converted efficiently into pork. Kitchen leftovers and restaurant refuse

PIG PRODUCTION 4
 can also be converted efficiently into meat. Pigs can eat farm grain that has been
damaged by rain.

❑ They can tolerate a wide range of feeds – Pigs of all classes of livestock except young
piglets can tolerate all kinds of feeds even to some extent low quality highly fibrous foods.

❑ They are highly prolific – Because they are capable of producing large litters after a
short gestation period and have a short gestation interval, and grow rapidly, they have
high output of meat. A sow can easily produce a litter of 8 to 12 piglets after a relatively
short gestation period of 112 – 124 days.

❑ Space requirement is comparatively small – Pigs need only a small space in which to
grow. Unlike beef and dairy cattle that require large area for pastures, pigs can be raised
in small area either in close confinement within a building or a small area of pasture.

❑ High percentage of useful products per pig – Finished pigs can yield between 70 – 75
% of dressed carcass, blood can be used for sausages, the skin may be cooked to
produce crackling which sales high in supermarkets, the hairs are made into brushes,
hoofs are made into glue and bones can be ground into bone meal for livestock feed.

❑ They produce meat without contributing to the deterioration of the natural grazing
lands. There is no soil erosion or loss of productive land due to overstocking and then
overgrazing.

DEMERITS OF PIG FARMING

❑ Pork is not internationally accepted food – Consumption of pork is forbidden by certain

religions and pig production is not encouraged in Muslim countries, whereas poultry and
milk products are generally acceptable.

❑ Pollution – Since they tend to be raised close to human habitation, their effluent may
cause pollution problems. With backyard production, pigs tend to drop manure anywhere
thereby making the surrounding of these communities swarm with flies, which could
cause pollution and diseases. To minimize this pollution, the pig manure could be utilized
in the formation of methane gas.

❑ Susceptibility to parasites and diseases – This is common under traditional

scavenging system of raising pigs. Scavenging pigs are carriers of diseases e.g. swine
cholera, swine fever etc. In tropical countries, the climatic environment encourages the
development and spread of parasites throughout the year. In temperate countries
seasonal climatic changes reduce the overall incidence of parasites and diseases.

❑ Competition with people for food grains – Large-scale pig producers use large
quantities of grain because there is a fast turnover of the capital invested in pig
production. As a result, maize and other grains are sometimes hoarded because they
command better prices as pig feeds than as human food.

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2. MAJOR PIG BREEDS

❑ LARGE WHITE or YORKHSIRE

This breed Originated from Yorkshire City. The present Large White breed was developed in U K
by selecting and crossing Yorkshire and White Leicester pigs. Large White sows are prolific giving
large litter sizes with good mothering ability. The Large White breed is easily recognized by its
medium sized head, long disked face and snout and erect ears. It grows quickly, reaching bacon
weight in 180 days or less and convert feed efficiently. They are white to pinkish coloured. Boars
weigh 150 kg and Sows weigh 125 kg on average. Mature weight 200- 300 kg. Good tempered
pigs; high daily gains they are already 100 kg at six months (therefore they have high feed
conversion efficiency. This breed is ideal for bacon or pork production and for crossbreeding with
Landrace or Hampshire. High prolificacy about a litter of 12, Very hardy breed- can be kept
outdoors or under average management. The major disadvantages of this breed are heavy
shoulders that yield tough meat; the long legs do not put on more meat and are weak.

❑ LANDRACE
The breed Originated from Denmark and is characterized by white colour with few dark spots at
times. They have smaller faces with no discs and ears droop forwards and cover the face. Land
races have light shoulders and small head so give good meat.

CONFORMATION:
Land races have longer sides than Large White and have broad with deep hams.

It has normally poor mothering ability e.g. crushing piglets and clumsy, prolific with good litter size
and is good for Bacon. Given proper feeding and management, Landrace will grow well in the
tropics. The breed is used for crossing with other temperate type.

The disadvantages range from back problems, Sunburn (photosensitization) to not hardy so
require high management.

❑ DUROC
The breed Originated from USA, characterized by solid colours that range from a very golden to
dark red that approaches the colour of mahogany. It produces the best muscle quality and has
the lowest incidence of stress mortality. It’s mothering ability and litter size is average. Its major
problem is that of its front legs. It can adapt well to varied environmental conditions and ability to
thrive well even on plain kitchen refuse. The high rate of pig mortality in the tropics has led to
many pig farmers to replace other temperate breeds with Duroc because of its hardness.

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 ❑ CHESTER WHITE
The breed Originated from Yorkshire and Linconshire. It is solid white in colour, large, hardy
and fairly good feeder. Farrowing and litter size is similar to Large White, but with the best
conception rate. The growth rate is slow compared to other breeds.

YORSHIRE CHESTER WHITE

❑ BERKSHIRE
The breed Originated from England. It is a black breed with a white flash over a dished face, erect
ears and white markings on the feet. Sows are not very prolific, that is why this breed is not
popular.

❑ HAMPSHIRE
The breed Originated from Wessex in Southern England. As a pure breed, it is not a prolific breed
but when crossed with Large White. Hampshire is a black pig with a white belt around the
forequarter of the body. Other features are a long straight face with erect ears. They have fairly
arched back. They are good for bacon. They are hardy and do not suffer from sunburn or
photosensitization. The major demerits are nervousness, low prolificacy and difficulty in heat
detection hence difficult breeding.

❑ TRISTAR
They incorporated Landrace, Large White and Duroc breeds to come up with this breed.
The breed is hardy and adaptable to all environments.
The breed has excellent maternal characteristics.
The breed has also improved piglet viability.
It is stress free.

2.1 BREEDING AND SELECTION

The goal of pig production improvement is to breed sows that will produce efficiently under local
husbandry and management conditions.

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2.2 SELECTION
In order to improve the average level of production in the herd, pigs must be subjected to selection
for one or more traits of economic importance to the farmer. Selection could be defined as the
process of choosing some individuals in preference to others as the parents of the next
generation. Selection is the basic method used by both nature and humans to change the
attributes of animals.

To make the breeding programme succeed:

➢ The objectives must be realistic (attainable)
➢ There has to be a commitment to allow a reasonable period of time (several years usually)
for selection to work.

Genetic consequences of selection are that the genes of those selected animals are preferred.
This has the effect of changing the frequency of the alleles carried in that population.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION PROGRESS

➢ Selection differential (S), the average superiority of the selected parents relative to their
contemporaries (in the herd, flock or population).

➢ Heritability (h2), the proportion of the superiority of the selected parents which appears in the
offspring.

➢ Generation interval (I), the time interval between successive generations in which selection
can be made. It has an important bearing on the rate (speed) of genetic improvement. The
shorter the interval the faster the improvement (if other things equal) e.g. cattle 4 - 7 years,
goats 3- 5 years, pigs 2 – 4 years.

Genetic progress ® = S X h2 = I X SD X h2 to find annual progress divide this by I.

When selecting pigs for breeding, it is important to look only for features that affect production i.e.
good meat quality, litter size.

2.3 SELECTION METHODS

2.3.1 SINGLE TRAIT METHODS

➢ INDIVIDUAL SELECTION / PERFORMANCE TESTING / Mass SELETION

This is the simplest selection method. Animals are chosen on the basis of their own performance.
Animals from different herds and different environments to be tested are put together under the
same conditions of feeding and management. This is called performance testing. This is used for
measuring traits that can be measured such as growth; efficiency of feed conversion, production
etc. This is mostly used for selection of suitable breeding males.

➢ FAMILY SELECTION

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Selection is on the average value for the family and takes no separate account of individuals;
whole families are chosen or rejected. This has advantages over individual selection when
heritability of the trait under selection is low; resemblance among family members is not high on
account a common environment and the family size is large.

❑ Pedigree Selection

A pedigree is a record of an individual’s ancestors related to it through its parents. In this method,
selection is based on the ancestors. This method is of value if the pedigree information is
complete. Where individual animal data is not available, pedigree information is most useful.

➢ Selection On The Basis Of Collateral Relatives

This is the use of individual’s brothers, sisters, cousins, uncles, aunts, etc in selecting the
individual animal. This is most useful when family size is large, when traits are highly inherited,
when there is close genetic relationship between members of the family and when generation
interval is short such as in poultry.

➢ Progeny Testing

Selection on this basis means that the breeder makes a decision to cull or keep a sire or dam
based on the average performance of their offspring as compared to the average performance of
the progeny of contemporary sires and dams.

2.3.2 MULTIPLE TRAITS METHODS

There are three methods of including more than one trait in a selection programme:

➢ TANDEM SELECTION
Where one trait is improved to the desired level first followed by the next trait, and the next and
so on.
Tandem Selection is a method by which a single trait is used as the selection criterion for one or
more generations. The trait used as the selection criterion in each generation is rotated among
all traits of the selection criteria in successive generations. Each trait follows in a tandem fashion
until all traits have been used as the selection criterion. For example, a breeder may have an
objective of increasing growth rate, decreasing back fat, and increasing litter size. In the first
generation, selection would be for the fastest growing hogs. This is followed in tandem in the
second generation by selecting the leanest hogs (lowest back fat). In the third generation, hogs
from the largest litters are selected. Then a new round of rotation is started.

Tandem selection is frequently described as a simple method of selection because only one trait
must be evaluated in any generation. The drawback with this method is that some animals with a
greater total number of desirable genes (more closely aligned with the overall breeding objective)
may not be selected because it may be inferior to other animals in the trait currently being used
as the selection criterion. Also, the greatest response for any trait occurs during those generations
when it is the criterion, hence response is sporadic. In addition, if there are negative correlations
among traits, improvements achieved by selection for one trait in earlier generations may be

PIG PRODUCTION 9
cancelled out by correlated losses in subsequent generations. Tandem selection is not a
recommended method of achieving maximum response to selection.

➢ INDEPENDENT CULLING LEVELS

Whereby a particular performance level is set for each of the traits and no animal is selected for
breeding if it falls below these levels in any of the traits under consideration.

➢ INDEX SELECTION
Whereby, the traits are combined to provide a single criterion of overall merit. This is closer to
what the farmers really want. With selection on an index, deficiencies in any one trait can be
compensated for by outstanding good performance in other traits, an option that is not open in
the method of independent culling levels.

2.3.3 TRAITS
These are desirable characteristics of economic importance to the farmer seen in a particular
animal.

They could be classified as Qualitative or quantitative traits.

Qualitative traits are those for which inheritance is usually controlled by one or two pairs of
genes. Quantitative traits are those attributes of animals for which inheritance is usually
controlled by multiple genes.

2.3.4 MATING SYSTEMS

➢ INBREEDING

This is the mating of close relatives. To be very correct, it means mating of individuals that are
more closely related in descent than randomly chosen mates. The chance are that the more the
relationship the more the individuals will posses characteristics in common. Inbreeding increases
homozygosity because the number of genes common is increased in every generation.

➢ LINE BREEDING

This is the term used to describe the system of inbreeding that ensures that outstanding traits in
one ancestor are transmitted to descendants without the undesirable effects normally associated
with inbreeding.

➢ CROSSBREEDING

The system of mating of unrelated livestock is called crossbreeding. One can use criss cross or
back crossing methods in cross breeding. The crossbred progeny are better than the parents in
production, health, and hardness. This is called heterosis or hybrid vigour.

ADVANTAGES OF CROSSBREEDING

PIG PRODUCTION 10
 ❑ Indigenous low producing livestock can be upgraded by continuously backcrossing them
to more highly exotic breeds.

❑ Crossbreeding indigenous and exotic breeds after mating several generations creates
new and more productive breeds.

❑ Heterosis is realized.

➢ UPGRADING

This is used when a livestock owner wishes to change the characteristics of his animals or a
system used to change a population quickly from one breed type to another. After four
generations, there is little difference between the graded up and the superior pure breed.

2.3.5 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR BREEDING STOCK

Breeding stock are animals solely kept for breeding purposes. A planned selection and breeding
program results in more of the meatier pigs, that are demanded the most in today’s markets.
Meatier pigs are profitable. They reach the right kind of finish at market weights. A certain criterion
has to be used to identify suitable breeding stock.

PARTS OF A PIG
LIVE PIG: To describe a pig it is necessary to know the parts of the pig: tail, rump, loin, back,
shoulder, neck, ear, eye, face, snout, jowl, length of side, ham, stifle, hock, rear leg, dew claw,
foot, rear flank, fore flank, fore rib, fore arm, pastern, fore leg, knee.

CARCASS: Less than half (45.5%) of the live weight of the hog is made up of the four primal
cuts. The four primal cuts are: the picnic shoulder, loin boston and ham. These are four highest
priced cuts on the pig carcass. They represent about 75% of the retail value of the carcass. To
do a better selection one should know the location of these primal cuts on the pig.

SELECTING A HERD BOAR

One-half of the traits inherited by the offspring in a herd come from the herd boar. This makes
the selection of the herd boar one of the most important decisions made by the pig producer.
More improvement in the type of pigs produced can result from careful boar selection than from
any other practice.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING THE HERD BOAR

1. Reproductive soundness
2. type and quality
3. performance testing results
4. pedigree
5. health
6. age
7. show ring performance

REPRODUCTIVE SOUNDNESS

PIG PRODUCTION 11
 1. Select a boar that has visibly sound reproductive organs. The testicles should be well
developed and of equal size. Do not select boars that have umbilical or scrotal hernias.
2. Select boars that are aggressive and show a desire to mate (libido).

TYPE AND QUALITY

1. Select a boar that has traits of a meaty pig. Length, loin eye area and back fat thickness
have high heritability. The boar with desirable traits in these tends to pass them on to
his offspring.
2. Other traits that can be visually evaluated are soundness of the feet and legs,
underline, trimness, smoothness, balance and muscling. Ruggedness, frame and body
capacity can also be seen.

PERFORMANCE TESTING RESULTS

Typically two to three animals from the same litter, weighing from 13.6 – 22.7 kg are sent to the
testing station. The animals are treated for external and internal parasites, vaccinated and given
a health check on arrival. The animals are kept together by litter in separate pens. All animals
on test are fed the same ration under the same conditions. Stations provide valuable
information on a number of traits such as: age at 104 kg, amount of back fat, adjusted average
daily gain, feed efficiency and the carcass quality of litter mates, the loin eye area as measured
by sonoray may also be available.

PEDIGREE
A pedigree shows the ancestry of the boar. It can be valuable when performance testing
information is available on close ancestors of the boar. The pedigree provides some help in
determining the potential breeding value of the boar.

HEALTH
The health of the herd from which the boar comes is important. Buy only healthy boars from
healthy herds. The boar should have a negative blood test for brucellosis, leptospirosis and
pseudo-rabies. He should be vaccinated for Erysipelas. Boars should be purchased only if they
are free of external and internal parasites. Herd health information should be available from the
boar.

AGE
Boars should not be used for breeding purposes before they are nine months of age often a
boar is used when it is too young because it looks like it is large enough.
Replacement boars should be bought 30 to 60 days before they are to be used. This permits
isolation for health checks. Also they can adjust to the farm and can be test mated for breeding
performance.

SHOW RING PERFORMANCE

Carcass barrow shows provide valuable information on the littermates of boars. Pig producers
enter barrows that weigh from 13.6 – 31.8 kg in the barrow carcass contest. They are fed
uniform rations under same conditions for a period of period of approximately 118 days. The
fastest gaining one third of barrows complete live in national barrow show. All the barrows are
slaughtered. Barrows are evaluated on soundness, rate of growth and carcass merit. Many
breeders find that showing the pigs helps to identify those lines that are producing good traits.

PIG PRODUCTION 12
REASONS FOR CULLING THE HERD BOAR
• Old age, clumsy and vicious boars.
• Lack of libido
• Injured Boars
• Back weakness especially in Land races
• To prevent inbreeding in case all the Gilts are from the same Boar.
• Due to diseases e.g. Brucellosis
• If progeny has parental defects e.g. Hydrocelle, Hydrocephalous (fluid in the brain)
• Lack of fertility

HANDLING A HERD BOAR

After weaning, Boars should grow together with the Gilts up to the fourth month. Separate the
Boars from the gilts after the four months. They reach puberty and cause restlessness to the gilts.

At six months they have sex desire and can make gilts pregnant. For practical purposes use them
from 6-8 months while they weigh 80 – 110 kg live weight. You can use them at one service per
week. Boars reach mature age at one year old. At ten months use them 2 to 3 services a week
and rest them for a week.

When they are one year old use them daily for 2 -3 weeks and rest them for one to two weeks to
regain condition. The Boar can remain in the unit for 5 – 6 years and can be culled due to other
reasons apart from service.

Rear Boars separate to avoid fighting. Mature Boars become clumsy and lazy especially if they
are very fat and old hence work gently with them. To avoid this clumsy behaviour accommodate
the Boars where they can see and hear the sows and gilts as this behaviour comes as a result of
loneliness. This accommodation also helps the Sows to express their heat signs faster. The floor
of the pen should not be slippery and slightly rough.

ROUTINES:
1. Hoof trimming
2. Regular removal of Boar tusks
3. Feeding Boar and Sow ration as follows:

• NOT WORKING BOAR- Feed 2.2 kg / day

• LIGHT WORKING BOAR- Feed 2.8 kg / day
• WORKING TO CAPACITY- Feed 3.5 kg / day

The amount of feed depends on age and frequency of usage. However, the Boars should be
maintained healthy not too fat or too thin. The figures above can be reduced if he is too fat.

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE BOAR

1. Boars to be used when they have an empty stomach thus before feeding.
2. Double or triple service per day when the Boar has stayed for some time.
3. Mating to take place in a quiet place.

PIG PRODUCTION 13
 4. Use matched couples.
5. Observe the service and record, but do not disturb.
6. Over-using the Boar will wear him too soon while under-using will make him too fat and
lazy
7. Young and inexperienced Boars make the Sow not pregnant and annoyed. Such Boars
should be given experienced Sows on standing heat.
8. The length of service should be up to 30 minutes as long as the Sow is not tired.
9. Number of Sows per Boar is 15 – 20. It is recommended to have two Boars in case of
injury.

SELECTING GILTS AND SOWS

It is just as important to select good gilts and sows as it is to select a good boar. Factors to be
considered when selecting gilts and sows are:
• soundness
• conformation
• litter size
• gain and feed efficiency
• health

SOUNDNESS
• An animal that is sound is free of defects
• Select gilts and sows that show normal development of the reproductive system
• Gilts with small vulvas should not be kept
• This is an indication of internal reproductive system
• Sows that have problems in farrowing should be culled from the herd.
• Gilts should be have at least seven good teats on each side
• The udder sections need to be well spaced
• Do not select gilts with inverted or scarred nipples
• Select gilts with strong pasterns and sound feet and legs.
CONFORMATION
• Good gilts have good length
• They show smooth muscling in the ham and shoulders
• Measure back fat thickness with a probe or by sonoray
• Select only gilts that meet the standards for the meaty hogs.
DAILY GAIN
• The fastest growing gilts should be kept for use as herd replacements
• When buying gilts, obtain data on gain and feed efficiency
• A goal that is being used as a standard by many producers is 104 kg in 175 days or
less.

LITTER SIZE
• Select gilts from large litters
• The ability of the sow to raise large litters is some indication of the mothering ability of
the sow

PIG PRODUCTION 14
 •Mothering ability is a desirable trait
•Cull sows from family lines that have small litters
•Difficulty in farrowing and poor milking ability lead to small litters. Cull sows with these
traits.
HEALTH
• Good health is very important in any pig keeping enterprise, for pigs that grow slowly due
to ill-health cost the farmer dearly through feeding.

• Indicators of health are: appetite, growth, and size. Pigs that are alert will quickly come
to the trough and are growing fast, should be selected for future breeding.
• Select only healthy gilts and sows. The sow should be free from Zoonosis and Notifiable
diseases of Swine.
• Obtain information on the herd health when buying gilts
• The gilts should be tested for brucellosis, Leptospirosis and pseudo-rabies
• An advantage of selecting replacement gilts from the home herd is that there is less
chance of bringing disease into the herd

SOW PRODUCTIVITY INDEX

Records are needed on number of pigs born alive, number of pigs weaned, litter weight at 21
days of age, and number of litters per sow per year. A sow productivity index can be determined
from this information. The number of live pigs farrowed is a good measure of the prolificacy of
the sow. The 21 day litter weight indicates the mothering ability of the sow.

A sow ratio may be determined by dividing the individual sow’s index by the average index for
her group and multiplying by 100. For example if the group average index were 192.6 and the
individual sow’s index were 211.5, then her ratio would be 109.8 { [211.5 / 192.6] x 100}. This
would mean that this sow is approximately 9.8% better than the average for the group. The
average ratio for the group is always 100.If the sow’s ratio were 90, then she would be
considered 10% below the group average.

Improvement for the traits measured by the productivity index can be made by culling sows in
the lower 25% of the group and saving sows in the top 25%.

SELECTING FEEDER PIGS

Common sources of feeder pigs are pig hatcheries, farmers, auction barns and dealers who buy
and sell feeder pigs. Factors to consider when buying feeder pigs are:
• Health
• Type
• Size
• Uniformity

1. HEALTH
Only healthy pigs should be purchased. Pigs that have visible signs of sickness, such as
coughing, infected eyes, rough hair coats, pot bellies, gauntness or listless appearance should

PIG PRODUCTION 15
not be selected. Pigs should be de-wormed, tail docked and castrated. Do not buy pigs that
show signs of external parasites.
2. TYPE
Meaty feeder pigs will produce the kind of carcass in demand on the market. Short, fat pigs will
be over-finished when reach market weight.
3. SIZE
Feeder pigs usually range from 15.9 – 36 kg in weight. Select pigs that have good size for their
age. Size for age is more important than condition or fatness when selecting feeder pigs.

UNIFORMITY
Uniformity in size, age, condition and type is desirable in a group of pigs. When these traits are
uniform, the pigs will feed out well together. All the pigs in the groups will tend to reach market
weight at about the same time.

JUDGING PIGS
A pig judge must know the parts of the live pig and the wholesale cuts of the carcass. To judge
a class of pigs, look at them from a distance of about 15 feet. Judge them as they move around
the ring. Look at each hog and compare it with the ideal hog and the others in the class.

1. MARKET PIGS
They are judged on the following traits:
• Type
• Muscling
• Finish
• Fill
• Yield of lean cuts

TYPE: Refers to the conformation of pig’s body. It is judged on the basis of length of side and
scale (skeletal size). The length of side has little effect on the carcass value. It is related to
growth rate and the productivity of the sow.

To estimate the length of side, look at the distance from a point in the center of the ham to the
forepart of the shoulder. On the carcass this would be the same as measuring from the front of
the aitchbone (hip bone) to the front of the first rib. A 91 kg pig range in length from 66 – 83.8
cm. meaty pigs are 74.9 cm or longer. A short pig is never considered a good meaty pig
regardless of the muscling, finish or balance.

MUSCLING: This is best observed by examining the pig from the rear, the pig should show a
wide back and loin and a deep rump. The ham should be deep, thick and firm and the chest and
shoulders should be wide. Width must be due muscling and not fat. Looking across the top of
the back, the correct shape is an arc rather than square. There is greater width across the rump
and ham than there is across the back. The ham is the widest part of the body. Narrowness in
this area indicates poor muscling. Loin-eye area is a good indicator of muscling. This is
measured at the tenth rib on the carcass. The range on the loin-eye area is 12.9 to 45.2 cm.
meaty pigs have a loin-eye area of 29 cm or more.

PIG PRODUCTION 16
FINISH: Refers to the amount of fat on the pig. Some fat is desirable, excessive fat is
undesirable. Fat is judged by the amount of back fat measured at three points along the top of
the pig. The three points that are measured are: over the shoulder (the first rib) over the loin (the
last rib) and over the rump (the last lumber vertebra)

The average back fat on a 104 kg pig ranges from 2.76 – 7.6 cm. US No. 1 pigs have less than
3.8 cm of back fat. The most desirable back fat is 2.03 – 3.3 cm. actual measurements of back
fat are not taken when judging pigs. Some visible signs of too much fat are heavy, wasty jowl,
shaky middle, square top, looseness in the ham and crotch or a roll of fat over the shoulder.

FILL: Refers to the middle of the pig. If the pig has too much middle, it has lower dressing
percent. The percent of lean cuts will also be lower. This lowers the market value of the pig.

THE YIELD OF LEAN CUTS

Is an important factor in the value of a market pig. The wholesale cuts with the greatest value
are the Ham (leg), Loin, Picnic shoulder, Boston shoulder and Bacon (belly). A meaty pig yields
more than 40% of its live weight in the lean cuts.

QUALITY: Refers to the degree of refinement of the head, hair, hide and bone of the live pig.
The head and bone should be moderate in refinement. Pigs that are too coarse or too refined
are not desirable. The hair coat should be smooth. The hide should be smooth and free of
wrinkles.

BALANCE: Means how the body parts are proportioned. All parts of the body should be in
proportion to one another. A well balanced pig will be tight framed.

STYLE: Refers to how the pig appeals to the eye. Balance influences style. A tight-framed pig
that moves well, with the correct arch, has style.

SMOOTHNESS: Means possessing correct skeletal structure and a skin free of wrinkles. The
correct arch and smooth shoulder are important points to look for. Pigs with rough skins or
roughness over the shoulders are undesirable.

2. BREEDING PIGS
Breeding pigs should have the same body traits as market pigs. In addition, the following points
are used in judging breeding pigs:
• Underline
• Breed character
• Soundness
UNDERLINE: Refers to the mammary development of the pig. There should be a minimum
of six teats per side. The nipples should not show any defects such as being inverted or
scarred. The boar should also show evidence of six teats to a side. The trait is transmitted
to his offspring.

BREED CHARACTER: Refers to the traits of the breed to which the pig belongs. Boars
should show masculinity, gilts should show femininity. Breed character is most easily seen

PIG PRODUCTION 17
 by looking at the head. A good judge is familiar with the characteristics of the breed of the
pigs.

SOUNDNESS: Of the feet and legs is most important for breeding pigs. Many producers
use concrete floors. The pigs must have good feet and legs to do well under these
conditions: the legs must be strong and straight and should be set out well on the corners of
the pig.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS

The system is common in West Europe and is used on commercial basis. Semen collected is
used within 3 days. It is under experimental basis in Africa.

PROBLEMS WITH ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN PIGS

• Poor survival of the Boar sperms if stored beyond 3 days.
• It is not easy to detect heat in Gilts and some Sows.
• Diluents (Extenders) at the moment in pigs have not yet been discovered to prolong
viability of the sperms.
• Freezing kill the sperms unlike in bulls.
• Problems with A.I. encountered in bulls also apply to pigs.

ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

• A farmer with less than 13 Sows may find it economical to use A. I. than keeping a Boar.
• It is good means of disease control.
• There is faster genetic improvement. Natural service gives 800 piglets / year while A.I.
can give 20000 piglets / year.

GILT BREEDING MANAGEMENT

• Breed them early preferably 7 – 8 months.
• Use Gilts from good mothers
• Feed them to just maintain good body condition (not too fat or too thin)

MANAGEMENT OF GILTS (Six Months Onwards)

Gilts are selected along two types of lines:

➢ DAM LINES
In these lines, pigs are selected for their ability to produce large numbers of pigs or for their
mothering ability.

➢ SIRE LINES
In these lines, pigs are selected for good growth rates and the efficiency with which they use
their feed and convert it into lean meat.

❑ Select gilts for breeding when they are 90 kg live weight at about 8 months of age. Gilts
should not be bred when they are less than 8 months of age or less than 120 kg.

PIG PRODUCTION 18
 ❑ Gilts become sexually mature between 5 and 6 months, and will accept the boar at this
age.

❑ Early mating causes a great strain on the gilt and may seriously affect her growth and
health. Pigs come on heat every 21-day interval throughout the year though gilts tend to
have a shorter heat period that last for about 12 – 36 hours.

❑ Counting from the day of first service as day one, the gestation period is normally 114
days.

❑ The average length of gestation is 113 – 116 days. But it can vary between 98 – 124
days.

Gilts tend to have a shorter gestation period. The shorter the duration of gestation, the larger the
litter size. This could be because of greater weight of uterine contents and greater hormone
production by larger litter.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ONSET OF OESTROUS

❑ NUTRITION

Gilts need to be fed well for them to come on heat. Where the Gilt is on a low level of nutrition,
she will put the maintenance of her body condition first over coming on heat. Gilts should not be
allowed to become too fat as they may not come on heat or can develop leg problems. If you
underfeed them they will reach puberty one week later.

❑ GENOTYPE OF THE GILT

Crossbreeds reach puberty a bit earlier than inbreed pigs (about 20 days earlier)

❑ HEALTH

Gilts that are in poor health or that are carrying large numbers of parasites may be slow to
come on heat.

❑ STRESS
Stress such as poor housing conditions, rough handling and over crowding will delay
puberty in gilts. If pigs are mixed up from different litters they tend to reach puberty earlier
or if transported the same thing applies (happen).

❑ BOAR CONTACT

Boars produce chemicals in their saliva called pheromones that help to bring gilts and sows
on heat. Once gilts reach a weight of 100 kg contact with the boar is important. Try to bring
the gilts to a pen beside the boar pen for 20 – 30 minutes daily. Research has shown that
gilts in contact with (closer to) a Boar reached puberty 40 days earlier than their counterparts
that had no Boar contact (away from Boar).

PIG PRODUCTION 19
 ❑ LIGHT
Pigs are long day breeders i.e. they do not breed or are not as prolific during the short
days in winter. They need artificial lighting of 14 – 16 hours daily.

SIGNS OF HEAT IN GILTS AND SOWS

❑ Restlessness
❑ Swelling, reddening and enlargement of the vulva
❑ Mucus discharge from the vulva.
❑ With white breeds the vulva may change to pinky red colour, which makes detection quite
easy.
❑ Confined sows will spend less time lying down.
❑ Sows will be more alert and the ears will stand up.
❑ Sows will allow the boar or sow to mount them.
❑ They will exhibit a standing reflex; they will adopt an immobile posture when pressure is
applied to the back.
❑ Loss of appetite (anorexia)
❑ Some gilts will make a grunt noise

Serving should take place during the first day that heat is observed and should be repeated 12 –
24 hours latter. Check gilts three weeks after service for those who return on service.

PIG PRODUCTION 20
SERVICE MANAGEMENT- THE SOW
For a sow that has already started reproductive life the cycle really starts with weaning not service.
This is because the hormones of lactation prevent the start up of the sow’s oestrous cycle. Soon
after weaning, pressure in the sow’s udder (of unconsumed milk) will stop its secretion. No more
lactogenic hormone will mean that the oestrous cycle can start (with the sow coming on heat
about four days after weaning). If she is not served or does not hold to service, the cycle will come
round regularly every 21 days afterwards.
This is the area where most pig units do not place enough emphasis. To bring the point home
more forcefully let’s imagine a 20 Sow herd weaned at 3 weeks. If all 20 sows come on heat
exactly 5 days later and held to first service the average weaning to service interval would be:

Weaning to service interval = 5 days

If ONE sow returned but was successfully served 21 days later, HER weaning to service interval
would be 5 + 21 days = 26 days.

That would affect the whole 20 sows like this:

19 sows x 5 days
weaning to service (5+21 days) = 95 days
1 sow x26 days weaning to service interval
= 26 days
Total for 20 sows = 121 days
Average (121/20 sows) = 6.05 days

That is ONE extra nonproductive day for each sow in the herd due to ONE missed heat.

Therefore, we need to ensure that:

➢ Every sow comes on heat soon after weaning
➢ Every sow shows heat strongly
➢ Every sow has a high ovulation rate
➢ Every sow receives the Boar service at the correct stage in the heat.

CARE OF THE PREGNANT GILT / SOW

Gestation period of Gilts is 98 – 124 days -average is 114 days (3 months 3 weeks and 3 days).

Conduct pregnancy diagnosis:

• Traditional method i.e. the way the pig looks, return in heat (19- 24 days).
• Microscopic examination of vulva smears or hormonal assay of urine or blood.
• Ultrasonic sound instruments (especially between 1- 3 months). This method has 95 %
accuracy.

PIG PRODUCTION 21
3. SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

3.1 SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE (TRADITIONAL) BACKYARD OR

EXTENSIVE SYSTEM (Pigs kept as scavengers)

This is the common traditional way of rearing pigs in many parts of the tropics. The numbers are
usually small with 1-3 breeding females per herd.

❑ It is the simplest and cheapest. Each family keeps a few pigs that are allowed to wander
freely or roam about the homestead and pick up feed when and where they can.

❑ They can be enclosed or fenced and the roof slightly covered on top

❑ They may receive supplementary feed that generally consists of feed like bananas, maize
stalks, rice bran, by products of beer making and kitchen waste, if it is available.

❑ Sometimes a few pigs may be fattened for three – six months in preparation for other
traditional ceremonies.

❑ Indigenous breeds of pigs predominate on the scavenging system because they are
adapted to the environment.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM

❑ Poor reproductive performance due to poor feeding.

❑ Poor growth rates (slow growth)

❑ Pigs are susceptible to infestation with parasites. Pigs have access to sources of
parasites e.g. human excreta that can be transmitted back to man when he eats the meat.

❑ These pigs are produced without any market in mind, rather the pigs play a socio-
economic role as a form of bank and are sold only at times of cash shortages or
unexpected needs in the family.

❑ Disease incidence is very high

❑ The farmers’ production potential is not exploited since the farmer keeps few pigs.

❑ The system produces inferior caracasses with poor conformation.

3.2 SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM

❑ Commonly known as backyard system, where pigs are confined. Because of the
confinement, the farmer is committed to take care and feed the pigs.

PIG PRODUCTION 22
 ❑ Pens or sites are mainly of simple construction; they may be of bamboo, or poles.

❑ Feeding is based on kitchen waste, vegetables, and by product food.

❑ Management is generally minimal, hence low productivity, and high mortality.

❑ Improvements can be done by cross breeding with exotic breeds.

❑ Marketing is indiscriminate and is dictated by the financial needs of the grower.

❑ Herd size and productivity tends to be higher than in scavenging system.

3.3 OUT-DOOR SYSTEM

Pigs are kept on fenced land and kept in simple movable shelters. They are fed on balanced
ration, roots and other grains.

DISADVANTAGES
1. It is expensive in terms of labour, fences and feeding.
2. The shelters are difficult to clean and disinfect.
3. The system gives poor quality meat
4. There is destruction of pastures through digging by pigs. Ringing the snouts of pigs can
control this problem.

ADVANTAGES OF OUT-DOOR SYSTEM

❑ The system is good for breeding stock as the system allows for more exercises.
❑ Pigs can easily obtain minerals from the field.

3.4 INTENSIVE PRODUCTION

❑ This system is a move forward from subsistence production to commercial production of

pigs. Pigs are kept in doors permanently under this system.

❑ In temperate regions temperature changes are controlled. The system is expensive due
to building construction, pig equipment, and labour. You need a reliable source of feed
and a good market.

❑ Units may comprise of up to 50 head, and the producer will grow and or purchase feed
specifically for his pig enterprise.

❑ The system of housing will be more sophisticated and will generally comprise a concrete
or hard floor, adequate shelter, pen space, and appropriate feed and watering facilities.

❑ In order to justify the increased capital costs, the farmer will attempt to manage his pigs
to optimize output including some disease control measures.

❑ Pigs used in this system tend to be mainly higher performance exotic or crosses between
exotic and indigenous breeds.

PIG PRODUCTION 23
 ❑ Marketing may be informal through local butchers.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM

❑ Disease control is high
❑ You require less land
❑ There are more piglets born at a time

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTENSIVE SYSTEM

❑ The system is expensive in terms of labour, feeding, pig equipments.

4.0 CHOOSING A SITE FOR THE PIGGERY: FACTORS TO CONSIDER

1. WIND: It should not be along the prevailing winds for human settlement.

2. DRAINAGE: An area should have good drainage and not waterlogged.

3. ACCESSIBILITY: An area should be accessible with good roads and bridges.

4. WATER: The area should have a permanent source of clean water.

5. SITE: Should be away from residential areas.

6. MARKET AND FEED SOURCE: The piggery should be near the market and source of
feedstuff.

6.0 FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF PIGS

During the nursing or lactation phase of the sow, her body requires maximum nutrients because
milk production places a heavy drain on body reserves. Water should be provided adlib but the
requirement is 18 – 36 liters per day.

FLUSHING AND GESTATION PHASE

During the pre gestation stage when the litter has just been weaned from the dam, the sow is
flushed for a period to condition her for the coming breeding season. Flushing consists of
increasing the amount of high-energy feeds given to the sow. Improved nutrition during the
flushing of the sow or gilt enhances the capacity of her ovaries to produce additional eggs during
oestrous. The water requirement for pigs during this period is between 9 – 18 liters per day, but
should be offered ad libtum. You can wet the feed at rate of 2.5 water: 1 meal or 1 liter / 10 kg
feed / day. The water must be clean.

A week before and after mating, the protein intake is further increased in order to replace the
tissue protein that is used during ovulation. Feed intake should be reduced a day after mating
because high feed levels after this stage are associated with increased losses of embryos.

PIG PRODUCTION 24
FEEDING SOW/GILT DURING GESTATION
1. Aim at keeping her in good condition not too fat or too thin.
2. Do not feed more feed with the aim of increasing litter weight at birth.
3. In pig sows/Gilts are good feed converters hence over-feeding them makes them overfat.
4. And if necessary feed more during lactation period than at gestation period (option in
feeding).

DISTRIBUTION OF FEED OVER GESTATION

ONE THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM

0 –5 Weeks feed at 2.8 kg / day
5 –10 Weeks feed at 2.4 kg / day
10 – 16 Weeks feed at 2.8 kg / day

One third gestation period feed at 2.8 kg /day, the other third of gestation feed at 2.4 kg
/ day and then the last third feed at 2.8 kg / day

HALF GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM

Feed is reduced up to 8 weeks of gestation and then increased to the end of gestation.
0 –8 Weeks feed 2.4 kg / day.
8 – To end of gestation period feed 2.8 kg / day.

TWO-THIRD GESTATION PERIOD FEEDING SYSTEM

The first two thirds of the gestation period the sow or gilt is fed increased amount of feed
at 2.8 kg / day then the last third of gestation period feed is reduced to 2.4 kg / day until
end of term.

FLAT RATE FEEDING SYSTEM

The sow / gilt is fed a constant amount of feed through out gestation period 2.8 kg
/ Day.

FEEDING LACTATING SOW

A generally accepted rule is to feed her 3.0 kg for her own maintenance plus 0.25 kg per piglet
daily. The 0.25 kg goes into milk production.

Example: A sow with 10 piglets will have the following feed quantity per day
Sow = 3 kg
10 piglets = 2.5 kg
Total = 5.5 kg

Watch the sow’s body condition, and feed more if she is loosing condition too quickly. Feed ad lib
to sows that have fourteen or more piglets.

The feeding of the lactating sow is the probably the most important feeding programme on the
unit. Well-fed sows have the following benefits:

PIG PRODUCTION 25
 ❑ They will produce plenty of milk for their piglets and will lose little weight in the process.

❑ After weaning, they will come on heat quickly, which means that they are served in the
fertile period. This will increase chances of successful mating.

❑ They will ovulate large number of ova during their heat, which should ensure large litter.

❑ They have longer reproductive life, as they are not culled for not coming on heat or not
being pregnant.

FARROWING PHASE

A week before the scheduled farrowing date, feed is increased. This provides the sow with feed
reserves for the following;

❑ To enable the sow to meet the body stress that comes with farrowing.
❑ For large, healthy litter.
❑ For adequate milk supply.
❑ To wean large number of healthy pigs.

Three days before farrowing, start cutting down on her feed, giving less each day, so that by the
farrowing day, she does not get anything so that her stomach and intestines are empty. This will
make it easier for her to give birth.

7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE

❑ APPETITE

This is especially important in Gilts, as they may not eat enough to support their production. They
may begin to break down body fat for energy, which has a negative effect on the gilt after weaning
in terms of coming on heat quickly or ovulating large number of ova for fertilization.

To counter this, gilts may have to be fed more often than sows (three times daily); they may need
a higher energy ration.

❑ TEMPERATURE

Temperatures above 24°C depress feed intake. To cope with this, feed the sows in the cooler
parts of the day.

❑ WATER

Sows will eat more wet feed than dry feed. If you are feeding dry feed ensure that sows have
access to water at all times.

PIG PRODUCTION 26
MANAGEMENT OF THE SOW AND LITTER

PREPARATION FOR FARROWING

➢ The pen should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected 4 - 6 weeks well in advance before
farrowing time.

➢ Remove old bedding, manure and other organic matter.

➢ Scrap the floor and walls with cold water.

➢ Use disinfectant to clean the pen.

➢ Allow the pen to dry for about a week or more.

➢ Bring clean bedding e.g. sawdust, straw. One should know the approximate date of farrowing

➢ Wash the pig with warm water, and soap to remove dirt, lice and roundworm eggs before she
is brought in the farrowing pen.

➢ About 2 – 3 days, before the expected farrowing date, pigs should be put into farrowing crates.

➢ . Gilts will show some signs of udder development after 2 months of pregnancy.

➢ Change the sow’s ration by reducing the quantities in order to keep the bowels empty. This
will prevent the impaction of the rectum with hard faeces that will cause the sow stress at
farrowing.

➢ Restriction of amount of feed is necessary because the sows become anorexic just before
farrowing.

➢ Add bran to the feed especially if the feed is reduced. Bran is a good laxative and it prevents
constipation that is common in sows.

SIGNS OF FARROWING

❑ The sow will become increasingly restless during the last days of pregnancy and will start
to make a nest by rearranging her bedding.

❑ Abdominal contraction. Ranges from 15 minutes to 10 hours. Average is approximately

one to three hours.

❑ The vulva becomes greatly enlarged and flabby; the udder appears to be full.

❑ Milk can be withdrawn at the slightest touch from the udder about 12 –24 hours prior to
the start of farrowing.

PIG PRODUCTION 27
 ❑ About 3 hours before farrowing, blood or bloody fluid will be expelled from the vulva.

❑ Change in rectal temperature.

NB The temperature in the farrowing pen should be raised to 27 degrees OC.

FARROWING PROCESS

The whole farrowing process takes several hours, but generally a piglet should appear every
twenty minutes although there may be a larger gap between the first and the second piglets. The
sow should not be disturbed during farrowing, as this will slow up the process. Try to observe her
from a distance.

FARROWING PROBLEMS

❑ The process may become painful, particularly for gilts if the piglets are relatively large.
This can result in the dam savaging her litter. Should this be observed, all piglets should
be removed until farrowing is over and reintroduced slowly under supervision.

❑ Delayed farrowing – After farrowing has started, any time gap of greater than 30 minutes
between presentations of piglets, may mean that a piglet has been stuck. The stockman
should remove the stuck piglet. Inject oxytocin in order to start contractions going on
again. Once the afterbirth has been expelled out, it’s a sign that farrowing has been
completed.

FARROWING FACTS AND FIGURES

❑ Average of 140 minutes (range of 42 to 274 minutes)

❑ Average interval between births is 16 minutes. Could go as high as 25 minutes may be
due to lack of exercises.
❑ Pigs are born either head first or hind feet first. Any departure is termed mal-presentation.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ATTENDANT DURING FARROWING

➢ Assist the piglets with warm dry bed e.g. dry bedding and near source of heat.

➢ Assist piglets in breathing by holding them upside down and shake them slightly.

➢ Free some piglets by cutting the umbilical cord to prevent naval ill.

➢ Remove afterbirth and throw it away.

➢ Call a veterinary surgeon if there are complications e.g. dystocia.

➢ Let the piglets suckle the colostrum.

➢ Hold them and remove the canine teeth.

PIG PRODUCTION 28
➢ Clip off the tails: done in some piggeries to prevent cannibalism or tail biting.

➢ Weigh the piglets and get the birth weight-put them in a weighing bag and find out an average
weight.

➢ Identification is by notching or tattooing.

ARTIFICIAL REARING OF PIGLETS

➢ If there are too many piglets in a litter more than number of teats.

➢ If there is death of the sow soon after farrowing.

➢ Agalactic sows (with no milk) will lead to artificial rearing of piglets.

➢ Unwillingness of the sow especially gilts to allow piglets to suckle.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOSTER MOTHER
➢ The foster mother should have farrowed at the same time as all the orphans were born.

➢ The foster mother should have spare teats.

➢ It should be a heavy milker.

➢ The foster mother should have good mothering ability.

NB: To avoid rejection by the foster mother mix orphans with the other piglets and smear them
with a strong smelling solution e.g. Onion, old engine oil. The sow’s nose should be smeared as
well.

If you have no foster mother you use artificial colostrum thus:

➢ 0.6 L cow or goat milk.

➢ 0.3 L lime water.

➢ 1 Tablespoonful dried skim milk powder.

➢ One teaspoonful of Sodium Citrate plus antibiotics.

➢ One Teaspoonful cold liver oil.

Mix them and warm to body temperature. Feed the piglets 4 – 6 times per day (practice total
cleanliness) for 3 - 4 days. From fourth day feed them whole milk only for three weeks and then
wean. To solve the problem of formulating colostrum, introduce batch farrowing.

IRON DEFICIENCY SYNDROME OF PIGLETS

Piglets are born with 50 mg of iron in the blood, but uses 7 mg iron / day and sow’s milk contain
only 4 mg of iron. So you need to supplement piglets with iron through iron injection at day three

PIG PRODUCTION 29
or four just before all the iron is used up in the blood. So piglets suffer anaemia due to iron
deficiency.

PREVENTION OF PIGLET ANAEMIA

After 14- 21 days piglets will show iron deficiency symptoms:

➢ Pale mucous membranes.

➢ Diarrhea

➢ Stunted growth

➢ Anorexia (lack of appetite).

At 4 –6 weeks death ensues if not supplemented.

TREATMENT
➢ Give iron injection (dextran) intramuscularly normally on the neck about 2ml / piglet. 1 st
injection at 3 – 4 days repeat injection at 10 – 14 days.

➢ Give the iron paste or pills orally 3rd or 10th day. The disadvantage of this route is emesis
(vomiting).

➢ Give iron through the soil (deep anti-hill soil). Disadvantage of this method is introduction of
worms. So after the soil treatment deworm the piglets.

➢ Mixture of iron plus copper sulphate in the ratio of 1:1 plus water and molasses smear the
udder so that when the piglets suckle they take together with iron or ferrous sulphate. (500 g
dissolved in 1 liter hot water is painted daily on the udder).

FEEDING PIGLETS

➢ From birth to 4th day feed colostrum.

➢ From 4th day onwards feed milk.

➢ From 8th to 10th day introduce creep feed (pellets) plus water ad lib.

➢ 8th week wean the piglets and start giving weaner’s ration.

FACTORS AFFECTING LITTER SIZE IN GILTS

❑ AGE AND WEIGHT AT SERVING: If you serve them at 5.5 months, ovulation will be
perfect, but embryo mortality will be high. So let the first heats pass till they are 7-8
months and weigh between 50- 70 kg live weight.

❑ EITHER THE GILT IS A CROSSBRED OR AN INBRED. Crossbreeds give high litter

size 5% over inbreeds (under the same management conditions).

PIG PRODUCTION 30
 ❑ FLUSHING: If you give high plane of nutrition before mating gilts will give you high litter
size. This is because flushing increase conception rate due to the two extra ova
produced.

❑ TIMING OF MATING / INSEMINATION

Breed Gilts when they are in standing heat (increases conception rate by 10%).

❑ DISEASE e.g. Vibriosis, Swine Erysipelas, Trichomoniasis causes abortions.

❑ NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES: Less vitamin K affects litter size.

❑ HORMONAL THERAPY e.g. PGF2ά induce super ovulation and increases conception
rates.

FACTORS AFFECTING MILK PRODCUTION IN A SOW OR GILT

➢ LITTER SIZE
The larger the litter size the more the milk produced and the less the milk available to each
piglet.

Number of piglets in a Milk yield (kg / day) Milk intake of piglets (kg /day)
litter
6 5-6 1.0
8 6-7 0.9
10 7-8 0.8
12 8-9 0.7

➢ LACTATION NUMBER
Milk production increases as lactation numbers increase.

Lactation number Milk yield (kg/day)

1 5-6
2 7-8
3 7-8

➢ STAGE OF LACTION
Soon after farrowing milk yield is low but increases until it reaches the peak between 3 rd – 5th
week then it decreases to 8th week then wean the piglets.

➢ SOW FEEDING
The sow needs maximum feeding from 1st to 5th week as she will be at its lactation peak. Poor
feeding of the sow makes her to use her body reserves and at weaning time she will be too thin
and delayed oestrous for the next service would be the sequel. So give an allowance of 0.25 kg

PIG PRODUCTION 31
of feed for every piglet to the sow’s ration. Say a sow with nine piglets will be given 3.0 kg + (9 x
0.25 kg) = 5.25 kg.

HOW TO INCREASE FEED INTAKE IN THE SOWS OR GILTS

➢ Feed them frequently
➢ Lower the pen temperature
➢ Increase energy content of the feed by giving concentrates.

COMMON CAUSES OF PIGLET MORTALITY

➢ CRUSHING by the sow / gilt caused by poor designing of the farrowing pen.
CONTROL: provide guard rails in the farrowing pen. Use farrowing crate-2days
before farrowing and remove four days after farrowing.

➢ LACK OF FEED AND MILK. The sow may lack feed and fail to produce milk hence piglets
may die (agalactic sows).

➢ CHILLING
Low temperatures give high piglet mortality because they become very prone to pneumonia
that causes death.

CAUSES: Dampness in pens; little or no bedding and draughty pens with more air.

CONTROL: Prevent the causes above.

➢ SCOURING

CAUSES: Inadequate colostrum; artificial colostrum prepared under unhygienic conditions

and worm infestation.

CONTROL: deworming, piglets should suckle adequate colostrum, hygienic preparation of

artificial colostrum.

➢ ANAEMIA: usually occurs between 3 – 5 weeks after birth.

CAUSE: Lack of iron

CONTROL: Iron injection, feeding deep red anti hill soils.

CASTRATION
It can be done any time from birth to weaning time (8 weeks), but castration between first week
is stressful and it is difficult to find testes. The ideal time of castration is between 3 – 8 weeks.

REASONS FOR CASTRATION

➢ To avoid inbreeding
➢ To avoid hereditary defects e.g. hernia
➢ To avoid boar taint in meat

PIG PRODUCTION 32
METHODS
➢ Open castration only.

FEEDING REGIME SOON BEFORE WEANING

Start with ¾ Creep feed ¼ Weaners ration then ½ Weaner’s ration and ½ Creep feed then ¾
Weaners ration and ¼ Creep feed. Then 100 % sow and weaner's ration a day before weaning
until weaning.

FACTORS TO ASSIST IN DETERMINING OPTIMUM AGE FOR WEANING

➢ TREND IN MILK YIELD OF THE SOW. Wean piglets when they are getting less milk from
the sow.

➢ Weaning at 10 –15 days old piglets. There is high piglet mortality rate.

➢ HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
In the second and third week there is need for the piglet to get innate immunity from the dam. So
those weaned before two weeks will have an immunity gap, so they may die.

➢ ATTITUDE LABOURER AND LEVEL OF SKILLS. The labour should be interested and have
technical know how.

➢ HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT COSTS

The earlier you wean the piglets the smaller the amount of space required.

ADVANTAGES OF EARLY WEANING

➢ With good management you can produce more piglets that are heavy and uniform.

➢ Death losses per litter are reduced.

➢ Farrowing space is saved.

➢ Reduces sow’s feeding costs.

DISADVANTAGES OF EARLY WEANING

➢ High costs are required in piglet feeding.

➢ High managerial skills are required.

➢ More labour required.

➢ With poor management you will get small litters.

HOW TO REDUCE FIGHTING IN A GROUP OF WEANERS MIXED FROM DIFFERENT

LITTERS (WEANERS POOL)

PIG PRODUCTION 33
➢ Mix the weaners from different litters in a pen new to them all.

➢ Smear all weaners with strong smelling compound e.g. old engine oil, onions.

➢ Do not add one or two weaners to a large group; always use equal numbers of piglets.

➢ Use 10 –12 weaners per pen

➢ Provide materials such as old tyres, stones hanged on chains to attract their attention and
check tail biting.

ROUTINE MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS

➢ Deworm them regularly.

➢ Spray or dust weaners to avoid external parasites.

➢ Identification should be done by tattooing and ear notching.

➢ Castration if it was not done earlier on.

➢ Weigh them to know weaning weight.

➢ General cleanliness of the weaners and their pen.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF WEANERS

Feed weaners with sow and weaners ration ad lib. It should be fresh feed and not stale. Provide
water ad libtum but requirement of water for growing pigs is 5 liters per day. After weaning piglets
usually suffer from post-weaning diarrhea and this is common under poor management.

CONTROL
➢ Regular cleaning of piglets and pen.

➢ Give them electrolytes, clean water and good feed.

➢ You can cull at weaning and select for breeding Gilts and Boars; fatteners fed with pig finisher
ration.

HOW TO PREVENT PIGS FROM DUNGING IN THE SLEEPING AREA

➢ Correct numbers of pigs in a pen.

➢ Provide the dunging area that should have: less light, wet and hidden.

If this fails do the following:

➢ Clean the whole pen and leave to dry for a day or two.

PIG PRODUCTION 34
➢ Put new bedding.

➢ Place dung in the dunging area you want.

➢ Then bring the pigs in the pen.

➢ Leave them for an hour without feed or water for them to survey the pen. After that feed them.

STILL BIRTHS

These are piglets that are born dead. They may have died before farrowing began or during the
actual farrowing process.

The design and length of the uterus plays a role in stillbirths. Piglets from the far end have to
travel about 0.3 m after their umbilical cord that supplies the piglet with oxygen from its mother’s
blood has been broken. The piglet will start gasping for oxygen; it then has 5 minutes before it
will stop breathing.

Delays in farrowing process, leading to stillbirths are as follows:

❑ Large litters – Because the whole process will take longer, the last piglets to be born
will have a higher risk of suffocation.

❑ Very small litters – These are liable to produce insufficient stimulus to the sow to start
effective uterine contractions.

❑ Older sows – After five or six litters, uterine tone declines resulting in a less efficient
birth process. This is why sows are culled after the 7th litter.

❑ Piglet diseases – Dead piglets can slow down the birth process leading to a greater
risk to the live piglets.

❑ High ambient temperatures – Sows will tend to get tired quickly at high environmental
temperatures. The farrowing process is slowed down, hence increasing the number of
stillbirths.

❑ Nutrition / Condition of the sow – Over fat sows tend to get tired so easily. In addition,
the birth canal may be restricted due to the fat around the pelvis and this will slow down
the birth of piglets.

❑ Genetic makeup of the sow – Efficiency in farrowing varies between families or

breeds. If a strain of pigs is identified which have a regular high incidence of stillbirths it
should be culled.

NEW BORN PIGLET – birth to three days

PIG PRODUCTION 35
The first three days after farrowing are crucial in ensuring that as many piglets as possible survive.
About 44% of piglets that are suckling, die in the first 48 hours. A farmer should target 7% mortality
pre-weaning.

To improve survival rates of the piglets, look at the following requirements:

❑ COLOSTRUM

Soon after birth, 45 minutes after birth, the piglet should have their first suckle of colostrum. Apart
from air, colostrum is the most important substance because it is a source of energy and
antibodies against all the bacteria, virus etc that the sow has been exposed to in her environment.
The piglet has the ability to absorb these antibodies for only 12-24 hours. The antibodies
disappear from the pig’s blood around 8-12 weeks, but by that time piglets will have began
producing their own antibodies.

❑ HEAT

The piglet is born with no fat insulation and very little hair, as a result it is very susceptible to
hypothermia (a large drop in body temperature). Provide a warm nest within the reach of a sow.

❑ MILK

Over 30% of the piglets that die have no milk in their stomachs. The sow should be checked that
it has enough teats to suckle all her pigs. If milk is not available, you should foster some f the
piglets on to another newly farrowed sow. Do not take the pig to the foster mother before it gets
colostrums form the its mother.

❑ DISINFECTION OF THE NAVEL OR UMBILICAL CORDS

Immerse navel cords in a dilute solution of iodine within 12 hours after birth. Navel or umbilical
cords that are long should be trimmed to about 5 cm before immersing in the iodine solution.
Infection through the navel will cause joint ill, causing swollen joints.

❑ TEETH CLIPPING

Piglets are born with sharp, well developed, temporary canine teeth commonly known as wolf
teeth, eyeteeth or needle teeth at the corners of the upper and lower jaws. These teeth should be
clipped at birth because they can inflict damage on the sow’s udder and to the other piglets.

❑ EAR NOTCHING

Ear notching or any other method of identification should be carried out at this time.

PIG PRODUCTION 36
CREEP FEEDING

The feed is given in the piglet’s nest or creep; thus why it is called creep feeding. The sow has no
access to the feed. The sow’s milk production will decline after three weeks hence the need for
solid feed.
The importance of creep feeding is as follows:

❑ Better growth of pigs as compared to those that only have access to sow’s milk.

❑ The provision of creep feeding helps the piglet’s digestive system to adjust to the change
from milk to a solid diet. This reduces the chances of digestive upsets and checks its
growth rate at weaning.

❑ It helps reduce the drain of nutrients from the sow her body mass loss in later lactation
and leave her better prepared for re-breeding.

❑ It attracts the piglets away from the sow and reduces the chances of the piglets being
crushed by the sow.

Creep feed should first be offered to the piglets at about seven days of age in very small amounts
in order to accustom the piglets to consumption of some solid food.

WEANING THE SOW

In order to have two litters of pigs per sow, per year, weaning should be done at 8 weeks, though
early weaning is practiced. The sow must be removed from the piglets and not vice versa. In this
way, the piglets remain in familiar environment that reduces stress.

Under normal condition, removal of the sow from her litter and the stopping of suckling stimulus
triggers ovarian activity, and oestrus will occur within four to seven days.

The following management practices can be used to help ensure that oestrus is not delayed:

❑ Moving the sow into a house where she can hear, smell and have contact with a mature
boar.

❑ Housing her where there are other newly weaned sows because other sows coming into
oestrus will help stimulation process. Newly weaned sows should not be mixed unless/or
until they are used to each other.

❑ Sows should be able to exercise.

❑ Feeding the sow at high level after weaning until oestrus occurs.

STRESS OF WEANING

PIG PRODUCTION 37
 The three-week period immediately after weaning is critical for the young pigs because it is
confronted with a number of stresses i.e.

❑ The psychological trauma of separation from its dam.

❑ The social stress of mixing with pigs from other litters.
❑ The stress of settling in a new environment of a new pen.
❑ The major change in diet associated with the loss of the sow’s milk.
❑ The loss of the supply of immunoglobulin and immune protection provided by the sow’s
milk.

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS DURING WEANING

Good management over the weaning period can minimize stresses. This will result in
uninterrupted growth and low mortality.

❑ Immediately before weaning, pigs should be handled and disturbed as little as possible.
Any essential management tasks should be carried out two weeks before weaning.

❑ Piglets should be encouraged to consume as much as creep feed as possible before

weaning and should continue to be fed creep, feed for at least two weeks after weaning.

❑ Adlib feeding is recommended in order to capitalize on high growth potential of young

pigs. Restrict feed intake as soon as scours are seen.

❑ In order to achieve uniformity in the pens after weaning, pigs from different batches
should not be mixed. Supervision should be done immediately the pigs are mixed.

❑ Excessive variations in ambient temperature should be minimized. Pens should never be

overcrowded.

9. ANIMAL FEEDS AND FEEDING

Feeding animals a simple diet that contains one ingredient only (e.g. maize only) may cause
deficiency disease. This diet may have a shortage of certain elements that are necessary for
growth and production.

The opposite of a simple diet is balanced diet. A balanced diet contains sufficient quantities of all
nutrients in the proper proportion.

9.1 UTILIZATION OF ENERGY PRESENT IN THE FEED

DIGESTIBLE METABOLISABLE NET

GROSS
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY
ENERG
Y
LOST LOST LOST USED FOR

MAINTENANCE
FAECES
PIG PRODUCTION 38
 URINE HEAT
PRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION

9.2 FACTORS AFFECTING FEED INTAKE

❑ Age of animals.
❑ Body weight.
❑ Type of animals
❑ Metabolisable energy of feed.
❑ Feed structure or high energy feed.
❑ Temperature.
❑ Feeding space.
❑ Animal’s health.

9.3 COMMON PIG FEEDS

➢ Protein Feeds of Animal Origin

Fishmeal
The most important protein food used in pig rations. The best quality fish is made from white fish.
White fish is recommended because it does not have more than 6% oil and 4% salt which might
cause smell / taint in bacon if fed in excessive amounts.

White fish may be included in the ration at up to 15% for creep feed rations and around 10% for
breeding stock and growers. Fishmeal also supplies calcium, phosphorous, and chlorine.

Meat and bone meal

Meat and bone meal is manufactured from the waste products of slaughterhouses and
manufacturers of tinned meat and tinned products. It is valuable protein food for pigs. It may safely
be included in the ration at up to 10%.

Dried blood/Blood meal

It is a by-product of slaughterhouse. It is first dried at very high temperatures in order to overcome
the risk of diseases. It has a very high feeding value and especially suitable for growing pigs. It
should not be fed in excess or scouring may occur. The most suitable is 2.5% - 5% in the ration.

Skimmed milk /Separated milk

This is a by-product of butter making. It has all the nutrients of the milk except the butterfat. It is
valuable feed especially for the suckling pigs and young ones. It is rich in animal protein and
contains high lysine content. Lactose (milk sugar) and can replace part of the cereals in the ration.
Skim milk fed pigs tends to grade very high. Skim may be fed fresh (sweet) or sour (preserved)

Protein Foods of Vegetable Origin

PIG PRODUCTION 39
Vegetable protein foods are less expensive than those of animal origin, and are widely used as
partial or complete replacements. Although the amino acid levels of these foods are not so well
suited to the pigs needs as that of animal proteins, satisfactory results can be obtained by
substituting part of the ration in the growing stage and complete replacements in the finishing
stage.

Soya Bean Meal

The residues after the oil have been removed from the Soya. It is rich in lysine, an important
amino acid and this makes it the most popular source of vegetable protein for pig rations. It is low
in fibre making it laxative if fed in excess to pigs. It is low in minerals, so, a mineral mixture should
be added to the ration when it is used to replace fishmeal. Include in the ration at 5% with 5%
fishmeal in growing rations and at 10 5 as the sole supply of protein in finishing rations.

Decorticated Groundnut Meal

Not so suitable as compared to Soya because it has very low lysine and calcium levels.

Peas and Beans

May be included in fattening rations at up to 20%, but care must be taken because they tend to
produce carcasses with white firm fat.

➢ Carbohydrates Foods

Wheat
May be included up to 50% in the ration, though some farmers feed more. Newly harvested wheat
causes scouring due to moisture content as such; care must be taken when feeding it. Finely
ground wheat is likely to be pastry and cause digestive upsets. It is rich in Vitamin B.

Maize Meal
Maize meal has a higher energy value and higher oil content than other cereals such as barley.
Should never exceed 40% in the ration because it tends to cause softy oily fats in the ration
leading to nutritional upsets and poor quality carcasses. Yellow maize contains carotene that the
pigs convert into Vitamin A.

➢ MAJOR ELEMENTS

Calcium
It is required by all types of livestock for the production of bone and assisting in the formation of
other tissues. Pregnant and suckling sows should have adequate supplies in order that strong
bone is built.

A deficiency of calcium leads to bone disorder and in extreme cases rickets may occur. In
breeding sows a deficiency will upset the milk supply and with in-pig sows there may be a number
of stillbirths (piglets born dead)

Phosphorous
Phosphorous is closely linked with calcium in the formation of bones. It is also important in the
formation of body cells and in the production of ovum and sperms in the reproductive organs, and

PIG PRODUCTION 40
in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Cereal grains contain adequate amounts of
phosphorous and so cereal fed pigs are unlikely to suffer from a deficiency.

Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine

These three minerals are found as salt in the body fluids, sweat, and saliva. Chlorine is needed
in the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid that is present in the digestive juices.

Vegetable foods are rich in potassium while fishmeal will supply sodium and chlorine. Where pigs
are fed on vegetable food only it is necessary to include a mineral mixture containing salt.

Pigs are susceptible to excesses of salt, which can cause salt poisoning. This is unlikely where
properly balanced rations are fed and adequate supplies of clean water made available.
Iron
It is essential constituent of blood, and forms a part of haemoglobin that is responsible for carrying
oxygen around the body. A deficiency of iron causes anaemia, which can be troublesome in small
pigs when housed indoors. Pigs that have access to the soil are unlikely to be affected.

TYPES OF RATIONS REQUIRED BY PIGS

❑ A relatively expensive ration for creep feeding suckling pigs up to 7 weeks of age that
should contain 19 to 20% crude protein, a large proportion of which should be of animal
origin. The mineral and vitamin content of this ration should be high, the fibre content low
and the feed should be palatable. For early weaning, a ration of 20 to 22% crude protein
is desired.

❑ A starter ration for weaned pigs should contain 18% crude protein, low fibre content and
be easily digested. This may be fed until the pigs are 15 to 25 kg live weight.

❑ A grower ration should contain approximately 16% crude protein and still contain protein
of animal origin and be palatable and with some fibres. This is fed to pigs weighing 25 to
55 kg live weight.

❑ A fattening ration should contain 14% crude protein of which none of it should be of animal
origin and is for pigs weighing 45 to 90 kg.

❑ A ration for gestating pigs should be of a course texture. The ration for gilts should contain
16% crude protein while that for sows should contain 14% crude protein during the first
two thirds of the gestation and 16% during the final month of gestation.

❑ A ration for lactating pigs should contain 16% crude protein.

❑ A ration for young boars less than 15 months of age should contain 16% crude protein
and for older boars should contain 14% crude protein.

9.4 FEED FORMULATION

PIG PRODUCTION 41
Composition of Commonly Used Raw Materials

Ingredient Protein%
Soya bean meal 44
Meat and bone meal 50
Blood meal 68
Bone meal 41
Fish meal 65
Groundnut cake 48
Sunflower cake 28
Maize meal 9
Maize bran 9
Rice bran 14
Sorghum 10
Wheat bran 16
Cottonseed cake 40

Feed formulation involves development of diets that are economical by taking advantage of
various ingredients available at economical prices at various times of the year.

To prepare a balanced ration, it is essential to know something about the following:

❑ Availability of raw materials.

❑ Cost of the raw materials.
❑ Nutrient composition of the raw materials.
❑ Nutrient requirements of animals during different stages of growth and production.
❑ The process of digestion and metabolism.
❑ The chemical composition of ingredients and feed in order to estimate their nutritive
value.
❑ Digestibility.
❑ The presence of anti - nutritional factors.
❑ Acceptable maximum of ingredients. (Safe margins)

9.5 METHODS OF FEED FORMULATION

❑ TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD

Use of hand and brain in trial and error to finally come up with a feed formula. Sometimes
this method could be time consuming. Some basic knowledge of nutrition is required to
make the operation quicker and most economical. The procedures are as follows; List all
the available raw materials to be used.

❑ Find the nutrient composition of ingredients e.g. maize contains 9-10% protein, groundnut
cake 45-48% protein.

❑ Write down the level of each ingredient using the following general guideline.

3% vitamins / minerals

PIG PRODUCTION 42
 3% animal protein
50% cereals
15% plant protein
15% bran
7% calcium source
5% cheap local product
2% dried green fodder
100% Total

Calculate as follows:

Protein from maize 50 (% in ration) x 9 (% of protein in maize) =4.5%

Protein from groundnuts 20 (% in ration x 48 (% of protein in g/nuts) = 9.6%

You can now keep on trying till you come up with the required level of the protein in your diet.

❑ COMPUTER METHOD
All the necessary data is supplied and the computer solves the complicated equation to produce
the least cost ration. This saves time, but it is complicated.

❑ PEARSON SQUARE
This method works with two groups of ingredients. (Cereals & proteins)

Identify the ingredients to be used and putting them according to cereals and proteins.

Supposing it is easier to get maize than Sorghum and it is cheaper to use Soya beans than
fishmeal, you can use 2 parts of maize (9%) and one part sorghum (10%) and 3 parts Soya beans
(44%) and 1 part fish meal (65%)
Find the weighted mean of each group of ingredients

Weighted mean for cereal feed ingredients:

Example: Maize 2 x 9% = 18%

Sorghum 1 x 10%= 10%
Total = 28%
Mean 28% / 3 = 9.3% protein

Weighted mean for protein feed ingredients

Soya beans 3 x 44%= 132%
Fish meal 1 x 65%= 65%
Total = 197%
Mean 197% / 4 = 49.3% protein

❑ The weighted means are now used in the Pearson Square to formulate diet.

PIG PRODUCTION 43
 CEREALS 9.3% 32.3 PARTS CEREALS

17%
+

PROTEINS 49.3% 7.7 PARTS PROTEIN

40.0 TOTAL PARTS

❑ The protein level required in the diet is placed in the middle of the square and the
percentage protein content of each feed on the two left hand sides of the square.

❑ Subtract diagonally across from the square, the small number from the larger one as
shown above.

❑ The proportion of each ingredient to achieve a diet containing 17% protein is given at
the right –hand side of the square.

❑ The ratio of 32.3% parts cereals is required to be mixed with 7.7% parts of protein feed
to achieve a diet containing 17% protein.

➢ In percentage term, the diet will be expressed as follows:

32.3 x 100 = 81% Cereals
40.0

7.7 x 100 = 19% Protein feed

40.0

❑ The cereal feed consists of maize and sorghum in the following percentages.

81% = 27% of sorghum and 54% maize

3
❑ The protein feed consists of fish meal and Soya bean meal in the following percentages:
19% = 5% of Fish meal and 15% Soya bean meal
4

EXAMPLES OF ON FARM FORMULATED PIG RATIONS USED AT NRC FARM

(1) CREEP FEED RATION (22% CP)

ID INGREDIENTS QUANTITY (KG)

NO.

PIG PRODUCTION 44
 1 Maize Bran 580
2 Soy Bean Cake 150
3 Fish Meal 120
4 Ground nut cake 85
5 Sun flower cake 60
6 Premixes 3
7 Salt 2
TOTAL 1000

(2) WEANERS RATION (20% CP)

ID INGREDIENTS QUANTITY (KG)

NO.
1 Maize Bran 650
2 Soy Bean Cake 90
3 Fish Meal 75
4 Ground nut cake 100
5 Sun flower cake 80
6 Premixes 3
7 Salt 2
TOTAL 1000

(3) SOW AND BOAR RATION (16 % CP)

ID INGREDIENTS QUANTITY (KG)

NO.
1 Maize Bran 610
2 Soy Bean Cake 111
3 Fish Meal 70
4 Ground nut cake 30
5 Sun flower cake 80
6 Premixes 2
7 Mono Calcium
Phosphate 5
8 Lime stone 90
Salt 2
TOTAL 1000
FEED MANUFACTURING
Below are stages that will ensure quality in production in the mixing area.
Production flow diagram Quality checks/actions
* Moisture content
Raw material reception * Visual inspection
* Chemical analysis

PIG PRODUCTION 45
Storage * Monitoring moisture
* Storage conditions

Formulation * Check for spoilage

Blending * Blending
* Weighing

Grinding * Inspect screen

* Sieve analysis

* Mixing time, procedure

Mixing * Contamination

* Moisture content
Delivery of finished product * Chemical analysis

Visual inspection
❑ This will involve checking for stones, iron, sand, impurities, insects, spoilage, and
packaging.

Moisture content
❑ The right moisture content will be between 10% - 12%

Chemical analysis
❑ Laboratory analysis of the raw materials to be used in formulating the feed.
Storage conditions
❑ Right level of temperature, good humidity
❑ Deterioration due to insects and mice etc
Blending procedure
❑ Follow order of blending
FEEDMILL OPERATIONS

Cleaning and Drying

The mill should be equipped with facilities for cleaning and drying such as winnowers, sieve
machine, sack or bin drying.

Storage of Raw Materials

Raw materials should be kept under conditions that ensure that they are kept dry and free from
insects and rats.

PIG PRODUCTION 46
Blending

Blending means the assembling and measuring out of the required qualities into a batch of the
desired composition. In most cases, blending of the raw materials that need to be reduced in
particle size, takes place before grinding while the already fine raw materials are added after
grinding. The complete batch is then subsequently mixed.

Grinding

A number of raw materials, including cereals and oilseed cakes need grinding to prepare them
for blending and or mixing and make them more digestible to the animals. When the materials to
be ground are first blend before grinding this is called blended grinding. When the materials are
first ground separately and then blended into a batch and mixed, this is called single product
grinding. The hammer mill is used for grinding the raw materials.

Mixing
The aim is to obtain a mixture that is homogeneous to ensure that the animals are offered the
different nutrients in the desired proportions. Under manual mixing, it is necessary to mix the
batch at least 6 times. Mixing is the important element of feed manufacturing because the
essential compounding of the feed depends on this section.

Storage of Mixed Feed - Store properly in bags but not for a long time.

5.0 PIG HOUSING

When considering housing for pigs the animal welfare needs should be seriously considered.
Welfare needs of livestock are referred to as freedoms. There are five fundamental freedoms.

FIVE FREEDOMS:

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst.

2. freedom from discomfort
3. freedom from pain, injury or disease
4. freedom to express normal behaviour
5. freedom from fear and distress.

WEL; FARE OF PIGS

The five freedoms will be provided through:
➢ Caring and responsible planning and management
➢ Skilled knowledgeable and conscientious stockmanship
➢ Appropriate environmental design
➢ Considerate handling and transport
➢ Humane slaughter

Good welfare conditions equal less disease; better production and greater profits. Whilst poor
welfare conditions equals slow growth; poor feed conversion and reduced profits.

Pig house is important for the following reasons:

PIG PRODUCTION 47
 ❑ Protection
❑ Security
❑ Climate control
❑ Effluent control
❑ Feeding control
❑ Comfort zone
❑ Hygiene
❑ Management

Growing Space Requirements for Pigs

Average Wt Min Space/Pig M²

Up to 10 kg 0.15
10 – 20 kg 0.20
20 – 30 kg 0.30
30 – 50 kg 0.40
50 – 85 kg 0.55
85 – 110 kg 0.65
Above 110 kg 1.00

Farrowing space requirements for pigs

➢ Minimum length of farrowing pen 2.4 metres.
➢ Minimum floor area per gilt 1.8 m2.
➢ Minimum exercise area per Sow 1.2 m2
➢ Minimum exercise area per gilt 0.86 m2
➢ Minimum lying area per sow 1.3 m2
➢ Minimum lying area per gilt 0.95 m2

DESIGN

A well-designed pig house should guarantee the following:

❑ Protection of pigs against adverse environmental conditions e.g. Direct sun, wind, and
rain.

❑ Provision of dry conditions that are hygienic and do not predispose the pig to diseases.

❑ Provision of accessible food and water.

❑ Providing conditions so that good stockmanship can be practiced.

❑ Effective disposal of effluent.

WALLS

PIG PRODUCTION 48
 ❑ External walls should provide the pigs with adequate protection.

SITTING

❑ Pig houses should be sited and constructed in such a way that they take advantage of
the prevailing winds and increase ventilation and airflow.

❑ Follow east – west orientation in construction of houses in order to avoid excessive

penetration of sunlight into the pens. This will prevent the problem of sunburn and heat
stress.

❑ Avoid exposing the site too much to the cold.

❑ The houses should be at a slope to facilitate drainage and disposal of effluents. The slope
also makes it easier to design a ‘pig flow’, with the farrowing houses at the top of the
slope and the fattening pens at the bottom. This will improve management and prevent
cross infection from effluent between categories of pigs. This is an important concept in
preventing diseases in the most susceptible groups, such as baby pigs.

❑ Consider also proximity to good water supply and that effluent should not contaminate
water supply from boreholes or wells.

❑ A good road to allow for transport of feed in and pigs out.

❑ Allow for more space for possible expansion in future.

FLOOR

❑ Whatever type of house is built, hard concrete or similar floors are recommended. This
will prevent the pigs ‘rooting’ and digging up the ground. This also allows for easy
cleaning and the prevention of the build up of diseases and parasites.

❑ The floor should provide insulation against both cold and damp.

❑ The floor surface should not be too slippery and smooth, this will result in injury. If it is
too rough and abrasive, this will cause damage to feet and udders.

ROOFING

❑ Roofs should provide shade and protection, and can be built from simple and local
materials such as grass, reeds or leaves etc. or from manufactured roofing materials such

PIG PRODUCTION 49
 as asbestos or iron sheets. A thatched grass though could be a breeding ground for rats
and other pests makes excellent roof under hot conditions because of good insulation.

❑ In hot climates, asbestos or tin roofs should be insulated with a layer of grass or be
sufficiently high that there is room for plenty of air movement.

FARROWING PEN

❑ The essential features of a farrowing house are:

❑ It should contain a well-constructed creep to provide warmth, feed and protection for the
piglets.

❑ It should provide a comfortable sleeping area for the sow

❑ It should provide a dunging and feeding area with a clean supply of water.

❑ Partition walls should be at least 1 m high, though they can be built higher than this in
order to prevent the spread of airborne diseases.

❑ A furrowing crate or farrowing rail should be incorporated in order to reduce the risk of
crushing the piglets. Farrowing rails should be 0.2 m from the wall and 0.2 m high.

❑ Provide creep area with an infrared lamp. The creep will help to reduce the lying on baby
pigs and killing them by crushing. The lamp will help to increase the temperature of the
creep and the light will also attract the newly born pigs away from the sow and return only
when they are hungry.

GROWING / FATTENING PENS

❑ They should have a dry lying area and demarcated dunging area.

❑ The buildings should provide shade, some protection and adequate ventilation.

❑ The side walls are not required between pens because they will decrease ventilation and
airflow within the buildings.

10. HEALTH AND DISEASES

Good husbandry is the most important factor in preventing disease. The main components of
good husbandry are as follows:

❑ Housing – must allow sufficient space, maintain a temperature in pig’s comfort zone and
allow sufficient air changes.
❑ Nutrition – must be of a consistent quality and appropriate for the age of the pig.

PIG PRODUCTION 50
 ❑ Management – good management involves ongoing monitoring of how the project is run.
Using good records, appropriate changes can be made as the need arises.

The sick pig is anorexic, lies down, and may tremble or have skin discolouration (cyanosis). Sick
pigs may become constipated or scour. Coughing or staggering gait may be observed. The pig’s
normal temperature is 38.9o C

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

➢ AFRICAN SWINE FEVER

This is a highly contagious viral disease of swine that in the acute form can cause up to 50 -
100% mortality. A virus is transmitted to healthy pigs by direct contact, ingestion of
contaminated feed or water. Soft ticks called Ornithodorous moubata (reservoir of infection)
transmit this disease. In Malawi the disease is endemic in the Central region.

Symptoms
❑ The pigs become anorexic and show high fever.
❑ Up to 50 -100% mortality.
❑ Depression, weakness, swaying when moving.
❑ Haemorrhages or have blue discolouration (cyanosis) of the skin often belly and ears.
❑ Some may cough and there may be scouring.
❑ Abortion in sows.
❑ Death after a few hours or days sickness - Some pigs die suddenly without showing any
signs of disease.
❑ If pigs survive a few days you may see bloody diarrhea.

PIG PRODUCTION 51
 ASF DISEASE CYCLE

PIG PRODUCTION 52
CONTROL
➢ Institute quarantine measures
➢ House pigs in double fenced kholas.
➢ Avoid contact with bush pigs
➢ Pigs should not have access to Pork products e.g. discarded sandwiches because the virus
can survive in pig carcasses for long periods.

➢ FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

This is a highly contagious viral disease of ruminants, pigs and other cloven hoofed animals. It
has an incubation period of between 3 –8 days (1 – 14 days). It spreads by direct contact between
animals via contaminated grazing and water. Wild life like buffaloes in parks and game reserves
carry FMD virus (SAT serotypes). In Malawi FMD occurs in Karonga, Chitipa, Nsanje and
Chikwawa of late in Mzimba. FMD virus types O, A, SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3 have all invaded
Malawi. FMD is Notifiable disease as such report immediately to veterinary authorities any
suspected cases. It is an important threat to because its spread leads to imposition of trade
embargoes by international regulations. This can affect the agro-based economy a great deal.
The pigs die because they cannot walk and fail to eat.

Infection is through direct contact or through uncooked meat, hides, bones, feeding stuffs,
vehicles, personal clothing etc. Migratory birds on their flights from country to country may also
be carriers.

Symptoms
❑ It affects all cloven-hoofed animals.
❑ Blisters / vesicles in the mouth, skin above and between hooves.
❑ Drooling (hanging strands of saliva from the mouth)
❑ At first the animal looses its appetite.
❑ Smacking of the lips.
❑ Becomes dull and sluggish.
❑ Lactating animals will show sudden in milk yield.
❑ Lameness as a result of blisters on the feet.

Control
❑ Restrict movement of unauthorized personnel and vehicles.
❑ Isolate sick pigs from healthy ones.
❑ Quarantine livestock and livestock products in the affected area.
❑ Ring vaccinate livestock in risk areas

➢ ANTHRAX
This is acute and fatal bacterial disease that often also causes mortality in humans. It is caused
by Bacillus anthracis, which in its pore form is capable of living in the soil for many years. Pigs
are infected by contact with anthrax carcass or by spores in contaminated feed or pasture. There
is no effective vaccine.

Symptoms

PIG PRODUCTION 53
 ❑ A swelling in the back region which causes difficulty in breathing.
❑ Sudden death characterized by blood oozing from the body orifices. If the disease is
suspected, the carcass should not be opened for fear of releasing infective spores.
Infected carcass should be buried at sufficient depth to prevent any transmission of the
spores.

PARASITES

Parasites are defined as organisms that live on and obtain food from the body of another, known
as the host. When they live on the exterior of the pig, they are known as external parasites, while
if they live within the internal tissue they are called internal parasites.

➢ EXTERNAL PARASITES

They cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading to wounds and an increased susceptibility
to other infections. The most common parasites are mange-mites, ticks, fleas, and flies.

➢ MANGE MITES
Mange is a skin condition caused by small insects called mites that burrow under the skin of the
pig. Mites that are scarcely visible to the naked aye, spend the entire lifecycle under the skin of
the pig. By burrowing under the skin, they cause irritation and inflammation. They can survive off
the host for as long as eight days. The most common species is Sarcoptes scabiei.

Signs

❑ Crusty, dry looking skin around the eyes, ears, and snout.
❑ The mites spread and multiply over the body causing the skin to become swollen.
❑ The pigs are seen to be constantly rubbing against themselves and performance is
depressed.
Control
❑ Dipping or spraying with an anti- mange medication, including spraying of pens.
❑ Cull all chronically infected animals.
❑ Use of systemic drugs.

➢ LICE AND FLEAS

They can become a problem in dirty and unhygienic conditions. They live on the skin and suck
blood causing severe irritation. Young pigs may die because of loss of blood. Control is by
spraying the pigs and pigpens with suitable insecticides. In case of lice, particular attention should
be made to the ears, inside the elbows, and on the belly.

➢ TICKS

Ticks are only a problem in scavenging or more extensive system of pig production. Ticks can
cause diseases such as Babesiosis or Red water. Dipping or spraying with suitable acaricides
can control them.

• Flies

PIG PRODUCTION 54
They are a major nuisance to the pigs, they cause annoyance, can bite, and carry infectious
diseases. They are always attracted to the wounds or any fresh abrasion on the animal.
Control is by spraying of insecticides on suitable fly- breeding areas, e.g. manure heaps, refuse
areas, pig buildings, and the pigs. Can also use baits that attract the flies.

INTERNAL PARASITES

➢ ROUND WORMS (NEMATODES)

Common mainly to pigs on free range and those not kept on concrete floors. The large roundworm
(Ascaris lumbricoides) is very common and can cause a lot of damage in pig herds. Adults live in
the intestines and the female is capable of laying thousands of eggs per day. Which are passed
out in the dung and become infective if ingested by other pigs after 21 days. Liver is damaged
and is condemned at slaughter. With heavy infection the adult worm can partly obstruct the small
intestine, causing weakness and loss of weight.

Whip worm (Trichuris suis) which is about 35 mm long when at adult stage, lives in the large
intestines and causes damage to the gut wall resulting in diarrhoea and weight loss.

The nodular worm lives in the intestines. It burrows into the intestinal wall forming nodules and
can diarrhoea (sometimes bloody) and anaemia.

Contaminated feed and water are the usual causes of infection with internal parasites. Control
can be affected by breaking the life cycle, which means moving range pigs on to fresh ground
and frequent cleaning and removal of faeces in housed pigs.

➢ TAPE WORMS (CESTODES)

The common tapeworm is Taenia solium. Pigs become infected through picking up eggs from
human faeces and the larvae then encyst in the pig’s muscle, particularly in the region of the heart
and tongue.
If the pig meat is then eaten by man, the larvae hatch out and the cycle is completed carcasses
which are infected (measly pork) are condemned at slaughter.

Control can be achieved by preventing pigs having access to the human faeces. In this way, the
parasites can be eliminated.

UDDER PROBLEMS

- UDDER OEDEMA (Hard udder)

There is an excess of fluid in the udder tissue that prevents a good milk flow. The individual glands
are very firm on palpation. The quality and quantity of colostrums is reduced leading to a lowered
immunity in the piglets. Piglets may have difficulty in suckling milk from the glands. The sow
herself does not have a fever and continues to eat normally.

Give the sow an injection of oxytocin (the milk let down hormone) every 4 – 6 hours.

PIG PRODUCTION 55
Provide bowls of water to the piglets to prevent dehydration. One of the causes is the gilts or
sows being overfat.

- MASTITIS

The sow does not eat and is ill. Affected glands may be discoloured and on palpation are found
to be swollen and hot. Poor hygiene in the farrowing area is the predisposing factor but it may
develop following udder oedema

Treat the animal with antibiotic and inject with oxytocin every 4 –6 hours, this will help.

- AGALACTIA

This is poor milk supply in otherwise healthy animal. It may develop as a follow –on from
oedematous mastitis, but may also occur in the absence of these conditions due to the sow not
getting enough water.

10.1 BIOSECURITY GUIDELINES FOR PIG PRODUCERS

Biosecurity - Practical measures to limit the spread of infectious diseases of pigs both within a
farm and from farm to others – is the essential part of risk management for pig producers.
Biosecurity is the best form of defence against infectious diseases as well as exotic diseases.
Eradication and recovery from an exotic disease/ trans-boundary disease outbreak will not only
be costly, but the long-term prosperity of the pig industry could be damaged if a foreign disease
becomes established. International market access for pork products is increasingly dependent on
proof of absence of certain diseases from Malawi.

How do diseases of pigs spread?

Most common diseases are spread by direct pig to pig contact. Respiratory diseases are spread
in the air when pigs sneeze or cough. Disease agents can also spread by clothes, foot wear,
animal handling, veterinary equipment, transport vehicles, feed or water and semen. People
moving between farms, aerosols, biting insects, wildlife or contaminated meat products can also
contribute to disease spread.

BIOSECURITY CONSIDERATIONS

(1) Introduction of new stock

As the most important route of disease spread is from pig to pig, introduced pigs present
the greatest risk of introducing new diseases to the herd. Producers are strongly
encouraged to buy replacements directly from single herd of higher or comparable health
status, based on veterinary advice. An alternative is to maintain a closed herd and
introduce new genetic material by use of artificial insemination. Semen should only be
purchased from centres of known health status. Trained staff should inspect all new stock
upon arrival and regularly thereafter. Introduced breeding stock should be kept separately
(quarantined) from the main herd ideally for 6 to 8 weeks. The quarantine facility may be
situated at least 3 km and ideally 5 km from the home farm. Separate boots and overalls

PIG PRODUCTION 56
 should be provided for use in the isolation building and hands should be washed after
handling quarantined pigs.

In well run operations, an all in all out system should ensure a degree of isolation for each
batch and assist containment of introduced diseases. Buildings should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected between batches.

(2) Swill feeding

Feeding of swill to pigs is the mostly likely way that Malawian pigs may be exposed to an
infectious disease agent. Diseases that can be spread by feeding swill to pigs include
Foot and Mouth Disease, Classical Swine Fever, African Swine Fever and Swine
Vesicular Disease. Use pre-boiled swill or ban use of such feeds.

(3) Controlled access

• Visitors – only prescheduled visitors essential to the farm’s business should be
permitted entry. All visitors should enter via a single point where they sign a
visitor’s book and are issued with protective boots and clothes. This clothing
should be used in the piggery only. Clearly demarcated clean and dirty areas
should be established to ensure there is no confusion about where people need
to remove their off farm dirty clothes and foot wear, put on clean farm boots and
clothing and wash their hands.
• Staff – should be aware of the risks entailed in off site contact with other pigs.
Staff should not keep their own pigs unless this is cleared with management first.
Rules for staff entry should be similar to the rules for visitors, except that staff
need not be required to sign the visitor movement record. Staff should not wear
dirty clothes in clean areas. Staff movements between units within a piggery
should be planned, especially if more than one age group is housed on one site.
Contaminated clothes should be changed between departments. Staff should
move from younger to older pigs through the day. Hands should be washed
between units or rooms and after handling sick pigs, which should be visited last.
• Vehicles – load out areas present a risk if pig transport vehicle arrives at the
farm already carrying pigs. This should not be allowed to occur unless the pigs
on the truck have the same health status as your own pigs. There is a risk from
aerosols and from movements of pigs onto the truck and then back to the farm
by mistake. This risk can be reduced by providing a dirty loading area that is
separated from the clean farm areas, with a no return policy, no return gates and
appropriate signage. All vehicles transporting pigs should be cleaned and
disinfected before pigs are loaded. Where possible a perimeter load out site
should be used.

(4) Movement records

Records should be kept of the movements of animals, people and vehicles onto and
off the farm to assist tracing in the event of an emergency disease outbreak. This
information is vital to ensure that the disease is rapidly and effectively tracked and
contained.

PIG PRODUCTION 57
 (5) Pig identification
Identification of pigs going for sale or slaughter is an essential part of monitoring for
diseases and chemical residues. All pigs consigned for the sale or transportation to
an abattoir or knackery for slaughter must be identified by either a tattoo brand or ear
tag prior to leaving their property of origin.

(6) Separation from other animals

Where possible a secure pig proof fence should be erected around the piggery to
prevent access of feral pigs and other animals. Strict measures should be put in place
to ensure that all gates are kept closed when not in immediate use. Pest and insect
control programmes should be in place. Flying foxes (fruit bats) have been implicated
in the spread of Menangle virus in Australia and Nipah virus in Malaysia. If necessary
birds netting and habitat reduction can be used to limit the access of flying foxes to
the pig herd.

(7) Farm location

A minimum buffer distance between neighbouring pig farms and between units within
the piggery is desirable to limit the risk of aerosol disease spread, although this may
be impractical for existing piggeries in pig dense areas. Aerosol spread is just one of
the many ways a disease could enter a piggery and a distance barrier will not protect
a piggery that for instance has no controls over stock introductions. The level of risk
also depends on the diseases present, the level of infection in the herd, stocking
intensity, the topography of the area and wind direction. A minimum bio-security buffer
distance of 3 km between sites is a useful guideline, but should not be interpreted too
prescriptively as effective bio-security is achieved through a combination of measures.

(8) Hygiene
The farm’s bio-security programme must provide for mandatory cleaning and
disinfection of any equipment that is moved from farm to farm. Syringes used for
injection or needles used for blood collection should remain on farm and be destroyed
after syringe use. Postmortem implements used by veterinarians for sample collection
should remain off farm or be used in areas that are not in direct contact with herd.
Disposal of piggery effluent, dead pigs and other biological material should be by
approved methods.

(9) Staff training

Staff should be trained to recognize signs of disease in the herd and to report any
unusual signs explained deaths promptly. Rapid recognition of abnormal disease
patterns is extremely important and will lead to prompt diagnosis and efficient
management of any emergency disease.

11. PIG IDENTIFICATION & RECORDING SYSTEMS

An accurate set of records on swine performance is one of the best management tools that a
producer can have. Before a producer can keep such records, he must be able to identify pigs
from birth. The successful manager clips the needle teeth and navel cords as soon after birth as
possible. This offers an opportune time for identification. The simplest method and the one

PIG PRODUCTION 58
recommended by most breed associations is ear notching. The most common notching system
is the 1-3-9 system illustrated below.

Litter Mark: The right ear is used for litter mark and all pigs in the same litter must have the
same ear notches in this ear. The right ear is on the pig’s own right.

Individual Pig Marks: The left ear is used for notches to show an individual pig’s number in the
litter. Each pig will have different notches in the left ear. To develop a number, the producer
makes notches in different parts of the ear in such a way that the total of their numerical values
will be the desired number.

Summary
▪ Pig identification is necessary for accurate performance records.
▪ Pigs can be marked with ear notches, ear tattoos or ear tags.
▪ Ear notching is the most practical method for commercial farms.
▪ Ear tags are useful for re-identifying breeding stock.
▪ Electronic identification, if it becomes cheaper, may be more widely used in the future.

PIG IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

Pigs can be identified in several ways:

• Tattoo branding method

Equipment required is a set of tattoo pliers, three or four sets of 9 mm needle blocks
numbered from 0 to 9 and a suitable tattooing ink or paste. These are obtainable from
equipment suppliers but are expensive compared with notching pliers. Similar systems
of identification can be used to ear notching except that numbers rather than positions
are tattooed in the ear. Figure 3 illustrates ear tattooing pliers and a sample imprint of the
tattoo needles. Before tattooing, ensure that both the pig’s ear and the tattoo blocks are
clean. The thinner part of the lower ear (inside or outside) is most suitable for tattooing.
The needle points of the tattoo must be covered with tattooing ink: a toothbrush is useful
for this, alternatively, dip the needle blocks into an ink-soaked pad. The needles should
completely pierce the pig’s ear, avoiding veins where possible. After tattooing, thoroughly
rub ink into the puncture marks. The technique has to be carried out with painstaking
accuracy to ensure the tattoo can be clearly read later. If you have trouble reading a
tattoo number, try washing the ear or shining a torch behind it.The tattoo can also be
placed on the left shoulder where it can be easily read on the abattoir processing chain.

Hints on tattoo branding

o Make sure that the number and letters are in the correct order – stamp a piece
of cardboard or look at them in a mirror.
o Make sure that all needles on the brand are clean – grease, dirt, hair and
tattooing paste quickly build up on the needles. If not cleaned regularly, the

PIG PRODUCTION 59
 tattoo brand will become illegible and clogged needles can also be a source of
infection.
o Use a carbon based tattooing paste or ink
o Reapply paste or ink to needles before the pig is tattoo branded
o All needles must pierce the skin; take good solid swing making sure that the
face of the brand lands flat on the skin – it should leave a rectangular mark on
the skin surface.
o Pigs with excessive dirt or soil may need to be washed on the shoulder area
before tattooing
o Brands worn out, broken or damaged needles should be replaced.

Tattooing Positioning
The tattoo brand should be applied to the left shoulder where it can be readily be
seen during meat inspection at the abattoir.

Good Tattooing
A good tattoo brand will be clearly readable after the de-hairing process.

• Ear tagging method

Once gilts and boars have been selected from within the herd or brought into it, they
can be identified with easy to-read numbered plastic tags (see figure 4). There are
varying shapes and types of ear tags: some are pre-numbered, others are supplied
blank and can be numbered with a special pen. Several choices of colour are available
to increase coding possibilities. For example, animals with Duroc parentage may be
given red tags, while those with Hampshire genes may be given white ones with black

PIG PRODUCTION 60
 numbers. Tags are applied with special applicator pliers, usually in the front of the ear
to reduce risk of the tag being torn out eg by fighting
It is very easy to apply, but has a weakness of the pig losing the identity very quickly
and other people can easily use it on other animals. You can easily use it for specific
purpose like slaughter house identification of pigs.

• Ear notching method

This means chipping (using machine in Fig. 2) little pieces out of the pig’s ears at
different places to indicate different numbers. There are several codes for linking
notches to numbers. You can devise your own coding system. Some codes even
capture the litter number on the other ear. This is a permanent identification method,
unless the animal loses the ear. However, the only set back is it can not work well with
very big numbers otherwise the whole ear will be damaged.

The right ear (the pig's right, not yours) identifies the pig's litter number.
• Each pig from a particular litter will have the same notches on the right side.
• You can identify up to 161 litters using this notching system.
The left ear (the pig's left, not yours) identifies the individual pig number within the
litter.
• Each pig in the littler will have different notchings in this ear.
A pig should not have more than 2 notches in each "location" of the ear!

PIG PRODUCTION 61
PIG PRODUCTION 62
 • Electronic identification
The technology to identify pigs through electronic implants is already developed. An
injectable radio transponder, which contains the pig’s identification number, is implanted
before weaning. The best site seems to be under the skin of the neck at the base of the
ear. Alternatively, the transponder may be embedded in an ear tag. A receiver unit must
be able to detect signals from the transponder at a distance of 30 to 60 cm from the pig,
preferably without touching the animal. The number may be picked up on a portable
receiver unit or stationary antenna at gates or fences. These units can then be attached
to computers for information retrieval. The transponder is removed and destroyed after
slaughter of the pig.
The system is costly if a large initial outlay is required, as computers, software, data
communication and individual transponders are required. The investment is rewarded
with accurate information for management purposes, and positive identification at
slaughter.
Computer-controlled sow feeding stations use electronic identification for feeding
purposes. The sows wear a plastic collar in which is embedded a radio transponder.
When the sow enters the feeding station, signals received from the transponder trigger
the station’s feeding mechanism and the sow receives a measured amount of feed.

Importance of Records

❑ Farm records help the farmer to find out if he is operating at a loss or profit. The
farmer will know and then drop those activities that are not giving him profit.

❑ They help the farmer in planning and making decisions.

❑ Help the farmer in obtaining loans for his farming activities. Moneylenders are
interested to see the records before they can give out money.

❑ Records facilitate pedigree selection in livestock. One has on hand the life history of
and performance of the ancestors of the sires as well as the dams.

❑ Records help in culling unproductive animals.

❑ They help the farmer to improve those areas that need improvement.

TYPES OF RECORDS KEPT AT THE FARM

Health records

Heath records must provide for all health related issues of livestock such as vaccinations, routine
treatment. They should be able to indicate a trend in disease before it becomes a major economic
factor. They act as a reminder when a specific action is called for.

Heats / Service record

PIG PRODUCTION 63
This type of record will mainly include the following, date, name of sow on heat, name of boar (if
served), pregnancy diagnosis date, farrowing due date. In this record, one would see if a certain
boar is being overworked since it will show number of service per boar per week.

Sow cards

It is recommended on pig farms that individual sows should have these cards. All the information
on the sow is recorded on these cards, i.e. origin of the animal, its sire and dam, date when
served, number of farrowings etc.

Boar cards

These are recommended for large farms where more than one boar is used to check accidental
in breeding. Where there is only one boar, this might not be necessary.

12. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PIGS

Transport
The stress of transporting pigs to the slaughterhouse can result in pigs dying in transit, in lairage
at the slaughterhouse or reduced meat quality in the carcass.

The stresses such as handling at loading and unloading, the new surroundings, mixing with
strange pigs, the physical discomfort of the journey, the heat stress, especially under tropical
conditions.

The following measures can reduce stress;

❑ The loading ramp should properly be designed with solid walls and at the correct height
for the cart, truck or trailer.

❑ The pigs should be handled quietly and gently all the time. Avoid the use of sticks and
prodders.

❑ Avoid loading and traveling during the heat periods of the day.

❑ Spray the pigs with cold water before loading and again in the truck.

❑ Provide good bedding, good ventilation, adequate bedding and ensure the floors are not
slippery.

❑ Do not stop enroute to the slaughterhouse.

PIG PRODUCTION 64
SLAUGHTER PROCEDURES

➢ STUNNING
For reasons of animal welfare, pigs should always be stunned before they are bled. Effective
stunning ensures prompt and complete bleeding.

Main methods of stunning are:

❑ Mechanical, where a captive – bolt pistol or other instrument is used to stun the pig.
There are two methods under the mechanical destruction of pigs as below:

1. Temporal method: (This is only suitable for firearms.) The pig is shot from the
side of the head so that the bullet enters the skull at a point midway between
the eye and the base of the ear on the same side of the head. The bullet
should be directed horizontally into the skull. This method is preferred for adult
pigs due to the heavier bone structure of the front of the skull.

2. Frontal method: The captive-bolt pistol or firearm should be directed at a

point about midway across the forehead in adult pigs about 2 cm above the
level of the eyes as in Figure 1. When using a firearm, aim horizontally into the
skull.

Figure 1: Humane destruction of pigs

'a' indicates recommended position for temporal method (Suitable for firearm
only).
'b' indicates recommended position for frontal method (Suitable for firearm or
captive-bolt pistol).

❑ Electrical, where a pair of tongs is used to apply an electrical charge to the pig’s head.
A current of 1.25 amps and 300 to 600 volts renders the pig unconscious within one
second.

❑ Gas, where carbon dioxide is used by letting pigs into a tunnel containing 70 to 80%
carbon dioxide; they will lose consciousness within two seconds.

PIG PRODUCTION 65
➢ BLEEDING
Immediately after stunning the pig, hoist it by hind legs and the blood vessels of the neck
completely cut to ensure thorough and complete bleeding.
➢ SCALDING DEHAIRING
Hairs can easily be loosened and removed by scrapping after immersing the carcass in water
at 65 to 75 degrees C. Small scale farmers can use a drum of water over a fire for scalding
purposes. When water is scarce, de-haring can be achieved by covering the carcass with dry
grass and burning it. The skin can then be scrapped to remove the carbonized surface and
any remaining hair.

➢ EVISCERATION
A long cut is made down the belly from the breast to the hams, and then the internal organs
are separated, the gut emptied and cleaned away from the rest of the meat.

PIG MEAT AS HUMAN FOOD

The main benefits of pork as human meat are as follows;

❑ Digestibility
Pork is 98% digestible by the human digestive system.

❑ Protein quality
Pork contains all the eight amino acids that cannot be manufactured by the human body,
and is therefore a high quality complete protein.

❑ Satiety
Lean pig has been found to have a high satiety value i.e. it leaves the consumer feeling
full for a long period and helps to prevent overeating.

❑ Cholesterol
Pork has a relatively low cholesterol level.

❑ Minerals
Pork has relatively high contents of iron, essential for prevention of anaemia, and zinc,
which hastens wound healing, bone growth and tissue development.

❑ Vitamins
The levels of B vitamins are high in pork and it is a leading dietary source of thiamine.

SYSTEMS OF MARKETING

• Private Sales
This is the most common method in the tropics among small –scale producers. One or a
number of pigs are sold to local consumers, other producers, butchers or middlemen.
The pigs are sold live and the price is generally subject to negotiation. This system has
the advantage of being the simplest, but in rural areas individuals who are not aware of
current prices can be taken advantage of dealers.

PIG PRODUCTION 66
 • Public Sales
These involve taking the pigs into central market place where they are sold by auction on
a live basis to the highest bidder.

• Direct sales to an Abattoir

This method of selling is more applicable to the large-scale producer. The biggest
disadvantage of this system is that there tend to be fluctuations in price to increased
supply of pigs to abattoir.

• Contract sales/ future’s market and hedging

By entering into contract with an abattoir to supply a certain number of pigs over a period
at a set price, the producer is protected from price variations during the period.
Live pigs are sometimes traded on the futures market. A futures market contract
establishes a price for live pigs that are to be delivered at some future date. The unit of
trading is 13608 kg thus about 130 to 150 head of market pigs.

One objective of using the futures market is to obtain a higher for the pigs. Future trading
takes place when the futures price is higher than the expected price of pigs at the time of
delivery. The producer runs the risk that the expected market price is not accurate.
Another objective of using the futures market is to reduce the risk of loss if prices go
down. By trading on the futures market, the producer locks in the price that will be
received for the pigs. If the expected market price is lower than the cost of production, it
does not pay to produce the pigs. In such a case, the producer would not be in the futures
market.
Reducing the risk by locking in the price is called hedging. The producer who wants to
hedge on futures market needs a thorough understanding of the market.

FEEDER PIG GRADES

Feeder pigs are classified in the same grades as slaughter pigs, with the addition of one lower
grade. US Cull is the lowest grade of feeder pigs. Feeder pig grades are used to indicate the
expected grade of the pig when it reaches slaughter weight. Unthrift pigs are classed in either US
Utility or US Cull grades.

• THE US NO.1 FEEDER PIG

Has a large frame, thick muscling and is trim. The legs are wide apart. The hams are
wider than the loins. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US No. 1 grade carcasses
when slaughtered.

• THE US No 2 FEEDER PIGS

Has moderately a large frame with moderately thick muscling. The pig is a little fatter than
the No.1. The hams are slightly wider than the loin. The jowl and flank are a little fatter
than No.1. The sides show less trim. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US No.2
grade carcasses when slaughtered.

PIG PRODUCTION 67
 • THE US NO. 3 FEEDER PIG
Has a slightly smaller frame with slightly thick muscling. The hams and loin are about the
same width. The legs are set fairly close together. The jowl and flank show signs of too
much fat. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce US No. 3 grade carcasses when
slaughtered.
• THE US NO. 4 FEEDER PIG
Has a small frame with thin muscling. The hams and loin are of the same width. The back
is flat. The legs are set close together. The jowl and flank are moderately full. The lower
ham is beginning to show signs of too much fat. Feeder pigs in this grade should produce
US No. 4 grade carcasses when slaughtered.

• THE US UTILITY FEEDER PIG

Pigs Show unthriftness due to disease or poor care. The skin is wrinkled and the head
appears too large for the rest of the body. The pig is rough in appearance. Given good
care, pigs in this grade can develop into higher grades of slaughter pigs. Feeder pigs in
this grade will produce US Utility grade carcasses when slaughtered unless the unthrifty
condition is corrected.

• THE US CULL FEEDER PIG

Has poorer appearance than us utility. Improper care and disease cause a rough,
unthrifty appearance. Pigs in this grade will gain at slower than normal rates and often
will not be profitable.

WEIGHT AND TIME TO SELL PIGS

The traditional recommended weight at which to sell slaughter pigs has been 90.7 kg – 99.8 kg.
This has based on two conditions related to weight gain:
• Research indicates that feed costs of per kilogram of gain increased rapidly above 99.8
kg and
• Much of the weight added above 99.8kg was fat.
Recent research indicates that several factors should be considered when deciding on the best
weight to market pigs. The factors are:
• Type of pig
• Pig-feed price ratio
• Amount of discount for heavier pigs and
• The time of the year when the pigs are marketed.
Research has shown at various university research stations that pigs can be fed to heavier
weights without a large increase in feed costs.

The quality of pigs as measured by the ratio of lean to fat is not decreased appreciably with this
type of pigs. The experiments show that an increase in feed of 0.32 kg per 45.4 kg of gain is
necessary to go from lighter to heavier market weights. Two studies show a decline in percent of
lean cuts. One shows a decrease of 0.65 as pigs were fed from 90.7 kg to 113.4 kg. The other
study shows a decrease of 1.3% from 99.8 – 117.8 kg.

As feed costs increase, the additional returns above feed costs decrease as pigs are fed to
heavier weights. As the price of pigs increase, the return above feed costs increase. It requires

PIG PRODUCTION 68
careful calculations to determine where the break even point occurs as pig feed price ratios
change.

Packers typically discount the price of pigs below 99.8 – 104.3 kg and above 113.4 to 117.9 kg.
The range varies with the number of pigs coming to the market and the pricing practices of
individual packers. If discounts are high for heavier pigs it may not pay to feed to heavier weights.
Part of the decision on feeding to heavier weights depends on time of the year. The price of
slaughter pigs changes seasonally based on the supply of pork and consumer demand for pork.

When prices are on the increase it may pay to feed pigs to heavier weights even though there will
be some discount. However, the price trend is downwards, it generally will not pay to feed to
heavier market weights. The pig producer should have the flexibility to feed to heavier weights
part of the year and to lighter weights at other times of the year.

SHRINKAGE OF PIGS
Pigs lose weight as they are shipped to the market. This weight loss is called shrinkage. The
distance to the market is one of the most important factors in determining the amount of shrinkage.
A shrinkage of 2% can be expected regardless of how close to the market the pigs are located.
This is caused by the sorting, handling, loading that takes place in the first few kilometers. As the
distance hauled and time on the road increase, the amount of shrinkage increases. For example,
pigs hauled 241.4 km or more may shrink as much as 4%.

Rough handling increases the amount of shrinkage. Temperatures below -6.7oc or above 15.5o C
also increase the amount of shrinkage. Careful handling of pigs while sorting and loading reduces
losses from shrinkage. It also reduces death losses and number of damaged carcasses that arrive
at the market. Keeping pigs warm in winter and cool in summer while handling them to market,
helps to reduce shrinkage and other losses.

REFERENCE

1. Gillespie, James R. 1998. Animal Science. Delmar publishers, NY, USA. PP 489-585.
2. Gillespie, James R. 2005. Modern livestock and Poultry production. Delmar publishers,
NY, USA.
3. Taylor, D.J. (1995). Pig Diseases. Sixth Edition, CTA Publication, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
2. Holness, D.H. (1991). Pigs: The Tropical Agriculturist, CTA & Mcmillan Publication,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
3. Agrodok Series No. 1 (1998). Pig Keeping in the Tropics. CTA Publication,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.
4. Bishop Burton College, (1997). Pig Nutrition: In the Pig Management Pack for Distance
Learning, Bishop Burton College, U.K.
5. Nkosi, M.M. (2005). Pig Production Training Manual for Diploma in Animal Health and
Production students. Natural Resources College, Lilongwe, Malawi.

PIG PRODUCTION 69
APPENDICES

Table 1: example formulations for 15 – 30 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake and Quantity Example Low CP

diet specification formulations
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy (MJ/Day) 8.5 Wheat 47.7
St. il. Dig. Lysine 10.5 Wheatfeed 0
Diet specification Soya 48 22.4
(minima)
Net energy (MJ/day) 10.3 Barley 20.0
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Fishmeal 5.0
Lysine 1.28 Soya oil 2.5
Methionine +cystine 0.76 Limestone 0.9
Threonine 0.83 Monocalcium 0.7
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.24 Salt 0.3
Valine 0.90 Lysine HCL 10.32
Histidine 0.44 Threonine 0.16
Isoleucine 0.74 Methionine 0.12
Leucine 1.28 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.73 Oil 4.9
Phenylalanine + 1.23 Crude protein 22.1
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 2.8
Calcium 0.70 NDF 9.4
Dig. Phosphorus 0.35 Total Lysine 1.40
Sodium 0.18 DE (Mj/kg) 14.6

PIG PRODUCTION 70
 Table 2: Example Formulations for 30 – 60 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 14.3 Wheat 45.3 52.0
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine 15.1 Wheatfeed 0 0
Diet specification Soya 48 22.5 16.6
(minima)
Net energy 9.8 Barley 20.0 20.0
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Extracted oo 7.5 6.9
rape meal
Lysine 1.04 Soya oil 1.8 1.2
Methionine 0.61 Limestone 1.0 1.0
+cystine
Threonine 0.68 Monocalcium 1.2 1.3
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.20 Salt 0.4 0.4
Valine 0.73 Lysine HCL 0.20 0.39
Histidine 0.35 Threonine 0.05 0.14
Isoleucine 0.60 Methionine 0 0.06
Leucine 1.04 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.59 Oil 4.1 3.5
Phenylalanine + 1.04 Crude protein 20.8 18.8
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 3.8 3.6
Calcium 0.76 NDF 11.0 11.0
Dig. Phosphorus 0.26 Total Lysine 1.18 1.16
Sodium 0.18 DE (Mj/kg) 14.0 13.8

PIG PRODUCTION 71
 Table 3: Example Formulations for 60 – 90 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 19.9 Wheat 27.4 49.4
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine 17.9 Wheatfeed 14.3 16.4
Diet specification Soya 48 25.0 5.6
(minima)
Net energy 9.4 Barley 30.0 15.0
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Extracted oo 0.0 10.0
rape meal
Lysine 0.85 Soya oil 0.9 0.7
Methionine 0.50 Limestone 1.4 1.3
+cystine
Threonine 0.55 Monocalcium 0.6 0.6
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.16 Salt 0.4 0.4
Valine 0.60 Lysine HCL 0.0 0.4
Histidine 0.29 Threonine 0.0 0.12
Isoleucine 0.49 Methionine 0 0.0
Leucine 0.85 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.48 Oil 3.5 3.5
Phenylalanine + 0.85 Crude protein 20.6 16.2
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 4.0 4.8
Calcium 0.73 NDF 13.9 15.7
Dig. Phosphorus 0.25 Total Lysine 1.02 1.0
Sodium 0.18 DE (Mj/kg) 13.5 13.2

PIG PRODUCTION 72
Table 4: Example Formulations for 90 – 120 kg live weight pigs

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 23.1 Wheat 25.6 45.9
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine 17.9 Wheat feed 25.0 25.0
Diet specification Soya 48 16.2 0.0
(minima)
Net energy 9.2 Barley 30.0 15.2
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Extracted oo 0.3 10.7
rape meal
Lysine 0.71 Soya oil 0.6 0.5
Methionine 0.42 Limestone 1.3 1.2
+cystine
Threonine 0.46 Monocalcium 0.5 0.5
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.13 Salt 0.4 0.4
Valine 0.50 Lysine HCL 0.0 0.35
Histidine 0.24 Threonine 0.0 0.09
Isoleucine 0.41 Methionine 0 0.0
Leucine 0.71 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.40 Oil 3.5 3.5
Phenylalanine + 0.71 Crude protein 17.9 14.7
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 4.6 5.3
Calcium 0.70 NDF 16.8 18.0
Dig. Phosphorus 0.23 Total Lysine 0.84 0.85
Sodium 0.18 DE (Mj/kg) 13.1 12.8

PIG PRODUCTION 73
Table 5: Example specifications and Formulations for pregnant sows and gilts

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 22.4 Wheat 36.8 39.2
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine Wheat feed 25.0 25.0
(g/dy) 11.3
Feed intake (kg/dy) 2.3
Diet specification Soya 48 4.5 0.0
(minima)
Net energy 9.7 Barley 30.0 30.0
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 0 0
Lysine 0.49 Soya oil 1.0 1.0
Methionine 0.32 Limestone 1.7 1.9
+cystine
Threonine 0.35 Monocalcium 0.5 0.6
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.10 Salt 0.41 0.42
Valine 0.36 Lysine HCL 0.09 0.18
Histidine 0.16 Threonine 0.0 0.05
Isoleucine 0.34 Methionine 0.01 0.0
Leucine 0.49 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.27 Oil 3.8 3.8
Phenylalanine + 0.49 Crude protein 13.5 12.5
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 4.4 4.4
Calcium 0.80 NDF 17.0 17.1
Dig. Phosphorus 0.23 Total Lysine 0.60 0.59
Sodium 0.17 DE (Mj/kg) 13.0 13.0

PIG PRODUCTION 74
Table 6: Example specifications and Formulations for Lactating sows

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 66.7 Wheat 33.2 29.2
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine Wheat feed 15.0 15.0
(g/dy) 54.4
Feed intake (kg/dy) 7.0
Diet specification Soya 48 18.9 13.0
(minima)
Net energy 9.5 Barley 25.4 25.4
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 3.0 3.0
Lysine 0.77 Soya oil 1.5 1.4
Methionine 0.42 Limestone 1.6 1.7
+cystine
Threonine 0.51 Monocalcium 0.90 0.96
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.14 Salt 0.5 0.5
Valine 0.59 Lysine HCL 0.05 0.22
Histidine 0.31 Threonine 0.0 0.07
Isoleucine 0.46 Methionine 0.00 0.0
Leucine 0.86 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.43 Oil 4.0 4.0
Phenylalanine + 0.88 Crude protein 18.0 16.0
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 3.8 3.8
Calcium 0.88 NDF 13.6 13.9
Dig. Phosphorus 0.32 Total Lysine 0.88 0.88
Sodium 0.20 DE (Mj/kg) 13.4 13.3

PIG PRODUCTION 75
Table 7: Example specifications and Formulations for Lactating Gilts

Nutrient intake Quantity Example High CP Low CP

and diet formulations
specification
Nutrient intake Raw materials
Net energy 56.1 Wheat 46.5 35.5
(MJ/Day)
St. il. Dig. Lysine Wheat feed 14.10 15.0
(g/dy) 46.2
Feed intake (kg/dy) 5.5
Diet specification Soya 48 21.9 17.5
(minima)
Net energy 10.2 Barley 10.0 25.0
(MJ/day)
St. il. Dig. Amino acids (%) Molasses 0.0 0.0
Lysine 0.84 Soya oil 4.0 4.2
Methionine 0.42 Limestone 1.75 1.80
+cystine
Threonine 0.46 Monocalcium 0.07 1.1
phosphate
Tryptophan 0.15 Salt 0.48 0.48
Valine 0.64 Lysine HCL 0.05 0.18
Histidine 0.34 Threonine 0.00 0.05
Isoleucine 0.50 Methionine 0.00 0.0
Leucine 0.94 Analysis (%)
phenylalanine 0.47 Oil 6.30 6.0
Phenylalanine + 0.96 Crude protein 19.0 17.5
tyrosine
Minerals (%) Crude fibre 3.5 3.5
Calcium 0.96 NDF 12.4 12.5
Dig. Phosphorus 0.35 Total Lysine 0.95 0.95
Sodium 0.20 DE (Mj/kg) 14.2 14.1

PIG PRODUCTION 76