WIRELESS NETWORKING

UNIT I TOPICS: Introduction: Uses and advantages of Networks-Structure, Topology & Design. Layered Protocols and OSI Model: Need for Layered ProtocolDesign of Layers-Communication between layers-Standards organisations ISO/OSI Layers.

INTRODUCTION: COMPUTER NETWORKSA computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a combination of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications among users and allows users to share resources. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices.

USES AND ADVANTAGE OF NETWORKS: Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:
1).FACILITATING COMMUNICATIONS: Using a network, people
can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

2).SHARING HARDWARE. In a networked environment, each

computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer. 3).SHARING FILES, DATA, AND INFORMATION. In a network environment, authorized user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The

capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks. 4).SHARING SOFTWARE. Users connected to a network may run application programs on remote computers. 5).INFORMATION PRESERVATION. 6).EASY COMMUNICATION

STRUCTURE OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:

Networks are usually classified using three properties: 1).Topology, 2).Protocol, and 3).Architecture. 1).Topology specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. 2).Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the network use to communicate. There are many protocols, each having advantages over others. Lets run through the common ones: A).TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This was originally developed by the Defence Department of the US to allow dissimilar computers to talk. Today, as many of us know, this protocol is used as the basis for the internet. Because it must span such large distances and cross multiple, smaller networks, TCP/IP is a routable protocol, meaning it can send data through a router on its way to its destination. In the long run, this slows things down a little, but this ability makes it very flexible for large networks. B).IPX/SPX: Developed by Novell for use with its NetWare NOS, but Microsoft built compatibility into both NT and Windows 9x. IPX is like an optimized TCP/IP. It, too, is a routable protocol, making it handy for large networks, but it allows quicker access over the network than TCP/IP. The downfall is that it doesnt work well over analog phone lines. IPX continually checks the status of transmission to be sure all the data arrives. This requires extra bandwidth, where analog phone lines dont have much to begin with. This results in slow access. Of course, the data is more reliable with IPX.

C).NetBEUI: Designed for small LANs, this protocol developed by Microsoft is quite fast. It lacks the addressing overhead of TCP/IP and IPX, which means it can only be used on LANs. You cannot access networks via a router. 3).Architecture refers to one of the two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-peer or client/server. In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers. In a client/server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller, which all of the computers log on to. This server can provide various services, including centrally routed Internet Access, mail (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate configurations, where network security is essential.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. In general physical topology relates to a core network whereas logical topology relates to basic network. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology. Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical. A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a

graph results in a geometric shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network. The study of network topology recognizes seven basic topologies: 1).Point-to-point topology 2).Bus (point-to-multipoint) topology 3).Star topology 4).Ring topology 5).Tree topology 6).Mesh topology 7).Hybrid topology This classification is based on the interconnection between computers be it physical or logical. The physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits. Networks can be classified according to their physical span as follows: 1).LANs (Local Area Networks) 2).WANs (Wide area internetworks) 3).Building or campus internetworks

DIAGRAM OF DIFFERENT NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:

Classification of network topologies

There are also two basic categories of network topologies: 1).Physical topologies 2).Logical topologies 1).The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of the network. This refers to how the cables are laid out to connect many computers to one network. The physical topology you choose for your network influences and is influenced by several factors: a).Office Layout b).Troubleshooting Techniques c).Cost of Installation d).Type of cable used 2).Logical topology describes the way in which a network transmits information from network/computer to another and not the way the network looks or how it is laid out. The logical layout also describes the different speeds of the cables being used from one network to another.

A).Physical topologies
The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system.

Classification of physical topologies: 1).Point-to-point Toplogy :

The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-topoint network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of an ondemand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.

a).Permanent (dedicated):
Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's "tin-can telephone" is one example, with a microphone to a single public address speaker is another. These are examples of physical dedicated channels. Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.

b).Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a pointto-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

2).Bus Topology:
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the network cable breaks, the entire network will be down. A).LINEAR BUS The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over

this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously (disregarding propagation delays). Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium and which dissipates or absorbs the energy that remains in the signal to prevent the signal from being reflected or propagated back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction, which would cause interference with and degradation of the signals on the transmission medium (See Electrical termination). B).DISTRIBUTED BUS The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium). Notes: 1.) All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a device called a 'terminator' (see the note under linear bus). 2.) The physical linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special case of the physical distributed bus topology i.e., a distributed bus with no branching segments. 3.) The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a physical tree topology however, although the physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree topology, it differs from the physical tree topology in that there is no central node to which any other nodes are connected, since this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.

ADJOINING FIGURE: Bus network topology

3).Star Topology:
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the

star topology connects each node to the hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure. Notes : 1).A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a special instance of the physical star topology therefore, the simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of which node is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary. 2).After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note (1) above, the next simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one central node the 'hub' with two separate point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes the 'spokes'. 3).Although most networks that are based upon the physical star topology are commonly implemented using a special device such as a hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also possible to implement a network that is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or even a simple common connection point as the 'hub' or central node however, since many illustrations of the physical star network topology depict the central node as one of these special devices, some confusion is possible, since this practice may lead to the misconception that a physical star network requires the central node to be one of these special devices, which is not true because a simple network consisting of three computers connected as in note (2) above also has the topology of the physical star. 4).Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multiaccess or nonbroadcast multi-access (NBMA), depending on whether the technology of the network either automatically propagates a signal at the hub to all spokes, or only addresses individual spokes with each communication.

a).Extended star :
A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum

transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based. If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.

b).Distributed Star:
A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected together in a linear fashion i.e., 'daisy-chained' with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').

Adjoining Figure: Star Topology

4).Ring Topology:
A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.

Adjoining Figure: Ring Topology

5).Mesh Topology:
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law. Fully connected mesh topology

The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2

a).Fully connected Mesh Topology

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected.

b).Partially connected Mesh Topology

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network. Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the physical partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path (or an approximation of the shortest path) between nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative path to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Adjoining Figure: Mesh Topology

Fig a). Fully connected Mesh Topology

Figb). Partially connected Mesh Topology

6).Tree (also known as a hierarchy network.)

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.This tree has individual peripheral nodes. 1.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at least three levels in the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level below it would exhibit the physical topology of a star. 2.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a branching factor of 1 would be classified as a physical linear topology.

3.) The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the network and, therefore, if the nodes in the network require ports for connection to other nodes the total number of ports per node may be kept low even though the total number of nodes is large this makes the effect of the cost of adding ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be kept as low as required without any effect upon the total number of nodes that are possible. 4.) The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology will be one less than the total number of nodes in the network. 5.) If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology are required to perform any processing upon the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher levels in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on behalf of other nodes than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a type of network topology is very useful and highly recommended.

Adjoining Figure: Tree Topology

B). Logical Topology:

The logical topology, in contrast to the "physical", is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical

topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology. The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the actual physical connections between nodes. Notes: 1).Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods and protocols. 2).The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably. 3).Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.

Design of Computer Networks:

Design considerations for computer networks cover a wide range of topics including layout, capacity planning, and security. Some of them are: 1).OSI Model 2).Area Networks 3).Cisco Networking 4).Information Technology 5).Network Protocols 6).Network Certifications 7).Network Software 8).Network Storage We will now discuss some of them which concerns with the Design of Computer Networks:

a).Computer Network Topology Diagrams A computer network topology is the physical communication scheme used by connected devices. These pages illustrate the common computer network topologies with diagrams including bus, ring and star topology diagrams. b).Visual Overview of the OSI Model The OSI model provides a good conceptual framework for understanding the implementation of network protocol and services design. This page explains the OSI model through visual illustration. c).Introduction to Area Networks Besides LANs and WANs, other types of area networks like MAN and SAN also exist. Discover all the different forms of area networks and the roles they play in network design. d).Network Design - Bandwidth and Latency Two critical elements of network design are the bandwidth and latency a network supports. e).Network Gateway A network gateway joins two networks together through a combination of hardware and software.

f).QoS - Quality of Service QoS technologies support levels of predictable performance for network systems. Elements of QoS include availability (uptime), bandwidth (throughput), latency (delay), and error rate. g).The 5-4-3-2-1 Rule of Network Design This rule of thumb proves useful especially when planning a business network layout. h). Attenuation? In computer networking, attenuation is a loss of signal strength. Attenuation can occur over either wired or wireless network

connections. Multiple factors can cause attenuation including connection distance and interference. i).PAN - Personal Area Network A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network organized around an individual person. Personal area networks typically include a mobile computer, a cell phone and/or a handheld computing device such as a PDA. j).Symmetric and Asymmetric Networking In a symmetric network, all devices normally can transmit and receive data at equal rates, whereas asymmetric networks support disproportionately more bandwidth in one direction than the other. Symmetric and asymmetric network designs also pertain to management of resources as in P2P and network encryption architectures.

Layered Protocols & OSI Model:

Layered Protocols
Layered protocol architecture provides a conceptual framework for dividing the complex task of exchanging information between remote hosts into simpler tasks. Each protocol layer has a narrowly defined responsibility. A protocol layer provides a standard interface to the next higher protocol layer.

Consequently, it hides the details of the underlying physical network infrastructure. Benefit: The same user-level (application) program can be used over very diverse communication networks. Example: The same WWW browser can be used when you are connected to the internet via a LAN or a dial-up line.

Figure: Protocol Layers

OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model:

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) was a product of the Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers. Similar communication functions are grouped into logical layers. A layer provides services to its upper layer while receiving services from the layer below. On each layer, an instance provides service to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the layer below. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path. Two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that layer.

Description of OSI layers: Design of Layers & Communication between layers.

Depending on to recommendation X.200, there are seven layers, each generically known as an N layer. An N+1 entity requests services from the N entity. At each level, two entities (N-entity peers) interact by means of the N protocol by transmitting protocol data units (PDU). A Service Data Unit (SDU) is a specific unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer to a lower layer, and which the lower layer has not yet encapsulated into a protocol data unit (PDU). An SDU is a set of data that is sent by a user of the services of a given layer, and is transmitted semantically unchanged to a peer service user. The PDU at any given layer, layer N, is the SDU of the layer below, layer N-1. In effect the SDU is the 'payload' of a given PDU. That is, the process of changing a SDU to a PDU, consists of an encapsulation process, performed by the lower layer. All the data contained in the SDU becomes encapsulated within the PDU. The layer N-1 adds headers or footers, or both, to the SDU, transforming it into a PDU of layer N-1. The added headers or footers are part of the process used to make it possible to get data from a source to a destination. Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve every layer. Security services are not related to a specific layer: they can be related by a number of layers, as defined by ITU-T X.800 Recommendation.[3]

These services are aimed to improve the CIA triad (i.e. confidentiality, integrity, availability) of transmitted data. Actually the availability of communication service is determined by network design and/or network management protocols. Appropriate choices for these are needed to protect against denial of service.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The Physical Layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more. To understand the function of the Physical Layer, contrast it with the functions of the Data Link Layer. Think of the Physical Layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single device with a medium, whereas the Data Link Layer is concerned more with the interactions of multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. Standards such as RS-232 do use physical wires to control access to the medium. The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are: a).Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. b).Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control. c).Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link. Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a Transport Layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various Physical Layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the Data Link Layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the Transport Layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages. The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete Data Link Layer which provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective repeat Sliding Window Protocol. Both WAN and LAN service arrange bits, from the Physical Layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all Physical Layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for Physical Layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the Layer. WAN Protocol architecture Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct errors. They are also capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN Data Link Layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD. IEEE 802 LAN architecture Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the function of a Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing and multiplexing on multiaccess media. While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sublayer detects but does not correct errors.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network, while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer (in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network). The Network Layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layersending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical. Careful analysis of the Network Layer indicated that the Network Layer could have at least three sublayers: Subnetwork Access - that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks, such as X.25; Subnetwork Dependent Convergence - when it is necessary to bring the level of a transit network up to the level of networks on either side; Subnetwork Independent Convergence - which handles transfer across multiple networks. The best example of this latter case is CLNP, or IPv7 ISO 8473. It manages the connectionless transfer of data one hop at a time, from end system to ingress router, router to router, and from egress router to destination end system. It is not responsible for reliable delivery to a next hop, but only for the detection of erroneous packets so they may be discarded. In this scheme, IPv4 and IPv6 would have to be classed with X.25 as subnet access protocols because they carry interface addresses rather than node addresses. A number of layer management protocols, a function defined in the Management Annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the Network Layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, Network Layer information and error, and Network Layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the Network Layer, not the protocol that carries them.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the

successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the Transport Layer, typical examples of Layer 4 are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Of the actual OSI protocols, there are five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries, of both of which TCP is incapable. Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the Transport Layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a Network Layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The Session Layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer establishes context between Application Layer entities, in which the higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack. This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.[citation needed] The original presentation structure used the basic encoding rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the requested communication exists. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Some examples of application layer implementations also include: On OSI stack: a).FTAM File Transfer and Access Management Protocol b).X.400 Mail c).Common management information protocol (CMIP) On TCP/IP stack: a).Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), b).File Transfer Protocol (FTP), c).Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) d).Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

Standard Organisations-ISO/OSI Layers:

The standard model for networking protocols and Distributed Applications is the International Standard Organizations Open System Interconnect (ISO/OSI) Model. It defines seven Network Layers. Note: We have already discussed in detail about these layers. Now consider this diagram representing the Design of Layers in ISO/OSI Model.

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NAME: -ABHISHEK PARASHAR ROLL-0739020103 MSc. (IT) Int.,A Batch 4th Year, VIII SEM; ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY