UNIT – III

Stack Emissions:
Stack emissions are those gases and solids that come out of
the smoke stack after the incineration process. Incinerators can be designed to
accept wastes of any physical form, including gases, liquids, solids, sludges, and
slurries. Incineration is primarily for the treatment of wastes that contain
organic compounds. Wastes with a wide range of chemical and physical
characteristics are considered suitable for burning. Most of these wastes are
by-products of industrial manufacturing and chemical production processes, or
result from the clean-up of contaminated sites.
There is a great deal of controversy about the content of incinerator
stack emissions. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) supports
incineration as a waste management tool and claims that these emissions are
not dangerous. In an official publication, the EPA has stated:
"Incinerator emission gases are composed primarily of two harmless inorganic
compounds, carbon dioxide and water. The type and quantity of other
compounds depends on the composition of the wastes, the completeness of
the combustion process, and the air pollution control equipment with which
the incinerator is equipped. These compounds include organic and inorganic
compounds contained in the original waste and organic and inorganic
compounds created during combustion."
Single Stack and Multiple Source pollution:
Air pollution caused by effluents from a single or small group of stacks is
a local problem. Effluent concentration of concern generally occur at distances
ranging from the immediate vicinity of the stack to those of the order of the
several kilometres. At greater downwind distances, plumes formed by stack
effluent becomes so diluted by diffusion in the ambient atmosphere, that
concentrations may become negligibly small.
The combined effect of a large number of stack effluents spread over a
large area (usually urban) produces a different type of air pollution problem
which may have its principle area of the concern at much greater distances.
While the local pollution from any one stack may not be a problem, the
combined effect of a large number of stack produces serious urban pollution.
Characteristics of Stack Emission:

Plume Behaviour:
Plume behaviour refers to the dispersal pattern of gaseous pollutants in
atmosphere depending upon wind conditions, atmospheric stability and
vertical temperature profile. It shows seasonal as well as diurnal variations.
There are six types of plume behaviour. They are :
1. Looping
2. Conning
3. Fanning
4. Lofting
5. Fumigation
6. Trapping
Looping plume: It is a type of plume which has a wavy character. It takes
place when the atmosphere is very unstable, wind speed is greater than
10 ms-1 , has super-adiabatic lapse rate and is accompanied with solar
heating. It follows a wave like pattern and provides high degree of
mixing at lower levels, sometimes reaching the ground.
 Coning plume: It is a type of plume which is shaped like a cone. It results
when the vertical air temperature gradient occurs between dry adiabatic
and isothermal, the air being slightly unstable with some horizontal and
vertical mixing occurring. Coning is most likely to occur during cloudy or
windy periods.
Fanning plume: It is a type of flume emitted under extreme inversion
conditions. They spread out horizontally but do not mix vertically.
Fanning plumes take place when inversion condition exists in
atmosphere, that is, the air temperature increases with altitude. The
plume rarely reaches the grounds level unless the inversion is broken by
surface heating or a topographical barrier such as a hill. At night, with
light winds and clear skies, fanning plumes are quite common.
Lofting plume: Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a
surface inversion. It diffuses upward but not downwards and occurs
when there is a super-adiabatic layer above a surface inversion. A lofting
plume will generally not reach the ground surface, so there is less
pollution at ground level.
Fumigation: It is a phenomenon in which pollutants that are aloft in the
air are brought rapidly to ground level when the air destabilizes. It
occurs when plume reaches the ground level along the length of the
plume and is caused by a super-adiabatic lapse rate beneath an
inversion. The super-adiabatic lapse rate at the ground level occurs due
to the solar heating and is quite undesirable since the pollutants remain
at ground level. This condition is favoured by clear skies and light winds.
Trapping: This refers to conditions where the plume is caught between
inversions and can only diffuse within a limited vertical height. This
condition is accompanied by weak lapse below inversion aloft.

Heat Island Effect:

An Heat Island is that part of an urban or a metropolitan area that is
marked by remarkably high temperature as compared to its rural counterpart
due to excessive human activity. The difference in temperature is noticed
usually during the night and when winds are weak. The heat island is noticed
when both the summer and winter seasons are at their peak. The term heat
island is also used. Generally, such terms are used to denote any area that has
high temperatures compared to the surrounding area, but it usually refers to
those areas which have a high level of human activity.
Causes of the Heat Island Effect:
There are many factors that are the cause of a heat island effect. For
example, dark surfaces absorb far more solar heat and radiation, which is why
roads, pavements and roofs of buildings in urban areas witness a spike in high
temperatures as compared to their counterparts in suburban and rural areas.
The reason being that the materials commonly used in urban areas for
pavement and roofs, such as concrete and asphalt, have significantly different
thermal bulk properties such as heat capacity and thermal conductivity, then
the surrounding rural areas. This often leads to urban areas experiencing
higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas.
Geometric effects are also a cause for heat island. The tall buildings
within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and
absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are
heated. This is called the “urban canyon effect”. Another effect of buildings is
the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents
pollutants from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning,
industry, and other sources also contributes to the heat island.
Other factors include a reduction in vegetation, water bodies and crop
fields as a result of unplanned expansion and urbanization. The changing land
pattern has resulted in high-rise concrete and also asphalts across the urban
areas. These structures are opaque to the incoming radiations as they have a
low albedo. The automobiles, industries and air conditioners play a major role
in the increasing heat in the urban areas. Nevertheless, aerosols add up to it.
Heat islands form as a result of several factors:

• Reduced Natural Landscapes in Urban Areas. Trees, vegetation, and

water bodies tend to cool the air by providing shade, transpiring water
from plant leaves, and evaporating surface water, respectively. Hard, dry
surfaces in urban areas – such as roofs, sidewalks, roads, buildings, and
parking lots – provide less shade and moisture than natural landscapes
and therefore contribute to higher temperatures.
• Urban Material Properties. Conventional human-made materials used in
urban environments such as pavements or roofing tend to reflect less
 solar energy, and absorb and emit more of the sun’s heat compared to
trees, vegetation, and other natural surfaces. Often, heat islands build
throughout the day and become more pronounced after sunset due to
the slow release of heat from urban materials.
• Urban Geometry. The dimensions and spacing of buildings within a city
influence wind flow and urban materials’ ability to absorb and release
solar energy. In heavily developed areas, surfaces and structures
obstructed by neighbouring buildings become large thermal masses that
cannot release their heat readily. Cities with many narrow streets and
tall buildings become urban canyons, which can block natural wind flow
that would bring cooling effects.
• Heat Generated from Human Activities. Vehicles, air-conditioning units,
buildings, and industrial facilities all emit heat into the urban
environment. These sources of human-generated, or anthropogenic,
waste heat can contribute to heat island effects.
• Weather and Geography. Calm and clear weather conditions result in
more severe heat islands by maximizing the amount of solar energy
reaching urban surfaces and minimizing the amount of heat that can be
carried away. Conversely, strong winds and cloud cover suppress heat
island formation. Geographic features can also impact the heat island
effect. For example, nearby mountains can block wind from reaching a
city, or create wind patterns that pass through a city.
Characteristics of Heat Islands
Heat islands are usually measured by the temperature difference
between cities relative to the surrounding areas. Temperature can also vary
inside a city. Some areas are hotter than others due to the uneven distribution
of heat-absorbing buildings and pavements, while other spaces remain cooler
as a result of trees and greenery. These temperature differences constitute
intra-urban heat islands. In the heat island effect diagram, urban parks, ponds,
and residential areas are cooler than downtown areas .
 Surface temperatures vary more than atmospheric air temperatures
during the day, but they are generally similar at night. The dips and spikes in
surface temperatures over the pond area show how water maintains a nearly
constant temperature day and night because it does not absorb the sun’s
energy the same way as buildings and paved surfaces. Parks, open land, and
bodies of water can create cooler areas within a city. Temperatures are
typically lower at suburban-rural borders than in downtown areas.

In general, temperatures are different at the surface of the earth and in the
atmospheric air, higher above the city. For this reason, there are two types of
heat islands: surface heat islands and atmospheric heat islands. These differ in
the ways they are formed, the techniques used to identify and measure them,
their impacts, and to some degree the methods available to cool them.

• Surface Heat Islands. These heat islands form because urban surfaces
such as roadways and rooftops absorb and emit heat to a greater extent
than most natural surfaces. On a warm day with a temperature of 91°F,
conventional roofing materials may reach as high as 60°F warmer than
air temperatures.[2] Surface heat islands tend to be most intense during
the day when the sun is shining.
• Atmospheric Heat Islands. These heat islands form as a result of warmer
air in urban areas compared to cooler air in outlying areas. Atmospheric
heat islands vary much less in intensity than surface heat islands.

Impact of the Urban Heat Island effect:

Aside from the effect on temperature, heat islands can produce
secondary effects on local meteorology, including the altering of local wind
patterns, the development of clouds and fog, the humidity, and the rates of
precipitation. The extra heat provided by the heat island leads to greater
upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm
activity. In addition, the heat island creates during the day a local low-pressure
area where relatively moist air from its rural surroundings converges, possibly
leading to more favourable conditions for cloud formation. Rainfall rates
downwind of cities have increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result
of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32
km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Some
cities show a total precipitation increase of 51%.

Particulate Matter (PM):

PM stands for particulate matter (also called particle pollution): the term
for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some
particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be
seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be detected using
an electron microscope.
Particle pollution includes:

• PM10 : inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micro

meters and smaller; and
• PM2.5 : fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5
micro meters and smaller.

Sources of PM

These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of
different chemicals.

Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads,
fields, smokestacks or fires.

Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals

such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power
plants, industries and automobiles.

Harmful Effects of PM:

Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are
so small that they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Some
particles less than 10 micro meters in diameter can get deep into your lungs
and some may even get into your bloodstream. Of these, particles less than 2.5
micro meters in diameter, also known as fine particles or PM 2.5, pose the
greatest risk to health.

Fine particles are also the main cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts of the
United States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness
areas.

Gaseous Pollutants:

Gaseous air pollutants are emitted from various natural sources, such as
volcanoes and forest fires. However, anthropogenic emissions of some gases
may be greater than the natural ones, and are increasing because of
population growth and industrialization.

In ancient times, there was not much pollution. Nevertheless, even then
local problems would have occurred. For instance, smoky wood fires used for
cooking and warmth would likely have caused poor-quality air to occur inside
of badly ventilated dwellings. Hunting cultures often used fire to drive game
animals and improve local forage, and those burns would have resulted in
large emissions of particulate carbon (soot), carbon dioxide, and other gases
that would have temporarily impaired air quality. Overall, however, these
effects were relatively minor.

Gaseous pollutants (e.g., CO, SO2, NOx, VOCs, O3 etc.)

Fossil fuel combustion produces gaseous pollutants, causing variation
in atmospheric composition. Nitrogen Oxide (NO) reacts actively with ozone
(O3) or radicals in atmosphere forming nitrogen dioxide (NO2). In lower
atmospheric layers, sun light acts as catalyst in reactions between NO 2 and
VOC (Volatile Organic compounds) to produce Ozone. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
produced from partial fossil fuel combustion. Nitrogen oxides and carbon
monoxide produced from sulfur based fossil fuel (coal and heavy oils)
combustion.
Transportation and power plants the major volatile organic compound
emission sources, which affects respiratory system as well as instigates
hematological problems and cancer.
CO (Carbon Monoxide):
CO is a colorless, odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large
amounts. CO is released when something is burned. The greatest sources of CO
to outdoor air are cars, trucks and other vehicles or machinery that burn fossil
fuels. A variety of items in your home such as unvented kerosene and gas
space heaters, leaking chimneys and furnaces, and gas stoves also release CO
and can affect air quality indoors.

Harmful effects of CO:

Breathing air with a high concentration of CO reduces the amount of
oxygen that can be transported in the blood stream to critical organs like the
heart and brain.

At very high levels, which are possible indoors or in other enclosed

environments, CO can cause dizziness, confusion, unconsciousness and death.

Very high levels of CO are not likely to occur outdoors. However, when CO
levels are elevated outdoors, they can be of particular concern for people with
some types of heart disease. These people already have a reduced ability for
getting oxygenated blood to their hearts in situations where the heart needs
more oxygen than usual. They are especially vulnerable to the effects of CO
when exercising or under increased stress. In these situations, short-term
exposure to elevated CO may result in reduced oxygen to the heart
accompanied by chest pain also known as angina.

Carbon Dioxide(co2):
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through
human activities. In 2020, CO2 accounted for about 79% of all U.S. greenhouse
gas emissions from human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in the
atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon cycle (the natural circulation of
carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals). Human
activities are altering the carbon cycle–both by adding more CO2 to the
atmosphere and by influencing the ability of natural sinks, like forests and soils,
to remove and store CO2 from the atmosphere. While CO2 emissions come
from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for
the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere since the industrial
revolution.
The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels
(coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation. Certain industrial
processes and land-use changes also emit CO2.
Hydro Carbons (HC):
Hydrocarbon contamination is of great worry because of their widespread
effect on all forms of life. Pollution caused by increasing the use of crude oil is
ordinary because of its extensive application and its related transport and
dumping problems. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of aliphatic, aromatic,
and heterocyclic compounds. Soil naturally consists of heavy metals, and due to
human action like refining of oil and use of pesticides, their concentration in soil is
rising. Several areas have such high heavy metal and metalloid concentration that
surrounding natural ecosystem has been badly affected. The reason is that heavy
metals and metalloids limit microbe’s activity rendering it unsuitable for
hydrocarbon degradation, thus reducing its effectiveness. Environmental
remediation is thus extremely necessary and involves with the elimination of
pollutants from soil, air, and water. In the last several decades, different methods
have been employed and applied for the cleanup of our environment which
includes mechanical, chemical, and biochemical remediation methods. The
hydrocarbon pollution consists of many aspects like oil spills, fossil fuels, organic
pollutants like aromatics, etc.
SOX & NOX:
The two main pollutants from ship emissions are Nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and Sulfur oxides (SOx).
Sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions are mainly due to the presence of sulfur
compound in the fuel. Smoke containing sulfur oxides emitted by the
combustion of marine fuel will often oxidize further, forming sulfuric acid
which is a major contributor to acid rain. SOx emissions also contribute to the
formation of secondary inorganic aerosol gases – fine particulates that are
harmful to people.
Nitrogen oxide (NOx):Marine fuel in an internal combustion engine is burned
inside the combustion chamber by the correct mixture of fuel and air in the
presence of heat or an ignition source (the compression stroke of a piston).
Nitrogen reacts with oxygen under certain engine operating conditions to
form Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Contributing factors include:

• High cylinder temperature and pressure during the combustion process

• Improper air and fuel ratio for combustion
• The high temperature of the intake or scavenger air inside the cylinder
• Lower quality of fuel used for the engine

Photo chemical oxidants:

Photochemical oxidants are found in 'photochemical smog' which is a

complex mixture of primary and secondary air pollutants. The photochemical
oxidants are secondary air pollutants formed by the action of sunlight on
nitrogen oxides and reactive hydrocarbons, their precursors. The most
important phytotoxic components produced by these atmospheric
photochemical reactions are ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate. Other peroxy
compounds, aldehydes, ketones, organic and inorganic acids, aerosols, and
nitrogen dioxide also are formed. An analysis and evaluation of the available
literature was used to characterize the relationships among emissions,
ambient concentrations, effects and to identify the important controlling
influences on the formation and effects of photochemical oxidants. The
ultimate protection of humans, animals, plants, and materials from
photochemical oxidant injury requires reduction of the ambient concentration
of the particular air pollutant. The available emission estimates for the
precursor compounds indicate that, at least for the foreseeable future,
humans and the environment will continue to be impacted by photochemical
oxidants. The material for this book was selected to provide a basis for
preventive measures at the emission source and at the site of impact; also to
provide researchers and students with a comprehensive information base.