INTRODUCATION

Soil pH is a master variable in soils because it controls many chemical and biochemical
processes operating within the soil. It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a soil. The
study of soil pH is very important in agriculture due to the fact that soil pH regulates plant
nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and also
influences their chemical reactions. As a result, soil and crop productivities are linked to soil
pH value. Though soil pH generally ranges from 1 to 14, the optimum range for most
agricultural crops is between 5.5 and 7.5. However, some crops have adapted to thrive at soil
pH values outside this optimum range. The United States Department of Agricultural
National Resources Conservation Service groups soil pH values as follows: ultra acidic
(<3.5), extremely acidic (3.5–4.4), very strongly acid (4.5–5.0), strongly acidic (5.1–5.5),
moderately acidic (5.6–6.0), slightly acidic (6.1–6.5), neutral (6.6–7.3), slightly alkaline (7.4–
7.8), moderately alkaline (7.9–8.4), strongly alkaline (8.5–9.0) and very strongly alkaline
(>9.0) [1].

Soil pH is affected by the mineral composition of the soil parent material and the weathering
reactions undergone by that parent material. For instance, in humid environments, soil
acidification occurs for a long time as the products of weathering leached by water moving
laterally or downwards through the soil, while in the dry environments, soil weathering and
leaching are less intense, and soil pH is often neutral or alkaline

 PH Can be viewed as an abbreuation for peuer of come of Hyotrogen in solutaion Soil

PH is a measurement that indicates the askalinty as acidity of soil. It is caculated by
finding the negative logarithem of concentration of hydregen in the soil, and ranges
from O to 14 The lower a soil’s PH the more acidic it si, and the gihter the PH, the
more alkiline the soil. Soil with a PH of is considered nautral.
 Soil PH is an important measurement because the acidity as alkalinity of Soil
determines how easily plants can abserb nutrients
 A PH level of less than 4.5 is conssidered entremely acidic, and anything above 8.5-
9.0 is considereed strengly alkaline
 Plants take up nutrients from soil when the nutrients are dissolued in water when the
soil PH is two acidic or two alkaline Some of these nutrients including iron, nitrogen
 and other are not able to dissalue as officiontly When soil is to acidic (below about 6.0
PH) phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen can not be properly, potassium and
abosorbed when it is too alkaline, with PH rising much higher than 7.5, then
phosphorous mangonese and iron will not readilydissolue in soil solution. This most
plants three best is soil with a PH of 6.0-7.5.
 Soil PH level are affected by a number of different factor, including temperature
rainfall and the type of Vegetation that has grow in soil pressously.
 Soil are complex mixture of mineral, air. water, organic matter and counttess
organism that are the deccaying memains once living things. It forms at the surface of
land.
Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to live on earth.
Soils sereu as media for growth of all kind of plants.
 Soil modify the atmesphere by emitting and absorbeing gases and dust.
 TYPES OF SOIL

Definition of Soil

Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and organic materials/
humus which develop on Earth surface and help to grow plants

Soil Classification – Urvara vs Usara

In India, soil had been classified from the ancient period itself even though it was not as detail
as the modern classifications.In the ancient period, the classification was based on only two
things; whether the soil is fertile or sterile. Thus the classification were:

1-Urvara [fertile] 2-Usara (sterile)

Soil Classification –classificationof soil on the basis of texture, size,moisture

A-Sandy Soil: it contain mainly sand ( having large particles with large spaces).Due to large
space between the particles the water holding capacity is poor and it contain little amounts of
humus so it is also less fertile and also contain air in it .it easily get dried up .

B-clayey Soil: It contains mainly clay .the water holding capacity is very good due to very
small and tightly packed particles.this lead to water logging of soil and damage of crop
plants.Due to small pore size,it is not able to trap enough Air.It is mainly highly rich in
minerals.it is mainly used for making pots and toys.

C-Loamy Soil: It is good mixture of sand clay silt and humus in right proportions.it has the
right water holding capacity for growth of plant's.the Excess water is drained out easily.it
contain sufficient amounts of air and humus needed for plants root's.it is most fertile soil.

Major classification of Indian soil

Alluvial soil:

1-Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km.

2-Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.

3-In peninsular-India, they are mostly found in deltas and estuaries.

4-Humus, lime and organic matters are present.

5-Highly fertile.Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are examples.

6-They are depositional soil – transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.

7-Sand content decreases from west to east of the country.

8-New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.

10-Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey .11-Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.

12-Rich in: potash. 13-Poor in: phosphorous.

14-Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.

Red soil:

1-Seen mainly in low rainfall area.Also known as Omnibus group.

2-Porous, friable structure.Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).

3-Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.

4-Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.

5-Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are
cultivated.

Black soil / regur soil:

1-Regur means cotton – best soil for cotton cultivation.Most of the Deccan is occupied by
Black soiland it is Mature soil.

2-High water retaining capacity.Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when
dried.

3-Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.

4-Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.

5-Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.

6-Colour: Deep black to light black.Texture: Clayey.

Laterite soil:
1-Name from Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.Become so soft when wet and so hard
when dried.In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.

2-Formed as a result of high leaching.Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.

Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature and
humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is low.

4-Rich in: Iron and AluminumDeficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus

5-Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated
mainly.

Dessert / arid soil:

1-Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.Deposited mainly by wind activities.

2-High salt content.Lack of moisture and Humus.

3-Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of
water.

4-Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.Texture: Sandy

5-Colour: Red to Brown.Peaty / marshy soil:Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.

6-Growth of vegetation is very less.heavy soil with Black Colour

7-A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.

Forest soil:

1-Regions of high rainfall.Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.

2-Mountain soil:In the mountain regions of the country.

3-Immature soil with low humus and acidic.hich develop on the earth surface and support
growth of plant.

Properties Of Soil:
A-percolation rate -Percolation is the movement of water through soil, and the percolation
rate is the speed at which that movement occur.

Percolation rate (ml/min)= amounts of water (ml)/percolation time'(min)

B-moisture in Soil: 1-soil absorbs water and also holds water in it ,which is known as
moisture.

2-Petcentage of moisture in Soil=(weight of moisture (g)/original wt of soil sample)"100

Where Wt of moisture =Wt of original sample-Wt of dried soil samples

3-Simmering of air : On a hot summer day ,the air above the land seems to simmer .it
happen because the vapour coming out of the soil reflect the sunlight and the air seem to
simmer.

4- Percentages of water absorbed=(amount of water absorbed (ml)/amounts of Soil)*100

 Soil Profile
 The soil is found in layer. Which are arranged during the formation of soil These
layers called herizons, the sequence of layer is soil profile.
 The layer of soil Can easily be obserued by their colors and size of particcles The
main layers of soil are tepsoil and the parent mock. Each layer has its own character
sticks.
 These feauture of the layer of soil play a very important role in determining the use of
the soil soil that has developed three layer is matue soil.
 It takes many your under a famourable Condition for the soil to develop its three
layers. At some places the soil Contains only 2 layer. Succh soil is immatrere soil.
Formation of soil
 The soil has taken thousands of years to form soil formation takes place in following
ways
 Big rocks break down into smallers rocks by continous action of wind and rain.
 It takes many year for these rocks to break down into smaller rocks.
 Rocks are mainly brokem by two types of wathering physical wathering and chemical
weathering.
 Parent rock break down into tiny particles of soil These agents work to include wind
water the sun’heat and plants and animals.
 These pices get further broken down to form sand and sill and uttimately, into fires
particles and the process Continues. This process is very slow. It taken thousands of
layer to form a just I am layer of soil. These fine particles form the tap layer of the
soil.
 Vertical section of earth cruse (6 feet) soil profile
 Structure, thickness, consistency, texture, porosity, colour, chemical, Cemposition.
 Soil profile varies from place to place.
 Depends on elimate, vegetation and porent rock
Top soil thicker in forest layers of soil are Horizons 6 horizons O horizon I organic

horizon as litter zone :- It is called as organic horizon It is formed in the upper part the

mineral soil. : -

 A horizon (top soil) :- Horizon of organic matter accumulation adgicent to surface and

that has last day, iron and aluminium

 B-horizon (Sub soil) :- Horizon in which the deminant features are accumulation of

day, iron, alluminium or in combination strenger of red colour than ourlying or under

lying horizons.

 C- horizon 4D horizon (weathing rock) :- It is the horizon below the solum (A+B),

relatiuly less offected by soil forming process. It is out side the zone majer biological

activity. It may contain accumulation of suephates, Calcuim and magnessium.

 R-horizon (bed rock) :- underlying on solidated rock and it may or may not be like the

parent rock from which the solumiformed.

 Soil Texture

Texture of soil indicates the relative content of particles of vorious sizes, such as sand sitt and

lay in the soil.

Textur influences the case with which soil can be worked the amount of water and air it helds,

and the rate at which water can enter and move soil.

To find the texture of soil sample, first, separate the find earth. all particles less than 2 mm,

from larger particles such gravel and stenes, fine earth is a mixture of sand, sitt and clay,

You musts be sure to use only fine earth to perform the following field tests.

Vorious combination of different size of mineral particlesfrom soil texture.

Course texture soil - light soil

Fine textured soil - heavy soil

Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay
sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil.

For example, light soil refers to a soil high in sand relative to clay, while heavy soils are made
up largely of clay.

Texture is important because it influences:

 the amount of water the soil can hold

 the rate of water movement through the soil

 how workable and fertile the soil is.

For example, sand is well aerated but does not hold much water and is low in nutrients. Clay

soils generally hold more water, and are better at supplying nutrients.
Texture often changes with depth so roots have to cope with different conditions as they

penetrate the soil. A soil can be classified according to the way the texture changes with

depth. The 3 profile types are:

 uniform—same texture throughout the soil profile

 texture-contrast—abrupt texture change between the topsoil and subsoil

 gradational—texture gradually increases down the soil profile.

How to determine soil texture

1. Take about 2 tablespoons of soil in one hand and add water, drop by drop, while

working the soil until it reaches a sticky consistency.

2. Squeeze the wetted soil between thumb and forefinger to form a flat ribbon.

3. Determine the texture based on the length of the ribbon that can be formed without

breaking—see following table.

 Different textured based on their particle size

* Fine texture soil (lay soil)

* Maderately fine lextured soil (lamy soil)

* Medium textured soil (loamy soil)

* Coarse textured soil (Sandy)

Importance :-

Soil texture plays crucial role for nutrient supplies, acration, reet duvelopment,

moisture content.
 Soil structure
Soil structure refers to the way soil particles group together to form aggregates (or peds).

These aggregates vary in size and shape from small crumbs through to large blocks.

Some soils resemble a large, solid, featureless mass—referred to as massive—and have little

or no structure. For example, very sandy soils have no structure because sand grains do not

cling together.

Good soils fit in between the two extremes. A well-structured soil breaks up easily into peds

with a definite shape (such as granular or blocky) and size (1–60mm).

Good structure is important, as it allows water to soak into the soil and excess water to drain

away. It also allows air movement through the soil. Soil, air and water are vital for healthy

plant growth and nutrient supply.

Soil peds

Peds are made up of mineral particles (clay, silt, sand) and organic matter. Peds are held

together by the electrical charges on the surfaces of the minerals and organic matter.

Although clay particles are small, they have large surface areas. For example the surface on

the clay in a teaspoon of black cracking clay soil is equal to the surface area of a tennis court.

Such clays and soils with a lot of organic matter are more likely to form strong peds. Sandy

soils or soils with little organic matter often have little or no ped development.

Peds are described by their shape—for example: blocky, columnar, massive, single grain or

platy.
Types of Aggregates

 Granular :- small spherical, no, perouss (0.5 mm), formed in horizons, reet growth

 Plaly - thin, flat plates that in heerizontally, usually found in complacted soil

 Colummar - vertical columns of soil houzing salt caps at the top, found in soils of

arid climates.

 Blacky - irregular block, may be aggregated (1.5-5.0gm)

 Prismatic - vertical colums of soil, usualy found in lous horizons.

 Soil Colours
The colour of the soil is usually the first thing people notice.

Mostly this is just the topsoil but it does not reflect the entire soil. The topsoil is usually

darker than lower layers (or horizons) because this is where organic matter accumulates.

Soil colour is usually due to 3 main pigments:

 Black—from organic matter

 Red—from iron and aluminium oxides

 White—from silicates and salt.

Colour can be a useful indicator of some of the general properties of a soil, as well as some of

the chemical processes that are occurring beneath the surface.

 Soil pH

Soils can be naturally acid or alkaline, and this can be measured by testing their pH value.

Having the correct pH is important for healthy plant growth. Being aware of the long-term

effects of different soil management practices on soil pH is also important. Research has

demonstrated that some agricultural practices significantly alter soil pH

What is pH?

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil.

A pH value is actually a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. Because hydrogen ion

concentration varies over a wide range, a logarithmic scale (pH) is used: for a pH decrease of

1, the acidity increases by a factor of 10.

It is a ‘reverse’ scale in that a very acid soil has a low pH and a high hydrogen ion

concentration. Therefore, at high (alkaline) pH values, the hydrogen ion concentration is low.

Most soils have pH values between 3.5 and 10. In higher rainfall areas the natural pH of soils

typically ranges from 5 to 7, while in drier areas the range is 6.5 to 9.

Soils can be classified according to their pH value:

 6.5 to 7.5—neutral

 over 7.5—alkaline

 less than 6.5—acidic, and soils with pH less than 5.5 are considered strongly acidic.

Acid sulfate soils can have extremely acidic pH values (pH less than 4).
Origins

Natural soil pH depends on the rock from which the soil was formed (parent material) and the

weathering processes that acted on it—for example climate, vegetation, topography and time.

These processes tend to cause a lowering of pH (increase in acidity) over time.

Some agricultural activities can also accelerate the acidification process.

Effects

Soil pH affects the amount of nutrients and chemicals that are soluble in soil water, and

therefore the amount of nutrients available to plants. Some nutrients are more available under

acid conditions while others are more available under alkaline conditions.

However, most mineral nutrients are readily available to plants when soil pH is near neutral.

The development of strongly acidic soils (less than 5.5 pH) can result in poor plant growth as

a result of one or more of the following factors:

 aluminium toxicity

 manganese toxicity

 calcium deficiency

 magnesium deficiency

 low levels of essential plant nutrients such as phosphorus and molybdenum.

Alkaline soils may have problems with deficiencies of nutrients such as zinc, copper, boron

and manganese. Soils with an extremely alkaline pH (greater than 9) are likely to have high

levels of sodium.
The correct balance is where the soil pH is between 5.5 and 7.5, so every effort should be

taken to check soil pH levels regularly. Early identification of soil pH problems is important

as it can be both costly and difficult to correct long-term nutrient deficiencies.

Changing soil pH

Some fertilisers can change soil pH and increase or reduce the amount of nutrients available

to plants.

Fertilisers such as crushed sulfur and some ammonium-based nitrogen fertilisers lower pH

and make soil more acid. They are, therefore, useful for soils with problems caused by high

pH.

Lime and dolomite

When soils are too acidic for a particular crop, lime or dolomite can be used to increase the

pH to the desired level. The amount of lime or dolomite required to correct an acidic pH will

vary from soil to soil.

Soils with high organic matter and clay content will be more resistant to changes in pH and

will require larger application rates. Therefore soil pH, while indicating the need for lime, is

not a reliable guide as to how much lime is required.

Trials

Field trials, in which good quality lime was cultivated into the soil surface to a depth of 0.1m,

have been undertaken on a number of acidic soils in Queensland.

Across all soils, for every tonne of lime added per hectare, soil pH increased from 0.1 to 0.8

pH units.
The most common change was an increase of 0.2 to 0.3 pH units. The larger pH increases

were obtained on sandy soils with low organic matter content.

Commercial applications

Typical commercial application rates of around 2 tonnes of lime per hectare are therefore

likely to increase the pH by only about 0.5 of a pH unit.

However, these small pH increases are often enough to result in an increased yield.

Liming tropical and subtropical acidic soils usually results in an increase in their capacity to

hold nutrients. This is a benefit that is not often realised.

Measurement

Inexpensive and easy-to-use field kits are available to measure soil pH—these provide only

an approximate soil pH value.

Laboratory testing is required to obtain an accurate pH value.

Most Queensland laboratories use a 1:5 (soil:water) suspension method to determine pH.

However, some laboratories may use different testing methods, so professional advice should

be sought when interpreting test results and planning management strategies.

 Physical properties of soil

1. Density :- Depends on extent of weathering and partile arrangement

2. Porosity :- Porosity is the space between soil particles in given volume. The pores

space are necessary for holding water, an the free gaseous exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide between the soil roet and soil surface.

3. Permeability :- Determintes the movement of water through pore space.

4. Soil temperature :- soil temperature is influenced by soil colour, texture and water

and also by altituude and sleke.

 Affected by cclimate and vegetation lyke.

 Black soil absourb more that.

5. Soil atmosphere :- Contain three gases oxygen, Carbon dioxide, nitrogen

Soil temperature
Soil temperature is affected by climate, water content of a soil, soil color, soil cover (e.g.

presence or absence of mulch), depth in the soil profile, and air and water flow within a soil.

Minnesota soils are generally slow to warm in spring due to climate, but the following

conditions affect temperature.

 Dark colored soils warm more quickly and attain higher temperatures than light colored

soils

 Organic matter imparts a darker color to soil, leading to increased warming, but also

retains water, which can slow warming

 Soils with high porosity and well connected pores will warm faster and cool quicker

 Soils on south facing slopes are subject to greater thermal inputs compared to north facing

soils

 Soil temperatures fluctuate less with depth in the soil profile

 Soil temperatures fluctuate daily

Soil temperatures are an important consideration in vegetated systems. Human activities that

affect temperature include the following.

 Adding organic matter and mulch will slow warming but also increase heat retention

 Activities that improve soil structure, reduce compaction, and increase pore connectivity

increase heat transfer

 Vegetation can result in shading

 Light colored soil coverings reflect solar radiation and decrease heating
 SOIL CARBON

Soils can store, cycle and emit as gases different forms of carbon as part of the carbon cycle

process. These forms may be very stable and stay in the soil for thousands of years or may be

broken down in just a few hours. Soil stores more carbon than the atmosphere and plants

combined.

Soil carbon forms

Soil carbon can occur as organic and inorganic carbon forms.

Organic carbon includes decaying plant matter, soil organisms and microbes, and carbon

compounds such as sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins and

organic acids.

Inorganic carbon is mineral-based with the most common form being calcium carbonate.

Soil organic matter influences soil functions and properties and is a vital indicator of soil

health as it:

 provides energy for soil microorganisms, nutrient storage and supply (especially

nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur)

 improves soil structure as well as the soil's ability to hold water and resist

acidification.

Measuring organic carbon

The amount of organic matter in soil is difficult to measure directly. Laboratory tests actually

measure soil organic carbon, which makes up about 58% of total soil organic matter.
Soil organic matter is made up of several ‘pools’ which last for different lengths of time in

soil and affect different soil functions. Organic matter and residue deposited in, or on the soil,

is the most active pool, but may be rapidly lost.

Humus, made up of decayed organic residues from plants, soil organisms and microbes, is

more resistant to breaking down than particulate or active organic matter and is a more stable

slow pool. Charcoal is very stable, but is not biologically active, and therefore is an inert or

passive pool.

Soil organic carbon is an important global carbon pool, about 3 times larger than the amount

of carbon stored in vegetation and twice the amount stored in the atmosphere. In general,

organic carbon stocks in Australian soils are much lower than the global average.

Managing organic carbon

Soil cultivation and soil degradation result in loss of organic carbon through release as carbon

dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere.

Land clearing and over-grazing disturb the soil and can contribute to organic carbon loss by

removing plant residues off-site and accelerating decomposition of organic matter.

Improved soil management methods such as retaining crop stubble on the soil surface and

reducing grazing pressure have the potential to increase the store of soil organic carbon

and/or reduce organic carbon loss.

The global carbon cycle

There is as much carbon in the world today as there was millions of years ago.

However, by burning fuels and interacting with soil and vegetation, human activities affect
the distribution of carbon between the terrestrial, marine and atmospheric pools of the global
carbon cycle.
Benefits of soil organic matter

Soil organic matter and soil carbon are indicators of soil health. Soil organic matter influences

a variety of soil functions and properties including by:

 acting as an energy source for micro-organisms and as a supply of nutrients (such as

nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur)

 supporting soil structure by binding particles together into aggregates, which keeps

the soil stable—increasing water infiltration and assisting in preventing soil

compaction

 increasing pH buffering capacity (the ability of soil to resist changes in pH), which

make soils less vulnerable to soil acidification

 preventing leaching losses of plant nutrients like calcium, magnesium and potassium

as these are held on soil organic matter.

Improving soil carbon levels

Ways to improve soil carbon levels will vary according to land-use, soil type and climate. As

Queensland is a large state, there is large variation in the range of soil conditions.

Grazing lands

Around 85% of Queensland is used for grazing of pasture land. This area includes woodlands,

forests, natural grasslands and areas planted to exotic pasture species. General practices for

improving soil carbon in grazing lands include:

 having pastures with perennial species; perennial pastures have greater soil carbon

inputs than annual pastures.

  managing pastures well so they are not overgrazed or eroded and can produce a higher

rate of plant growth—thus increasing or maintaining the level of carbon in the soil.

Cropping lands

Queensland farmers have been very selective in the land they choose to grow crops on as only

2% of the state is used for cropping.

Healthy crops efficiently convert carbon dioxide into plant growth. Practices that may help

maintain or increase soil carbon levels in cropping lands include:

 maintaining a healthy soil that makes optimal use of rainfall and irrigation, has

adequate levels of plant nutrients, is well aerated, has a close to neutral pH and high

levels of biological life

 minimising soil compaction by the adoption of practices such as controlled traffic

farming (CTF)

 using green and brown manure crops (green manure crops sprayed with herbicide)

 adopting a pasture phase in a crop rotation system (preferably including a legume)

 adopting zero till or conservation farming practices.

However, adopting a perennial pasture phase is the most promising practice to increase soil

carbon levels in cropping lands.

More information

 Soil carbon sequestration (NSW Department of Primary Industries)

 Soil organic matter (Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and

Environment)

 Soil: Carbon dynamics (Australia State of the Environment – 2016)

 SOIL WATER

The make up of macropores, micropores, soil mineral, water and organic matter

Water supply through soils is vital for both plants and soil organisms—they need water to
survive.

Soil water contains nutrients that move into the plant roots when plants take in water.

Water enters the soil through large pores (macropores) and is stored in many small pores
(micropores). Porous soils have a balance between macro and micro pores.

In Queensland

Queensland has highly variable rainfall and agricultural lands can experience extremes of wet
and dry.

When conditions are predominantly dry, there can be insufficient moisture in the soil to grow
crops or maintain pastures.

On the other hand, sometimes excess water can be a problem too.

Specific terms

To understand how much water is held in soil, the following terms are important:

 field capacity—the amount of water held in the soil after it has been fully wetted and
free drainage has stopped. Water applied above this limit will make the soil saturated
but water will drain quickly or be lost as runoff.
  permanent wilting point—the soil moisture condition at which the plant could not
obtain water and has wilted and died. The crop cannot be revived by an irrigation or
rainfall event.
 plant available water capacity (PAWC)—the amount of water between field capacity
and permanent wilting point that is available to a plant. This requires careful
management and depends on soil texture, structure and organic matter in the soil.

Controlling water use

When soil is at field capacity, further rainfall cannot be stored in the soil profile so most of
the water runs off and can cause erosion.

When a soil profile is full, one option is to plant a crop to use the water. This opportunity
cropping reduces the stored water and makes room for more from further rainfall.

When managing soil water, the following should be considered:

 organic material increases the soils capacity to store water

 knowing the depth of rooting in plants is important—for example shallow rooted
plants are unlikely to get access to water in soils where there are large stores in
the subsoil
 accurate estimates of soil water allow for a closer match between nutrient supply and
irrigation scheduling.

Waterlogging

When the soil is at or near field capacity, micropores in the soil are full of water and the
macropores allow for the movement of oxygen.

When a soil is above field capacity, the macropores fill with water and the soil is depleted of
oxygen. When this happens, plant roots cannot get oxygen from the soil and microbial
activity slows. Over a prolonged period, plants eventually die.

Also, without oxygen in the soil, nitrogen breaks down and is lost as gas in a process
called denitrification. This can cause a decline in soil fertility.
Soil limitations to water entry

Water infiltration into the soil will be limited by the least permeable layer, so restrictions near
the surface may be more important than restrictions deep in the profile.

If water is unable to enter the soil profile due to surface sealing or hardsetting for example,
the ability of the soil to store water is reduced.

Surface seal

A surface seal or crust is a thin layer (1−10mm) formed on the soil surface by water drop
impact. It can have a porosity 90% lower than that of an unsealed soil. Permeability declines
during rain or irrigation when the surface aggregates break down and are compacted under
drop impact.

Surface sealing is largely responsible for restricted initial infiltration under rainfall or
irrigation. Water that is unable to move into the soil profile will run off.

Sealing and crusting may be natural, or induced when soil cover is removed. It is sometimes
associated with sodicity.

Hardsetting layer

Hardsetting is an inherent feature of some soils (for example some texture-contrast soils and
weakly structured cracking clays).

Soil aggregates break down during wetting, then set to a hard, structureless mass during
drying. This can be exacerbated by over-cultivation and reduction in organic matter, which
reduces aggregate stability.

Soil compaction

Surface compaction is induced by tillage tool smearing, tractor wheels and farm animals.

This occurs when the soil is sheared or compressed at the critical moisture content known as
the plastic limit.
Compaction results in high soil strength and reduced porosity, preventing water from
accessing the root zone. In tilled soils, a plough pan can be created directly under the tilled
layer by the smearing action of tines.

Compaction below the tilled layer (subsurface compaction) is created by high axle loads
under moist soil conditions. Water is unable to move freely through the soil profile. In dry
conditions, subsurface compaction will prevent roots accessing deep stored moisture.

Impermeable subsoils

Impermeable subsoils are an inherent feature of some soils and may be associated with
a sodic subsoil or shallow soil profile on rock.

Water entry is limited and under high rainfall, waterlogging may occur on top of the
impermeable layer.

Identifying restrictive soil layers

A layer that restricts water infiltration in the soil may have the following characteristics:

 The soil is not wet enough after good rain.

 The soil surface appears sealed after rain.
 Water runs off rather than infiltrating.
 Waterlogging is a problem.

What can I do?

Management practices that can help overcome restrictive soil layers include:

 maintaining stubble cover
 gypsum application
 cultivation
 pasture phase
 minimising traffic
 controlled traffic farming practices
 rotation with deep-rooting crops.
Each of these management practices will improve infiltration in only one or two of the
restrictive layers.

Since the most restrictive layer will control water movement, simply removing one may not
improve the overall physical condition of the soil profile. A combination of practices may be
required to achieve real benefits.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Chemical Composition :- Consist of beth organic and nerganic Compounds.

Inerganic :- mainly Ca, Mg, Al, Si, K, Na and traces Mg, Zn, Co, fe, Cu, It infleuence the PH
of soil.
Organic :- Prateins, amino acid, arematics Ccempound peerine, phrimidere, sugar, alcohal,
fat, oil, resum, waxes and lignin.
Chemical nature of soil greatly influence the plant growth and type of vegetation.
2. Soil PH :- Soil PH ranges between 2.2-9.6 Some soils are acidic and some alkaline.
 Soil PH is influenced by mineral content, climate, weathering and rainfall.
 PH affeces the availability of nutrient and minerals.
 Increase in PH - incrase in calcuim availability
3 Soil enzyme :- Three are 50 enzymes in various types of soil
 The main source of soil enzymes are microarganisms, soil animals, plant reets.
 Cotalyze biological reacction in Soil.
 Maintain soil fertilily and suphort plant life.
 Common enzymes are :-
 Amaylase cotalases, inuertase, dehydrogemase, phenol exidases etc.
4. Humus :- It is a complex organic substance resulting from the breakdown of plant
material and other organic compound in a process called humification.
Types of humus :- Depending on the level of decomposition, humus can be classified into
mer meder mull.
a) Mer-is the least decomposed biological activity in sel.
b) Meder: is the transitional stage of decompesition. Medium humified humus.
c) Mull : is a fully decocmposed organic matter, high bilogical activity.
 TESTING OF PH LEVEL OF SOIL

Abstract

The project is conducted to examine the PH value of soil.

 Materils required -

 Soil Sample

 Polythene bags

 PH papper

 PH colour charg

 Test tube

 Beaker 250 ml

 Funnel

 Wistilled water

 Filter paper

 Experimentation

 Obsevation

Experimentation
 Take a beaker 250 ml of distilled water and a table spoon full of soil in it.

 Stir it well and leave undisturbed for about 20 minute to settle down the soil particles.

 filter the solution.

 Now its time to check the PH tells us how acidic or alkaline a substance is.

 Matching the colour in the container with the colour chart.

 Repeat this experiment with the different type of soil.

 CONCLUSIONS

The content of this paper highlights the role of soil pH as a master soil variable that has a
bidirectional relationship with soil biogeochemical processes. Although not all
biogeochemical processes were discussed in this paper, those discussed have substantial
influences on soil health, nutrient availability, pollution, and potential hazards of pollutants as
well as their fate in the food chain. The mobility of unwholesome substances through the
hydrological cycle cannot be overlooked here because of the intimate relationship between
soil and water. Thus, an understanding of this can form a basis and a guide to decisions and
choices of soil management, remediation, rehabilitation, and the maintenance of soil quality.
The observed soil pH-biogeochemistry relationships provide insight for future applications
for increased yields for specific crops through nutrient recycling and availability, which
enhances crop growth. The transient rhizosphere soil pH could also be used to enhance the
availability of certain nutrients in certain soil conditions [80]. More importantly, soil pH
could be useful for soil pollution control through the distribution and removal of harmful
substances from systems. For instance, the mineralization and degradation processes such as
those of C and N mineralisation and the degradation of pesticide occur between pH 6.5 and 8,
while the maximum degradation of petroleum and PAHs occur between pH 7 and 9. These, as
well as pH maxima for various microbial enzymes, could be utilized in many soil remediation
strategies, particularly in bioremediation. Ultimately, soil pH can broadly be applied in two
broad areas, i.e., nutrient cycling and plant nutrition and soil remediation (bioremediation and
physicochemical remediation).
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