The Strategic Management Collection

Mason A. Carpenter, Editor

Top Management Teams

How to Be Effective Inside and Outside the Boardroom

Anneloes M. L. Raes

www.businessexpertpress.com

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Teams at the Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Inside the Boardroom: TMT Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Outside the Boardroom: The Relationship Between the TMT and Middle Managers . . . . . . . . . . 23 TMT Sensemaking About Middle Managers . . . . . . . . 39 Middle Manager Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Making It Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Preface
How can top management teams (TMTs) be more effective? With this deceivingly simple question, I started doing research on TMTs about 7 years ago. I was particularly interested in the way in which the TMT members interact while doing their work, as some important scientic studies on this topic had just appeared. But what I had envisioned as a main explanation for TMT effectiveness quickly turned out to be that notorious tip of the iceberg. This blind spot in the TMT literature occurred to me for the rst time when I was observing the weekly board meetings of a particular TMT. This TMT seemingly did everything right with regard to its interaction processes: The TMT members had many intense, task-related discussions but few interpersonal ghts. They openly shared information and opinions but had few political games and behind-the-scenes coalitions. They even had special sessions every month to reect on their functioning and processes. These were in addition to the yearly 3-day strategy-building sessions, of course. This TMT was everything a team coach would advise a TMT to be. But still it was questioning how to become more effective. TMT members were struggling with how to have a real impact on the organization. And they were puzzled with why their strategic decisions would sometimes not achieve the effects that they had envisioned. Despite the usual organizational reporting mechanisms, the existence of monetary and nonmonetary incentives, and even the TMT members internal unity, the TMT had a difcult time getting their strategic decisions to work. Based on the difculties that this TMT experienced during the observation period, I started to develop a new research focus: the relationship between the TMT and middle managers. I rmly believe that this relationship is key in allowing strategic decisions to take effect. When a TMT uses interactions with middle managers well, it can gain valuable new perspectives and information and create real commitment to getting decisions implemented. If things do not work well, middle managers

PREFACE

have many different options to delay strategy implementation or even to sabotage it. This book provides insight into how TMTs can be effective both in their internal processes and in the way in which they work with middle managers. It builds upon the most recent academic and practical insights. The book is intended for TMT members, nonexecutive directors, consultants, or team coaches, as well as general readers who are curious to learn more about the mechanisms TMTs use to inuence their organizations. Several ndings from our projects have been published in various academic journals. With this book, I hope to make this knowledge more accessible to those working in practice. To help readers begin applying the knowledge, each chapter starts with a short introduction and ends with concrete questions that can help readers distill the key insights of the chapters. This book reports ndings from a series of research projects. All projects were performed in close cooperation with Robert Roe, Marille Heijltjes, and Urusla Glunk from Maastricht University in the Netherlands. Even though they insisted on my name being the only one on the books cover, this book simply would not have existed without their input and encouragement. Thank you! Anneloes Raes, April 2011

CHAPTER 1

Teams at the Top

A top management team (TMT) matters for its organization, right? This assumption is widespread among both researchers and practitioners. In fact, it underlies many far-reaching decisions, such as rewarding team members for great organizational performance or ring them for poor performance. While researchers have established that TMTs do matter for their organizations,1 the ways in which TMTs do that are complex and opaque. The mechanisms of TMT impact evolve along a complex interplay of both strategic and psychological processes. This complexity can make it difcult for TMTs, and those around them, to see what it really takes to make them work for their organizations. In this book, I outline two sources of TMT impact: what happens inside the boardroom, when TMT members are among themselves, and what happens outside, when TMT members interact with others. Inside the boardroom, I describe the social and psychological processes that shape the way in which TMTs make decisions. Outside the boardroom, I address how TMTs can effectively work with middle managers and achieve high-quality strategic decisions along with effective implementation. To get more insight into the particular challenges that TMTs face, I will rst describe some typical characteristics of TMTs and their work.

What Is a TMT?
Many people still credit organizational performance to the decisions of a heroic, single CEO. CEOs, so it is assumed, steer organizations according to a one-captain-on-a-ship approach. They are the ones to be credited for successes or blamed for losses. Yet organizational reality is that many organizations nowadays have a TMT instead of a

TOP MANAGEMENT TEAMS

single decision maker at the top.2 That is, the CEO creates a team of executives around him or her, and strategic decisions are made within the team. The concept of TMT was introduced in the organizational literature more than 20 years ago by Hambrick and Mason.3 These authors simply referred to a TMT as the rms ofcers. More recently, researchers have specied a TMT to be the aggregate informational and decisional entity through which the organization operates and which forms the inner circle of executives who collectively formulate, articulate, and execute the strategic and tactical moves of the organization.4 As these denitions imply, the TMT is the group of executive managers highest in the organizational hierarchy. Such an organizational position implies, among many other things, that these managers have much freedom in the way they plan and execute their work. They also have to deal with a constant stream of unstructured information. Often they are faced with high time pressure for making decisions.5 Why would your organization want a team at the top? Does it actually need a team? And is it even realistic to expect such a thing as a team at the highest organizational echelon? Some researchers and managers argue that TMTs have little teamness to them and are in fact only a collection of strong players or a group of semi-autonomous barons.6 On the other hand, recent research has indicated that many organizations do have real teams at the top.7 A TMT can be seen as a real team when it is a distinct organizational entity, has clearly dened members, is reasonably stable in membership over time, and has members who are interdependent in their work.8 The prevalence of TMTs that work as real teams also seems to expand in response to the turbulence and complexity of the current global business environment of many organizations.9 In line with these developments, I focus in this book on TMTs that have at least a minimal level of teamness. That is, the TMT is seen by TMT members and others as a distinct organizational entity, has clearly dened members, is reasonably stable in membership over time, and has members who carry out its work with some level of interdependence.10 The extent to which these TMTs also show behavioral processes that indicate high levels of teamness will be further discussed in chapter 2, along with the performance consequences.

TEAMS AT THE TOP

The TMTs Strategic Work

A main objective of the TMTs work is to formulate and implement strategic decisions that ensure the survival and growth of the organization.11 Strategic decision making consists of the choice of a particular course of strategic action. Strategy implementation comprises the subsequent actions to make that strategy happen.12 The TMTs work of formulating and implementing strategy implies that the tasks of a TMT are more complex and varied than those of most other teams. TMT members must comprehend a great deal of vague, ambiguous, and often conicting information.13 To formulate and implement high-quality decisions, the TMT is dependent on many other people both inside and outside the organization. The TMTs interactions with others are therefore a particularly important aspect of its work. This exposure to many other people also implies that a TMT is highly visible for others both inside and outside the organization. Hence its actions carry symbolic meaning and tend to be closely watched, and discussed, by other managers and employees.14 Finally, TMTs often consist of members from different parts of the organization, such that these members are simultaneously part of the TMT and the heads of their own business units.15 Therefore, TMT members priorities, languages, and values are usually quite different from each other.16 These specic characteristics of the TMT create promises but also some pitfalls.

Promises and Pitfalls

Working as a team instead of individually is often preferred when work is too voluminous or too complex to be performed alone. Teams have the advantage of being exible in how they deploy and use their resources, and they provide opportunities for team members to learn from one another.17 This is clearly the case for work at the top of organizations. Researchers have stated that the current organizational reality is often too complex for a single manager to oversee. A division of tasks among TMT members in a team structure can provide a way for dealing with this complexity.18 Researchers have proposed that by working in a TMT, the quality of strategic decisions can be increased because multiple managers can apply

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more diverse perspectives to solve a problem.19 The synthesis of these perspectives is expected to be superior to an individuals decision.20 The executives commitment to implement decisions can increase through the understanding and acceptance generated by joint decision-making processes.21 In addition, having a TMT at the top instead of a single manager has the potential to improve communication and cooperation among executives from different subunits. Despite the theoretical advantages of having a team at the top, effective TMT functioning is not self-evident. According to psychological theories, the same diversity in perspectives and information that can produce better decisions may also impair the interpersonal relationships of TMT members.22 These theories would therefore suggest that similarity in perspectives would in fact be desirable for maintaining a positive atmosphere in the TMT. Yet, on the other hand, too much similarity in perspectives may lead to the phenomenon called groupthink, when senior teams strive for high consensus at the expense of good decisions.23 Thus, in addition to the uncertainty and complexity associated with strategic decision making, doing that in a team setting presents extra challenges and the potential for problems that relate to interpersonal issues. Because TMT functioning itself is challenging, it may also be easy to forget that an important aspect of TMT work is to manage relationships with others. Such relationships with other stakeholders both inside and outside the organization serve as channels of information and inuence. Researchers have shown that the quantity, quality, and diversity of TMT members relationships to others can be linked to organizational performance.24 Therefore, an additional pitfall is that the TMT does not pay enough attention to systematically managing the relationships to others.

TMT Impact on the Organization

How can a TMT reap the benets and avoid the traps of working in a team? Assuming that good performance of a TMT translates into an organization performing well, researchers have investigated which characteristics of the TMT matter the most for organizational performance. Two streams of research provide primary insight into these questions:

TEAMS AT THE TOP

research from the upper-echelons perspective in the strategy discipline and team research from the social and organizational psychology elds. Composition of the Team Scholars of strategy have studied TMTs from the perspective of the upper-echelons theory.25 This theory emphasizes the role of TMT composition in terms of TMT members demographic characteristics, such as age or functional background, for explaining organizational performance. TMTs with demographically diverse members are proposed to have more capabilities for processing information than TMTs whose members are similar, and this diversity is expected to benet strategic decision making and organizational performance.26 Despite much empirical work, the results of studies that link TMT composition to organizational performance have been quite inconsistent until recently.27 As a result, researchers have repeatedly concluded that considering TMT composition alone does not provide real insight into how TMTs inuence organizational performance.28 Some have even suggested to call a moratorium for the use of demographic variables as surrogates for psychological constructs.29 For those readers interested in reading more on the role of TMT composition, some excellent reviews exist.30 In the remainder of this book, I focus on the role of the TMTs internal processes and states, as well as the TMTs relationships to middle managers. Internal Processes and States Researchers have proposed that TMT performance is affected not so much by the composition of the TMT as by the way in which TMT members use and combine their differences. Because TMT effectiveness may vary from situation to situation but TMT composition changes only infrequently, they reasoned that other processes must also be at work to explain effectiveness. To better understand these processes, researchers have built on theories about nonmanagerial teams from social and organizational psychology. In these elds, the interactions between members of small groups have long been of central interest.31

TOP MANAGEMENT TEAMS

Team internal processes describe the nature of the TMT members interaction and behavior while working on achieving the teams goals,32 whereas team emergent states are the cognitive and affective modes of a team at a certain moment.33 TMT researchers have studied both internal processes and emergent states to understand how team inputs are transferred to outcomes and potential mediators and moderators of TMT composition-organizational performance relationships.34 In this book, I focus on the role of TMT processes and states in what happens inside the boardroom, where the TMT makes strategic decisions, and in what happens outside, where the TMT works with others to ensure the subsequent implementation of these decisions. Relationship to Middle Managers Middle managers are those managers who work in the management layer between the TMT and rst-level supervisors, such as managers of divisions or subsidiaries.35 Because middle managers have both upward and downward inuence, researchers have called them linking pins in the organization.36 In this role, middle managers have the power to delay, speed up, block, or support strategy formulation and implementation.37 As linking pins, middle managers also make sense of what happens in the organization. Their interpretations of organization events are an important source of information for the TMT. On the other hand, when middle managers interpret what happens in the TMT and share their conclusions with their own employees, they can easily inuence how employees in the organization as a whole think about the TMT.38 Because middle managers have such an important function, top managers heavily depend on them to achieve organizational goals.39 Therefore, it is an important aspect of TMT work to gain middle managers commitment to, or at least compliance with, the TMTs courses of action. In this book, I describe what can make the interaction between the TMT and middle managers successful. I also present the results of an in-depth case study on how a TMT understands its relationship to middle managers. Finally, I switch to the middle manager perspective and examine what middle managers expect from their TMT and how they evaluate it.

TEAMS AT THE TOP

The Structure of This Book

Chapter 2: Inside the BoardroomTMT Behavior In this chapter, I focus on TMTs internal behavioral processes. In particular, I present what researchers have discovered regarding the organization-wide consequences of specic TMT processes and states. I rst distinguish between different aspects of TMT behavior: those aspects that are more task oriented and those that are more relationship oriented. Then I consider how these task- and relationship-oriented aspects of TMT behavior can inuence the quality of the TMTs strategic decisions, the TMTs performance, and the performance of the organization as a whole. Chapter 3: Outside the BoardroomThe Relationship Between the TMT and Middle Managers In chapter 3, I outline how TMTs can achieve maximum benets from their interactions with middle managers. I outline a recently developed model on this topic called the interface model. This model explains which aspects of the interactions between the TMT and middle managers are particularly crucial for strategy formulation and implementation. I then describe how the usually scarce moments of contact between the two groups can be used to align their actions. The model then outlines what TMTs and middle managers can do to achieve a successful interface. Chapter 4: TMT Sensemaking About Middle Managers To effectively deal with middle managers, TMT members need to agree on their approach toward them. In chapter 4, I present the results of an in-depth case study that addresses this topic. To understand how this TMT worked on achieving a unied view of its approach toward middle managers, I use the concept of sensemaking to analyze the TMT members interactions.

TOP MANAGEMENT TEAMS

Chapter 5: Middle Manager Perspectives To make the interaction between the TMT and middle managers work, it is also helpful to understand the other side of the cointhat is, middle managers perspective on their TMT. Therefore, in this chapter I present the results of an empirical study in which the expectations and evaluations of middle managers were assessed on ve dimensions: company results, strategic leadership, connectedness, TMT unity, and moral leadership. Interestingly, there were some clear discrepancies between what middle managers expected from their TMT and how they evaluated it. Chapter 6: Making It Work In this chapter, I integrate the insights presented in the previous chapters. This way, TMTs and those working with them get some clear recommendations for their behavior both inside and outside the boardroom.

Make It Work for Your TMT

1. What is the level of teamness of your TMT? 2. What are the particular promises and pitfalls of your TMT? 3. Which (groups of ) people are particularly key to your TMTs impact? 4. How would you describe the relationship between TMT and middle managers in your organization?