SMART CITY

https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-a-smart-city

https://blog.bismart.com/en/what-is-a-smart-city

Smart City Definition

There are a number of definitions of what makes a city ‘smart,’ for example, IBM defines a
smart city as “one that makes optimal use of all the interconnected information available
today to better understand and control its operations and optimise the use of limited
resources.”

However, in short, a smart city uses a framework of information and communication

technologies to create, deploy and promote development practices to address urban
challenges and create a joined-up technologically-enabled and sustainable infrastructure.

Smart City Technologies

Smart cities use a variety of software, user interfaces and communication networks
alongside the Internet of Things (IoT) to deliver connected solutions for the public. Of these,
the IoT is the most important. The IoT is a network of connected devices that communicate
and exchange data. This can include anything from vehicles to home appliances and on-
street sensors. Data collected from these devices is stored in the cloud or on servers to
allow for improvements to be made to both public and private sector efficiencies and
deliver economic benefits and improvements to the lives of citizens.

Many of the IoT devices use edge computing, which ensures that only the most relevant
and important data is delivered over the communication network. In addition, a security
system is implemented to protect, monitor and control the transmission of data from the
smart city network and prevent unauthorised access to the IoT network of city’s data
platform.

Alongside the IoT solutions, smart cities also use technologies including:

 Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)

 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Cloud Computing Services
 Dashboards
 Machine Learning
 Machine-to-Machine Communications
 Mesh Networks

Smart City Features

Combining automation, machine learning and the IoT is allowing for the adoption of smart
city technologies for a variety of applications. For example, smart parking can help drivers
find a parking space and also allow for digital payment.

Another example would be smart traffic management to monitor traffic flows and optimise
traffic lights to reduce congestion, while ride-sharing services can also be managed by a
smart city infrastructure.

Smart city features can also include energy conservation and environmental efficiencies,
such as streetlights that dim when the roads are empty. Such smart grid technologies can
improve everything from operations to maintenance and planning to power supplies.

Smart city initiatives can also be used to combat climate change and air pollution as well as
waste management and sanitation via internet-enabled rubbish collection, bins and fleet
management systems.

Aside from services, smart cities allow for the provision of safety measures such as
monitoring areas of high crime or using sensors to enable an early warning for incidents
like floods, landslides, hurricanes or droughts.

Smart buildings can also offer real-time space management or structural health monitoring
and feedback to determine when repairs are necessary. Citizens can also access this
system to notify officials of any problems, such as potholes, while sensors can also monitor
infrastructure problems such as leaks in water pipes.

In addition, smart city technology can improve the efficiency of manufacturing, urban
farming, energy use, and more.

Smart cities can connect all manner of services to provide joined up solutions for citizens.

History of Smart Cities

The concept of smart cities began as far back as the 1960s and 1970s when the US
Community Analysis Bureau began using databases, aerial photography and cluster
analysis to collect data, direct resources and issue reports in order to direct services,
mitigate against disasters and reduce poverty. This led to the creation of the first
generation of smart cities.

The first generation of smart city was delivered by technology providers to understand the
implications of technology on daily life. This led to the second generation of smart city,
which looked at how smart technologies and other innovations could create joined-up
municipal solutions. The third generation of smart city took the control away from
technology providers and city leaders, instead creating a model that involved the public
and enabled social inclusion and community engagement.

This third generation model was adopted by Vienna, who created a partnership with the
local Wien Energy company, allowing citizens to invest in local solar plants as well as
working with the public to resolve gender equality and affordable housing issues. Such
adoption has continued around the world, including in Vancouver, where 30,000 citizens
co-created the Vancouver Greenest City 2020 Action Plan.

How Smart Cities Work

Smart cities follow four steps to improve the quality of life and enable economic growth
through a network of connected IoT devices and other technologies. These steps are as
follows:

1. Collection – Smart sensors gather real-time data

2. Analysis – The data is analyzed to gain insights into the operation of city services and
operations

3. Communication – The results of the data analysis are communicated to decision

makers

4. Action – Action is taken to improve operations, manage assets and improve the quality
of city life for the residents

The ICT framework brings together real time data from connected assets, objects and
machines to improve decision making. However, in addition, citizens are able to engage
and interact with smart city ecosystems through mobile devices and connected vehicles
and buildings. By pairing devices with data and the infrastructure of the city, it is possible
to cut costs, improve sustainability and streamline factors such as energy distribution and
refuse collection, as well as offering reduced traffic congestion, and improve air quality.

Why Smart Cities Are Important

54% of the world’s population live in cities and this is expected to rise to 66% by 2050,
adding a further 2.5 billion people to the urban population over the next three decades.
With this expected population growth there comes a need to manage environmental, social
and economic sustainability of resources. 

Smart cities allow citizens and local government authorities to work together to launch
initiatives and use smart technologies to manage assets and resources in the growing
urban environment.
Why do we need them?

A smart city should provide an urban environment that delivers a high quality of life to
residents while also generating economic growth. This means delivering a suite of joined-
up services to citizens with reduced infrastructure costs.

This becomes increasingly important in the light of the future population growth in urban
areas, where more efficient use of infrastructure and assets will be required. Smart city
services and applications will allow for these improvements which will lead to a higher
quality of life for citizens.

Smart city improvements also provide new value from existing infrastructure while creating
new revenue streams and operational efficiencies to help save money for governments
and citizens alike.

Are Smart Cities Sustainable?

Sustainability is an important aspect of smart cities as they seek to improve efficiencies in

urban areas and improve citizen welfare. Cities offer many environmental advantages, such
as smaller geographical footprints, but they also have some negative impacts, including the
use of fossil fuels to power them. However, smart technologies could help alleviate these
negative effects, such as through the implementation of an electric transport system to
reduce emissions. Electric vehicles could also help to regulate the frequency of the electric
grid while not in use. 

Such sustainable transport options should also see a reduction in the number of cars in
urban areas as autonomous vehicles are expected to reduce the need for car ownership
amongst the population.

Creating such sustainable solutions could deliver environmental and societal benefits.

Smart City Challenges

For all of the benefits offered by smart cities, there are also challenges to overcome. These
include government officials allowing widespread participation from citizens. There is also
a need for the private and public sectors to align with residents so that everyone can
positively contribute to the community.

Smart city projects need to be transparent and available to citizens via an open data portal
or mobile app. This allows residents to engage with the data and complete personal tasks
like paying bills, finding efficient transportation options and assessing energy consumption
in the home.
This all requires a solid and secure system of data collection and storage to prevent
hacking or misuse. Smart city data also needs to be anonymised to prevent privacy issues
from arising.

The largest challenge is quite probably that of connectivity, with thousands or even millions
of IoT devices needing to connect and work in unison. This will allow services to be joined
up and ongoing improvements to be made as demand increases. 

Technology aside, smart cities also need to account for social factors that provide a cultural
fabric that is attractive to residents and offer a sense of place.  This is particularly
important for those cities that are being created from the ground up and need to attract
residents.

Are they Secure?

Smart cities offer plenty of benefits to improve citizen safety, such as connected
surveillance systems, intelligent roadways and public safety monitoring, but what about
protecting the smart cities themselves?

There is a need to ensure smart cities are protected from cyber attacks, hacking and data
theft while also making sure the data that is reported is accurate.

In order to manage the security of smart cities there is a need to implement measures such
as physical data vaults, resilient authentication management and ID solutions. Citizens
need to trust the security of smart cities which means government, private sector
enterprise, software developers, device manufacturers, energy providers and network
service managers need to work together to deliver integrated solutions with core security
objectives. These core security objectives can be broken down as follows:

1. Availability – Data needs to be available in real time with reliable access in order to
make sure it performs its function in monitoring the various parts of the smart city
infrastructure
2. Integrity – The data must not only be readily available, but it must also be accurate.
This also means safeguarding against manipulation from outside
3. Confidentiality – Sensitive data needs to be kept confidential and safe from
unauthorized access. This may mean the use of firewalls or the anonymising of data
4. Accountability – System users need to be accountable for their actions and
interaction with sensitive data systems. User logs should record who is accessing
the information to ensure accountability should there be any problems

Legislation is already being put in place in different nations, such as the IoT Cybersecurity
Improvement Act in the United States to help determine and establish minimum security
requirements for connected devices in smart cities.
The city state of Singapore is considered to be one of the front-runners in the race to
creating fully smart cities, with IoT cameras monitoring the cleanliness of public spaces,
crowd density and the movement of registered vehicles. Singapore also has systems to
monitor energy use, waste management and water use in real time. In addition, there is
autonomous vehicle testing and a monitoring system to ensure the health and wellbeing of
senior citizens. 

Elsewhere, Kansas City has introduced smart streetlights, interactive kiosks and over 50
blocks of free Wi-Fi. Parking space details, traffic flow measurement and pedestrian
hotpots are also all available to residents via the city's data visualization app.

San Diego, meanwhile, has installed 3,200 smart sensors to optimise traffic flow and
parking as well as enhancing public safety and environmental awareness. Electric vehicles
are supported by solar-to-electric charging stations and connected cameras monitor for
traffic problems and crime.

Traffic monitoring systems are also in place in Dubai, which has telemedicine and smart
healthcare solutions as well as smart buildings, utilities, education and tourism options.
Barcelona also has smart transportation systems with bus stops offering free Wi-Fi and
USB charging ports, along with a bike-sharing programme and a smart parking app
including online payment options. Temperature, pollution and noise are also measured
using sensors that also cover humidity and rainfall.

CONCLUSION

Creating smart connected systems for our urban areas provides a great many benefits for
citizens around the world, not only to improve quality of life, but also to
ensure sustainability and the best possible use of resources.

These solutions are dependent on a unified approach from government as well as the
private sector and residents themselves. With the correct support and infrastructure,
however, smart cities can use advances such as the Internet of Things to enhance the lives
of residents and create joined-up living solutions for the growing global urban citizenry.

TWI has expertise in many of the underpinning technologies of a new smart future,
including sensors, electrification and power generation solutions.
https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/markets/digital-identity-and-security/iot/inspired/smart-cities

What is a smart city?

A smart city is a framework, predominantly composed of Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT), to develop, deploy, and promote sustainable development practices to address growing
urbanization challenges. 
 
A big part of this ICT framework is an intelligent network of connected objects and machines (also
known as a digital city) transmitting data using wireless technology and the cloud. 
Cloud-based IoT applications receive, analyze, and manage data in real-time to help municipalities,
enterprises, and citizens make better decisions that improve quality of life.

Citizens engage with smart city ecosystems in various ways using smartphones and mobile devices
and connected cars and homes. Pairing devices and data with a city’s physical infrastructure and services
can cut costs and improve sustainability. 
Communities can improve energy distribution, streamline trash collection, decrease traffic
congestion, and improve air quality with help from the IoT.
For instance, 

 Connected traffic lights receive data from sensors and cars adjusting light cadence and timing to
respond to real-time traffic, reducing road congestion. 
 Connected cars can communicate with parking meters and electric vehicle (EV)charging docks
and direct drivers to the nearest available spot. 
 Smart garbage cans automatically send data to waste management companies and schedule pick-
up as needed versus a pre-planned schedule. 
 And citizens’ smartphone becomes their mobile driver’s license and ID card with digital
credentials, which speeds and simplifies access to the city and local government services. 
Together, these smart city technologies are optimizing infrastructure, mobility, public services, and
utilities.

Why do we need smart cities?

Urbanization is a non-ending phenomenon. 

Today, 54% of people worldwide live in cities, a proportion that’s expected to reach 66% by 2050. 
With the overall population growth, urbanization will add another 2.5 billion people to cities over the next
three decades.
Environmental, social, and economic sustainability is a must to keep pace with this rapid expansion
taxing our cities’ resources.

One hundred ninety-three countries agreed upon the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda in
September 2015 at the United Nations.

But we all know how centralized decisions and actions can take time, and the clock is ticking.
The good news?

Citizens and local authorities are certainly more agile to launch swift initiatives, and smart city
technology is paramount to success and meeting these goals.

How is IoT technology making cities smarter and better?

Secure wireless connectivity and IoT technology are transforming traditional elements of city life - like
streetlights - into next-generation intelligent lighting platforms with expanded capabilities. 
The scope includes integrating solar power and connecting to a cloud-based central control system that
connects to other ecosystem assets.

These solutions shine far beyond simple lighting needs. 

 High-power embedded LEDs alert commuters about traffic issues, provide severe weather
warnings, and provide heads up when fires arise, for example. 
 Streetlights can also detect free parking spaces and EV charging docks and alert drivers where to
find an open spot via a mobile app. Charging might even be able from the lamppost itself in
some locations! 
Exciting stuff!

But how does it all fit together?

What makes smart cities successful

In addition to people, dwellings, commerce, and traditional urban infrastructure, there are four essential
elements necessary for thriving smart cities:

1. Pervasive wireless connectivity

2. Open data
3. Security you can trust in
4. Flexible monetization schemes
Let’s break it down.

What’s the best wireless technology for smart cities?

The first building block of any smart city application is reliable, pervasive wireless connectivity. 

While there’s no one-size-fits-all, evolving Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technologies are
well suited to most smart city applications for their cost efficiency and ubiquity. 
These technologies include LTE Cat M, NB-IoT, LoRa, Bluetooth, and a few others that all contribute to
the fabric of connected cities. 

The advent of 5G technology is expected to be a watershed event that propels smart city technology into
the mainstream and accelerates new deployments. 
But only with a few more elements…
Opening the data vault

Historically, governments, enterprises, and individuals have held their data close to the pocket, sharing as
little as possible with others. 

Today, open data is redefining the digital city.

Privacy concerns and fear of security breaches have far outweighed the perceived value of sharing
information (see: Portland and privacy). 
However, a key enabler of sustainable smart cities is that all participants in the complex ecosystem share
information and combine it with contextual data analyzed in real-time.
This is how informed decisions are made in real-time. 

Multiple sectors must cooperate to achieve better, sustainable outcomes by analyzing real-time contextual
information shared among sector-specific information and operational technology (OT) systems.
The conclusion?

Data management (and access to this information) represents the backbone of the digital city.

NEW YORK CITY

 The New York City Department of Transportation's Midtown in Motion is a congestion

management system that has improved travel times on Midtown's avenues by 10%.
 The NYCx Challenges initiative from the NYC Mayor's Office of the Chief Technology officer
invites entrepreneurs, technologists, and tech professionals to participate in open competitions
and propose bold ideas that solve real urban needs such as pollution, income inequality, and
transport (site closed).
 LinkNYC provides free super-fast free Wi-Fi, phone calls, device charging, and a tablet to access
city services, maps, and directions. It's a unique communications network replacing payphones
across the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island. 
 Cyber NYC is the city’s strategic investment to dominate cybersecurity.  It aims to grow New
York City’s cybersecurity workforce, help companies drive innovation and build networks and
community spaces. 
 MyNYCHA mobile app and web portal allow public housing residents to manage services online.
It addresses over 300 public developments across New York City. Launched in
2015, MyNYCHA is a free service that puts the repair process in residents' hands. Residents can
submit, schedule, and manage work tickets online. They can also subscribe to alerts for outages
in their developments, view inspection appointments, and pay their rent.
 Biking in New York City: read the July 2019 plan for cycling in the city.
 Automated water meters in NYC: Automated Meter Reading systems consist of small devices
connected to individual water meters. They send daily readings to a computerized billing
system.
 The My DEP Account lets New Yorkers track consumption from home. The system eliminates
the need for a water meter reader to visit premises. It allows the Department of Environmental
Protection to monitor citywide consumption more closely and manage the city's water supply
system more effectively.
 New York's data report - Open Data for All- provides free public data published by various local
agencies. This tool opens data for people to make a difference in their communities—including
educators, students, artists, builders, small business owners, advocates, reporters, community
 board members. It also means open data for the 300,000 workers who make New York City
safer, cleaner, and more equitable.
 More on the New York City Internet of Things strategy and IoT progress report (20 December
2021.)

Amsterdam Smart City

Amsterdam is a shining example of a well-connected smart city reaping the rewards of opening the data
vault. The Smart City initiative began in 2009 and included over 170 projects.

It also shares traffic and transportation data with interested parties such as developers, who then create
mapping apps connected to the city’s transport systems. 
Now, navigating the city is a snap for all. 

There's more.

The city built autonomous delivery boats called ‘roboats’ to keep things moving in a timely fashion. 
It also supported a floating village of houses, solving the city’s overcrowding problem with a sustainable,
energy-efficient alternative. Power is generated within communities, and homes receive water straight
from the river and filter it within their tanks. 

Copenhagen Smart City

Copenhagen is known as one of the smartest cities in the world and mobilizes expertise worldwide.

The city is leveraging open data to collaborate with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to
develop an innovative intelligent bike system. 
Embedded with sensors that provide real-time information to both the riders and administrators, data is
shared to monitor and manage air quality and traffic congestion.

More:
 Technologies to create data-driven solutions that suit Copenhagen and its citizens
 Moscow is getting smarter and smarter
 Singapore has been ranked the world’s smartest city. What does a smart city look like on the
streets and in the homes of Singapore?
 In India, Bhopal is ranking #1 in the new ranking released by the Union Ministry of Housing and
Urban Affairs (Times of India, 7 February 2021.)
 Dehradun smart city (India): Discover major flagship pan-city solutions
 Dholera smart city: One of the first smart cities in India

Can smart cities be secured and trusted?

In digital cities, connected cameras, intelligent road systems, and public safety monitoring systems can
provide an added layer of protection and emergency support to aid citizens when needed. 

 But what about protecting smart cities themselves from vulnerabilities? 

  How can we defend against hacking, cyber-attacks, and data theft? 
 In cities where multiple participants share information, how do we trust that participants are who
they say they are? 
 And how do we know the data they report is true and accurate? 
The answers lie in physical data vaults and strong authentication and ID management solutions.

Smart cities can only work if we can trust them. 

Four core security objectives for smart city solutions

All ecosystem partners - governments, enterprises, software providers, device manufacturers, energy
providers, and network service providers - must do their part and integrate solutions that abide by four
core security objectives:
 

1. Availability: Without actionable, real-time, and reliable data access, the smart city can’t thrive.
How information is collected, distilled, and shared is critical, and security solutions must avoid
adverse effects on availability.
2. Integrity: Smart cities depend on reliable and accurate data. Measures must be taken to ensure
that data is accurate and free from manipulation.
3. Confidentiality: Some of the data collected, stored, and analyzed will include sensitive details
about consumers themselves. Steps must be taken to prevent unauthorized disclosure of
sensitive information.
4. Accountability: Users of a system must be responsible for their actions. Their interactions with
sensitive systems should be logged and associated with a specific user. These logs should be
difficult to forge and have reliable integrity protection.
Strong authentication and ID management solutions must be integrated into the ecosystem to ensure that
data is shared only with authorized parties to achieve these security core objectives.

The solutions also protect backend systems from intrusion and hacking. 

Thankfully, legislation is being introduced to address threats and potential market failure due to growing
digital security concerns.

Like the IoT Cybersecurity Improvement Act in the U.S. signed on 4 December 2020, or the UK IoT
security law (not passed yet in June 2021), legislations will help establish minimum security requirements
for connected devices.

SMART CITIES BEST PRACTICES

1. Engage early and often

2. Make decisions in the open
3. Establish smart governance
4. Document public privacy and impact assessments
 5. Develop robust open data practice

https://sunlightfoundation.com/our-work/open-cities/smart-cities/best-practices/

Engage early and often

Public officials need to engage community members in determining what technologies to acquire
when they can potentially affects issues of privacy and security. This includes publicly deciding how
personal data is collected, used, and protected on behalf of the public good. Moreover, community
members should be a part of deciding if the benefits outweigh the costs of new smart city projects,
especially when considering the non-monetary costs associated with surveillance (such as loss of
privacy and civil liberties). This can be done by holding public hearings, community meetings, and
creating online forums to inform residents about potential projects, solicit their opinions, and address
their concerns.

Smart city policies should include concrete commitments to community engagement throughout
every phase of their initiatives or tech rollouts, for example committing to hiring staff trained in
community engagement strategies, committing to building teams with diverse backgrounds, and
committing to maximum opportunities for feedback loops before, during, and after smart city
projects. There should be a commitment to soliciting feedback from diverse stakeholders, including
university partners and the local tech community for subject matter expertise and education;

Open decision-making

To build trust and ensure acquired technologies are developed in ways that do not violate civil
liberties, smart city policies should mandate that public officials must share how and why smart city
projects are selected before their official implementation. To this end, there should be a public
discussion of plans for new smart technology acquisition even before the procurement process
begins. This includes explaining what the problem is, why this smart technology tool offers a
solution, what alternative solutions exist, and why this is the best solution.

This can be facilitated through the creation of a priority framework or rubric that outlines how projects
are selected. This information should be publicly available, easily accessible, and subject to public
comment.

Smart cities policies should hold public officials to clear transparency and public accountability
standards around technology implementation. This means legislating that staff responsible for
overseeing smart city policy are on the hook to disclosing how, where, and why a project will be
implemented within a specific timeline of a new smart city project being launched. Wherever
possible, the relevant plans and documents should be published throughout the project selection
and implementation process. This includes, but is not limited to, publishing a Smart City Strategic
Roadmap outlining upcoming smart city project objectives and priorities and/or issuing a notice of
anticipated projects (prior to the Requests for Proposals) to facilitate conversation. Solicitation
documents, RFPs, budgets, and implementation timelines should be published in a timely manner.
During the implementation process, if possible, publish locations of sensors and smart infrastructure.
Where this is not possible, at a minimum the city should expect to document and publish how
implementation locations are selected in a timely manner.
These methods are crucial in determining if a technology will disproportionately affect a subset of the
population and in developing strategies to minimize harm. Cities in the United States cannot ignore
the fact that historically, policies around data collection and surveillance have disproportionately
affected already vulnerable and marginalized communities. By ensuring mechanisms for public
accountability around the deployment of new technologies, public officials allow for both residents
and experts to provide oversight and minimize adverse effects.

Good smart city governance

Smart city policies should set an expectation of public disclosure of the types of data being collected,
as well as methods of data storage and transfer. This can be facilitated through the creation of
a data inventory, to record basic information (including, but not limited to: name, contents, update
frequency, use license, owner/maintainer, privacy considerations, data source) about data collected
from smart technologies

In addition, public officials should thoroughly consider data ownership, especially when entering into
a public-private partnerships and should ensure cities have the ability to own or control the data
generated from the devices and platforms they are using.  There should be clear guidelines on which
parties data can be shared with, and in what situations data sharing will be allowed. These
guidelines should be codified in third-party vendor contracts. (GovEx provides template language
within their Data Ownership and Usage terms for Government Contracts).

Cities should also maintain transparency around data analysis and usage. If data is being treated
with algorithms, mechanisms used to automate processes and data analysis, these algorithms
should be publicly available and open to public and expert oversight. Wherever possible, the
algorithms should be subject to an audit to ensure the algorithm is being used as intended. While
algorithms are upheld as methods to increase objectivity, the design of an algorithm can be subject
to bias (the bias of the algorithm creator as well as any bias in the data collected).

Documented consideration of privacy implications

Smart city policies should hold public officials to consider how new technologies will impact a
resident’s right to privacy and ensure there are appropriate safeguards to protecting this right.
Proactive community engagement is crucial in this instance, because the definition of what the right
to privacy entails should be jointly defined by public officials and community residents. Officials
should also record and publicly disclose these considerations, to ensure maximum accountability
and build trust that the city took all the necessary measures to protect residents.

A smart city policy should outline how a city will consider the privacy implications for each smart
technology project. This can take the form of a privacy impact assessment, created prior to each
smart technology acquisition. To allow for effective public oversight, a privacy impact assessment
should be completed, publicly available, and subject to a public review period before the technology
is acquired. At a minimum, officials should clearly define how Personally Identifiable Information will
be handled and protected with regards to smart technology deployment.

Robust open data practice

Cities that are striving to increase data collection and real-time analysis for improved efficiencies
recognize that data transparency is integral to a true smart city. As a result, smart cities should
default to open data and treat information as a public good. Cities that prioritize open data through
open data portals and open data infrastructure allow for more creative uses of data and provide new
opportunities for public engagement and citizen empowerment. A vision of an open, smart city will
require prioritizing digital inclusion and tackling the digital divide.

A policy creating an open data practice creates a mechanism to publish data (not personally
identifiable information) collected from sensor technology. For tools on building a robust open data
practice, see Sunlight’s Open Data Policy Guidelines.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTIBILITY

Every region in the world is already experiencing the effects of climate

change, and this will increase in the coming decades.1 With current
policies and action, we are on track for an estimated 2.7°C or more of
warming above pre-industrial levels by 21002 – hotter than at any point in
human history, with climates very different to those our cities, and the
systems they rely on, were built for. All cities should adapt now, rather
than respond later. This is why.

Early climate change impacts are already here. They are

guaranteed to get worse.
The world has already warmed by 1.2°C.3 More global heating and associated
climate impacts is unavoidable. The IPCC’s 2021 AR6 report finds that we are
likely to pass the 1.5°C mark – the threshold for a climate safe future –
between around 2030 and 2035.4 Without strong near-term mitigation,
temperatures will exceed the more dangerous threshold of 2°C between the
early 2040s and early 2050s.5 With the policies and action currently in place,
we could reach a devastating 3.6°C of warming by 2100.6

The link between greenhouse gas emissions and increases in the frequency
and intensity of extreme weather events is unequivocal.7 This means that
cities need to be begin adapting to climate risks today, and ensure that new
investments are suitable for the city’s future climate.

The main risks that cities face from climate change are:

 Death, illness and economic costs resulting from more

frequent and severe heatwaves, flooding, drought, storms,
wildfires, coastal inundation and abnormally cold
conditions. These events can lead to major disruptions in city and
business operations, with devastating financial, social and physical
impacts. In the last few years, the city of Zhengzhou received more
than its annual average rainfall in just five days, breaking a Chinese
 national record and leading to flash floods that killed over 300
people, with economic losses of US$17.7 billion.8 Other cities such
as Lima have also faced extraordinary floods and landslides at a
scale never seen before. Consecutive droughts across large areas
of Africa, Asia and Latin America coincided with storms and
cyclones, resulting in food insecurity or worse and affecting
livelihoods;9 Cape Town almost reached ‘Day Zero’, when the city
would no longer be able to provide water to its population.10 Heat
waves and wildfires have raged around Los Angeles, Athens, and
towns in Queensland and British Columbia, breaking records for
their frequency and devastation.11 These are just a few examples;
there are countless more.

 Increased food insecurity. Climate change is already causing

reduced crop nutrition and yields, fish depletion and the loss of
plant and insect species. Food shortages drive up costs, and the
urban poor are especially at risk from supply disruptions. Food
scarcity can also lead to conflict and unrest.

 Higher domestic and international migration to cities. Climate

change will increase migration and displacement due to the
immense stress it places on agriculture-dependent communities.
Most migrants and refugees move to cities, seeking new livelihood
opportunities.12 Many cities will need to integrate (sometimes rapid
influxes of) new populations.13

 Biological hazards, particularly vector-borne and water-borne

diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Climate change will
lead to these diseases spreading to new areas as climate
conditions become more favourable for them. Climate change, and
actions that accelerate global heating such as deforestation, also
increase infectious disease risk and the likelihood of another
pandemic.14

Adaptation has immediate benefits and a clear economic

case
Unmitigated disaster events, and impacts of climate extremes like
droughts, are very expensive and damaging for cities. Adaptation needs
large investments, but it is cheaper overall than not adapting and being forced
to spend on disaster relief and recovery later on. It is also saving lives, and
minimises disruption and damage.15

Adaptation helps to unlock economic potential by encouraging

investment. The possibility of unmitigated disaster events impacts investment
decisions and cities’ economic growth; firms avoid long-term investments in
productive assets, entrepreneurship is restricted, and planning horizons are
shortened, leading to lost development opportunities.16 Increasingly, climate
action can also improve a city’s credit rating.

Adaptation delivers near-term health, societal and economic

benefits.17 Most adaptation investments serve multiple purposes and quickly
provide everyday benefits for cities and citizens. For instance, strengthened
river embankments can be used as pedestrian walkways, cycle lanes or
parks; nature-based or ‘green’ adaptation solutions that use vegetation to
reduce heat, drought and flood risk also help to improve air quality,
environmental conservation and citizens’ wellbeing, as well as absorbing
greenhouse gases. Reducing the risks of disasters also improves political
security and helps reduce civil unrest, hunger and disease, contributing to a
stable environment for social and economic development. These benefits
outweigh the costs of potential losses by a factor of four, on average.18

Mexico City, which faces increasing water scarcity, and has installed nearly 500
rainwater harvesting systems and water purification technologies. This has already
provided water security and financial savings to over 56,000 people, as well as reduced
water-borne disease.19
Barcelona has responded to the growing risks of extreme heat and drought by
increasing tree coverage in the city from 5% to 30%. The drought-resistant trees
minimise the urban heat island effect, which has had also helped to improve air quality
and reduce annual utility bills from air-conditioning in buildings by $10m. 20
Austin is increasing its resilience to extreme summer heat and flash flooding by
planting more than 1,000 trees on public land in the city. For each $1 invested in tree
planting, $10 of ecosystem value is delivered via benefits such as improved stormwater
management and reduced energy demand for cooling. 21
Adaptation needs to be a core part of climate action planning
Cities need comprehensive, city-wide and multi-hazard adaptation
strategies based on an assessment of their climate risks.

Climate risks for interdependent city systems

Climate threats and hazards impact urban infrastructure systems for energy, transport,
telecommunications, water and wastewater, solid waste, buildings and food, which are
very interdependent. Infrastructure systems with critical interdependencies are highly
vulnerable to natural hazards; extreme weather events cause ripple effects across these
systems, with damaged facilities and reduced services in one sector impacting on
others. Read more in How to address infrastructure interdependencies when adapting
to climate change.
Climate risks affect every city differently depending on their geography, and
socio-economic and demographic contexts. Cities climate risk is influenced by
the hazards they are exposed to, and the vulnerability of the city’s assets and
population to those hazards. Climate hazards have an outsized impact on
lower income communities and cities, especially in the Global South.

An adaptation strategy can take the form of a standalone (but linked) strategy,
or it can be a component of a climate action plan and/or of a comprehensive
city plan. Cities that do not consider their climate risks in a wider plan can
increase their vulnerability to climate change. Cities also need to integrate
climate risk into sectoral and urban planning.

Cities can prioritie ‘no- or low-regrets’ adaptation options in the adaptation

strategy, which are relatively low cost and deliver multiple health, societal,
economic and mitigation benefits as well as reducing climate risk.
The Adaptation and Mitigation Interaction Assessment tool can help with this.