Reviewer in Eda

SECOND YEAR – FIRST SEMESTER EE-2103 A.Y.
2022-2023
MIDTERM REVIEWER MATH 403 – EDA
Lesson 1 Variable – It is a measure or characteristic
or property of a population or sample that
OBTAINING DATA
may have several different values. (The
STATISTICS : Defined as the science that value varies or nag iiba.)
deals with the collection, organization,
Ungrouped Data - Data which are not
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
organized in any specific way. Also called
data in order to be able to draw judgments or
RAW DATA.
conclusions that help in the decision-making
process. Ex: {1.0, 1.25, 2.5, 1.0, 1.25, 1.75, 1.0}
2 Major Branches of Statistics: Grouped Data - Raw data organized into
▪ Descriptive statistics: Deals with the groups or categories with corresponding
procedures that organize, summarize frequencies.
and describe quantitative data.
Ex:
▪ Inferential Statistics: Deals with
making a judgment or a conclusion ▪ # of 1.0 to 1.50 – 5
about a population based on the findings ▪ # of 1.5 to 2.5 – 2
from a sample that is taken from the
population. TYPES OF DATA
COMMON STATISTICAL TERMS Qualitative Data: Are data that can be placed
into distinct categories, according to some
Population: Refers to the totality of objects, characteristic or attribute.
persons, places or things used in a particular
study. Ex : Course, Religion
Sample: Any subset of population or few Quantitative Data: are numerical and can be
members of a population. If the sample is to ordered or ranked.
be informative about the total population, it Ex: Age, Height, Weight
must be, in some sense, representative of that
population. Purpose of sample is to save time Identify if data is qualitative or quantitative:
and money. ▪ Number of bicycles sold in 1 year by a
Parameter: Descriptive measure of a large sporting goods store. Quanti
characteristic of a population. ▪ Colors of baseball caps in a store. Quali
Statistic: Descriptive measure of a ▪ Time it takes to cut a lawn. Quanti
characteristic of a sample.
▪ Capacity in cubic feet of six truck beds.
PARAMETER AND STATISTIC: Quanti
▪ Average height of all students of ▪ Classification of children in a day care
Batangas State University. (Population) center (infant, toddler, preschool). Quali
▪ Average weight of 100 students of ▪ Weights of fish caught in Taal Lake.
Batangas State University. (Sample) Quanti
▪ Average test score of 10 students in a ▪ Marital status of faculty members in a
class of 50.(Sample) large university. Quali
▪ Number of registered voters in Quantitative data can be classified into two
Batangas.(Population) groups:
DATA : Facts, figures and information Discrete- It can only have specific value
collected on some characteristics of a ▪ They can be counted
population or sample. ▪ Examples
– Sides of dice
Constant - Characteristic or property of a
– Number of students in a class
population or sample which is common to
all members of the group. (The value is Continuous- It can take on any value on
fixed.) interval. They are obtained by measuring.
SECOND YEAR – FIRST SEMESTER EE-2103 A.Y. 2022-2023
May mga times na nabibilang ang data pero Observational Study
yung totality nila ay hindi kayang bilangin ▪ A researcher observes and measures
like total grains of sand in the Earth. characteristics of interest of part of a
Examples: population
Temperature ▪ Two types:
Speed – Retrospective Observational
Weight Study : It is the study that
Height observes past data / historical
Identify Discrete and Continuous data: data
▪ Number of doughnuts sold each day by
– Prospective Observational
Krispy Kreme. D
▪ Water temperatures of six swimming Study: Study starts at the
pools in Sports Complex on a given day. present and studies a group for a
C set period of time.
▪ Weights of cats in a pet shelter.C SIMULATION
▪ Lifetime of 12 flashlight batteries. C ▪ Uses a mathematical or physical model
▪ Number of cheeseburgers sold each day to reproduce the conditions of a situation
by a burger stand on BSU. D or process.
▪ Number of DVDs rented each day by a ▪ Often involves the use of computers.
video store. D ▪ Allow you to study the situation that are
▪ Time between two flashes of lightnings. impractical or even dangerous to create
C in real life.
▪ Often save time and money.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ▪ Example:
Data Collection- Is the process of acquiring – Crash test dummies
information from different sources, about the SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
topic under study. This involves acquiring ▪ Sampling is the process of selecting
information published literature, surveys units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
through questionnaires or interviews, population of interest.
experimentations, documents and records, ▪ Sample must be a representative of the
tests or examinations and other forms of data target population.
gathering instruments. ▪ The target population is the entire
SOURCES OF DATA group a researcher is interested in; the
group about which the researcher
Primary Data - Data collected by the wishes to draw conclusions.
researcher, for the very first time, from different TWO WAYS OF SELECTING A SAMPLE
resources, with a particular problem, question, 1. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
or specific purpose in mind. 2. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Ex: Survey, Questionnaire, Experiment,
Observation, Telephonic Interview
Secondary Data - Data collected by any NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
persons, organization or agency in the past ▪ Not every member of the population has
through surveys, experiments or study, for the chance
some other purpose, but used by the ▪ Non-probability sampling is also called
researcher to deal with the problem at hand. judgment or subjective sampling.
▪ This method is convenient and
Ex: Newspaper, Websites, Government
economical but the inferences made
Publications, Records, Books
based on the findings are not so reliable.
BASIC METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA ▪ Common types:
– Convenience Sampling -
▪ Observational Study
Selecting a sample based on the
▪ Simulation
availability of the respondent
▪ Survey
and/or proximity to the
▪ Design Experiment
researcher. Also known as
accidental, opportunity or grab When a sample is to be taken from a
sampling. population with several strata, the proportion of
– Purposive Sampling - Samples each stratum in the sample should be the same
are chosen based on the goals of as in the population.
the study. They may be chosen CLUSTER SAMPLING - is a sampling
based on their knowledge of the technique where the entire population is
study being conducted or if they divided into groups, or clusters, and a random
satisfy the traits or conditions set sample of these clusters are selected. All
by the researcher. observations in the selected clusters are
included in the sample.
– Quota Sampling
▪ PROPORTIONAL-In Identify the sampling being performed.
proportional quota ▪ Each of the 30 basketball high school
sampling the major teams has 12 players. The organizer
characteristics of the wants to have a quick survey to know
population by sampling a the average height of the players.
proportional amount of
each is represented. 1. Each team was asked to place papers
▪ NON-PROPORTIONAL - with its players’ names into separate
In this method, a minimum fishbowls and randomly drew out five
number of sampled units in names from each bowl. The five names
each category is specified from each team were combined to make
and not concerned with up the sample. Which of the following
having numbers that sampling techniques was used in this
match the proportions in situation?
the population. a. Cluster
b. Simple
PROBABILITY SAMPLING c. Stratified
▪ every member of the population is given d. Systematic
an equal chance to be selected as a part 2. The organizer listed all the players on a
of the sample. sheet of paper and then assigned a
▪ There are several probability unique number for each. Sixty numbers
techniques: were picked to get the samples. Which
– Simple Random Sampling random sampling technique did the
– Systematic Random Sampling organizer apply?
– Stratified Sampling a. Cluster
b. Simple
– Cluster Sampling
c. Stratified
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (Draw lots) - is d. systematic
the basic sampling technique where a group of 3. All players were grouped according to
subjects (a sample) is selected for study from a their ages and chose players from each
larger group (a population). group to measure their heights. Which
random sampling technique did he
Each individual is chosen entirely by chance
apply?
and each member of the population has an
a. Cluster
equal chance of being included in the sample.
b. Simple
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING - is a c. Stratified
random sampling that uses a list of all the d. systematic
elements in the population and then elements 4. The organizer created a list of all
are being selected based on the kth consistent players, decided to surveyed every sixth
intervals. To get the kth interval, divide the name on the list, and later asked those
population size by the sample size. players that were selected to answer a
questionnaire. Which random sampling
STRATIFIED SAMPLING - A stratified sample
technique did he apply?
is obtained by taking samples from each
a. Cluster
stratum or sub-group of a population.
b. Simple
c. Stratified d. systematic
d. Systematic 5. Mrs. Mogol grouped the first-year high
5. A team was randomly selected to school students according to the school
answer the question prior to the study. last attended. She proportionately and
Which random sampling technique did randomly chose students from each
he apply? group. Which random sampling
a. Cluster technique did she apply?
b. Simple a. Cluster
c. Stratified b. Simple
d. Systematic c. Stratified
d. systematic
▪ A National High School has 2,000 first
year high school students. Mrs. Mogol,
the school principal, wanted to obtain
information from these students about
last year’s lesson that had not been
tackled.
1. What is the target population in her
study?
a. All students in her school
b. Parents of all students in her
school
c. First year high school students
in her school
d. Parents of first year high school
student in her school
2. The principal created a list of all grade 7
students, decided to survey every
seventh student on the list. Which
random sampling technique did she
apply?
a. Cluster
b. Simple
c. Stratified
d. systematic
3. Mrs. Mogol wrote each name of all first-
year high school students on small
pieces of paper, she then put them in a
box and drew 300 names to participate
in the study. Which random sampling
technique did she apply?
a. Cluster
b. Simple
c. Stratified
d. systematic
4. The principal grouped the first-year high
school students according to the
barangay where they live. She randomly
picked a barangay and all of the
students living in that barangay
answered the questionnaire. Which
random sampling technique did she
apply?
a. Cluster
b. Simple
c. Stratified
 S = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6),
(2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,1),
(3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2),
Lesson 2 (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1), (5,2),
(5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3),
PROBABILITY (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
Probability is the likelihood or chance of an  E = sum of 7
event occurring.
successful outcomes S  E = {(1,6),(2,5),(3,4),(4,3),(5,2),(6,1)}
Probability= =
total number of possible outcomes T
VENN DIAGRAM - Is a rectangle (the
Example:
universal set) that includes circles depicting
 Dice
Find the probability of showing an even number
from a single roll of dice.
 Coin
Find the probability of showing 2 Heads from a the subsets.
tossing the coin twice.
INTERSECTION OF EVENTS
SAMPLE SPACE, EVENT, AND ELEMENT  The intersection of two events A

and B is denoted by the symbol A
 Sample Space ∩ B.
 is the set of all possible outcomes  It is the event containing all
or results of a random elements that are common to A
experiment. and B.
 is represented by letter S.  A∩B=Ø
 Event  MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE
 is the subset of sample space. EVENTS
 is represented by letter E.
 Element
 each outcome in the sample
space.
 Null Space
 is a subset of the sample space
that contains no elements and is INTERSECTION OF EVENTS
denoted by the symbol Ø.
Example #1:
 also called empty space.
Example #1:  A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
 B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
 What are the possible outcomes of
showing at least two heads from tossing
 A∩B=?
the coin thrice?
 A ∩ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}∩{2,
 S = all possible outcomes 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
 A ∩ B = {2, 3, 5, 7}
 S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
Example #2:
TTH, TTT}
 A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
 E = at least 2 HEADS, it can be 2 or 3  B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
 E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}  A∩B=?

Example #2:  A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
 A∩B=Ø
 What are the possible outcomes of
showing a sum of 7 from a single roll of UNION OF EVENTS:
a pair of dice? The Union of Events A and B is the event
 S = all possible outcomes containing all the elements that belong to A or
to B or to both and is denoted by the symbol A  In a commercial survey involving 1000
∪ B. persons on brand reference, 120 were
found to prefer brand A only, 200 prefer
brand B only, 150 prefer brand C only,
370 prefer either brand A or B but not C,
450 prefer brand B or C but not A and
370 prefer either brand C or A but not B.
How many persons have no brand
Example #1: preference, satisfied with any of the
 A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} three brands.
 B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}  S=A∪B∪C
 A∪B=?
 A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∪ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
 A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
COMPLIMENT OF AN EVENT - Compliment

of an event A with respect to S is the set of all
elements of S that are not in A and is denoted  1000 = 120 + 200 + 150 + 50 + 100 +
by Ac. 100 + x
 1000 = 720 + x
 x = 280
THE ADDITION PRINCIPLE
 If one event can occur in m different
ways and a second event with no
common outcomes can occur in n
Example #1: different ways, then the first and second
 S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, event can occur in
13, 14, 15} N= ( m+ n ) ways
 A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Example #1:
 B = {1, 5, 9, 13}  There are 2 vegetarian entrée options
 A∪B=? and 5 meat entrée options on a dinner
 A ∪ B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∪ {1, 5, 9, 13} menu. What is the total number of
 A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13} entrée options?
 (A ∪ B)c = ? N=2+ 5
 (A ∪ B)c = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13}c N=7 entree options
 (A ∪ B)c = {3, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15} Example #2:
 A student is shopping for a new
OPERATIONS WITH EVENTS computer. He is deciding among 5
Example #1: desktop computers and 4 laptop
 In a class of 40 students, 27 like computers. What is the total number of
Calculus and 25 like Chemistry. How computer options?
many like both Calculus and Chemistry? N=5+ 4
 S=A∪B N=9 computer options
THE MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE
 If one event can occur in m ways and a
second event can occur in n ways after
the first event has occurred, then the
two events can occur in
N= ( m⋅n ) ways
 40 = (27 – x) + x + (25 – x)
 Also called “Fundamental Principle of
 40 = 52 – x
Counting”
 x = 52 – 40
 For two or more events:
 x = 12
N=n1 ⋅ n 2 ⋅ n 3 ⋅ … ⋅ n m
Example #2:
Example #1: PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT
 If there are 5 main routes between city A OBJECTS, TAKEN ‘r’ AT A TIME
and city B, and 3 main routes between  Permutation is arrangement of a set of
city B and city C. In how many ways can objects or things in a specific or
a person drive from city A to city C and definite order.
return, through city B in both trips n!
nPr=
without driving on the same route twice? ( n−r ) !
N=( A ⊳ B)⋅ (B ⊳ C )⋅(C ⊳ B)⋅ (B ⊳ A ) Where:
N=5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅4 • n = total number of elements in a set
N=120 ways • r = the number of elements taken to
Example #2: form the arrangement
 How many 3-digit number can be PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT
formed from the digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 9 OBJECTS, TAKEN ‘r’ AT A TIME
if each digit is to be used once. Example #1:
N=(1 st digit )⋅(2 nd digit )⋅(3 rd digit )  A locker combination system uses four
N=6 ⋅5⋅ 4 digits from 0-9, How many different 4-
N=120 numbers digit locker combinations are possible if
Example #3: no digits can be replaced in each
 How many 4-digit numbers can be combination?
formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, n!
nPr=
and 9 if each digit can be used only ( n−r ) !
once? n = 10 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
N=(1 st digit )⋅(2 nd digit )⋅ (3 rd digit )⋅(4 thdigit ) r = 4 (4-digit code)
N=6 ⋅6 ⋅ 5⋅ 4 10!
N=720 numbers 10 P 4=
(10−4 ) !
Example #4: ¿ 5,040(4−digit locker combination)
 How many even 4-digit numbers can be PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT
formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, OBJECTS, TAKEN ‘r’ AT A TIME
and 9 if each digit can be used only Example #2:
once?  There are four balls of four different
colors. Two balls are taken at a time and
 1st Case: (unit’s position is 0) arranged in a definite order. For
 example, if a white and a red balls are
N= (1 st digit ) ⋅ ( 2 nd digit ) ⋅ ( 3 rd digit ) ⋅ ( 4 thdigit ) taken, one definite arrangement is white
 N=6 ⋅5⋅ 4 ⋅ 1 first, red second, and other arrangement
 N=120 is red first, white second. How many
such arrangements are possible?
 2nd Case: (unit’s position is not 0) n!
 nPr=
( n−r ) !
N= (1 st digit ) ⋅ ( 2 nd digit ) ⋅ ( 3 rd digit ) ⋅ ( 4 thdigit )
n = 4 (four different colored balls)
 N=5 ⋅5 ⋅ 4 ⋅2 r = 2 (two balls taken)
 N=200 4!
4 P2=
( 4−2 ) !
 TOTAL=120+200
¿ 12 arrangements
 TOTAL=320 numbers
PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT
OBJECTS TAKEN ALL AT A TIME
FACTORIAL NOTATION
Formula:
 If n is a positive integer, n factorial
nPn=n! ⊳(n=r )
denoted by n! is defined as:
n !=1⋅ 2 ⋅3 ⋅… ⋅n Example #1:
Example:  Find the number of different 5-letter
 4! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 = 24 arrangements that can be made from
 6! = 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅5 ⋅6 = 720 the letters of the word ANGLE?
nPn=n!
 Recursive formula for n!:
0 !=1 n = 5 (A, N, G, L, E)
n !=n ( n−1 ) ! r = 5 (5 letter arrangements)
5 P5=5 ! 12 !
P=
¿ 120 different 5−letter arrangements ( 12−12 ) ! 3 ! 3 ! 3! 3 !
P=369,600 ways
PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT
OBJECTS TAKEN ALL AT A TIME RING OR CYCLIC PERMUTATION
Example #2:  The number of ways of arranging n
The number of ways can 4 nurses and 3 different things around a circle.
engineers be seated on a bench with nurses P= ( n−1 ) ! ⊳∈ plane
seated together is Special case:
Number of ways the nurses can be arranged  For bracelets, key rings, or any other
= 4! similar set up, there are only half as
Number of ways the 3 engineers can be many arrangements as with other
arranged circular permutations because they can
= 3! be flipped over, thus there is no
distinction between clockwise and
counterclockwise order, it is still the
same arrangement.
( n−1 ) !
P= ⊳∈ space
2
Example #1:
 In how many ways can 10 people be
seated at a round table?
P= ( n−1 ) !
N= ( 4 ! )( 3 ! ) ( number of order ) P= (10−1 ) !
N=(4 !)(3 !)(4) P=362,880 ways
N=576 ways
PERMUTATION OF ‘n’ OBJECTS OF WHICH Example #2:
SOME ARE ALIKE  By stringing together 10 differently
 Permutation of n things taken “r” at a colored beads, how many different
time, of which p are alike, q are alike, s bracelets can be made?
are alike, etc.. ( n−1 ) !
n! P=
P= 2
( n−r ) ! p ! q ! s ! … ( 10−1 ) !
Example #1: P=
2
 Find the number of permutation that can P=181,440 different bracelets
be formed from the word COMMITTEE.
n = 9 (C, O, M, M, I, T, T, E, E)
r = 9 (all letters are taken)
From which there are:
2 M’s; 2 T’s; 2 E’s
n! COMBINATION
P=
( n−r ) ! p ! q !s !  It is an arrangement of a set of objects
9! or things where order does not count.
P=
( 9−9 ) !2! 2! 2 ! n!
nCr=
P=45,360 ( n−r ) ! r !
Example #2: Where:
 There are 3 copies each 0f 4 different • n = total number of elements in a set
books. In how many different ways can • r = the number of elements taken to
they be arranged on a shelf? form the arrangement
n = 12 (3 copies x 4 different books) Example #1:
r = 12 (all books are arranged)  In a certain basketball team of 12
From which there are: players, how many different starting
3 Book 1; 3 Book 2; 3 Book 3; 3 Book 4 lineups are possible?
n!
P=
( n−r ) ! p ! q ! s !t !
In choosing a 5 man lineup, the arrangement of  The probability of an event is a number
picking does not count. So we use combination between 0 and 1.
formula: For Impossible Event:
n!  P(E) = 0 , means that the event cannot
nCr=
( n−r ) ! r ! occur
• n = 12 (total players) For a Sure or Certain Event:
• r = 5 (number of players for each lineup)  P(E) = 1 , means that the event is sure
12 ! to occur
12 C 5=
( 12−5 ) ! 5 !
¿ 792 different startinglineups COMPLEMENTARY PROBABILITY
Example #2:  Probability that the event E will not
 A semiconductor company will hire 7 happen
men and 4 women. In how many ways F Failure Outcomes
P ( E )= =
can the company chose from 9 men and S + F Total Number of Possible Outcomes
6 women who qualified for the position?
The number of ways to select 7 out of 9 P ( E )=1−P ( E )
qualified men is: Where:
= 9C7 • S = number of successful outcomes
The number of ways to select 4 out of 6 • F = number of failures
qualified women is: Example #1:
= 6C4  Find the probability of not getting a sum
Applying the principle of counting: of seven in one roll of a pair of dice.
N=(9 C 7)(6 C 4)  Find the total number of possible
¿ 540 ways outcomes and total number of failures
COMBINATION OF ‘n’ DIFFERENT THINGS  Total number of possible outcomes
TAKEN 1, 2, 3, …, n AT A TIME = 6 · 6 = 36
Formula:  Possible outcomes of forming a sum of
C=nC 1+ nC 2+nC 3+ …+nCn 7:
or 1+6
C=2 n−1 2+5
Example #1: 3+4
 In how many ways can a manager 4+3
choose one or more janitor from five 5+2
equally qualified applicants? 6+1
C=5 C 1+5 C 2+5 C 3+5 C 4+5 C 5 Failure Outcomes
 P not 7=
C=31 ways Total Number of Possible Outcomes
or
30
C=2 −1
5
 P not 7=
36
C=31 ways
Example #2: 5
 P not 7=
 A girl has 7 flowers, each of a different 6
variety. How many different bouquets
can she form?
Total number of failures = 36 – 6 = 30
C=7 C 1+7 C 2+7 C 3+ 7C 4 +7 C 5+7 C 6+ 7C 7
C=127 ways
Example #2:
C=27−1
Find the probability of not getting a sum of nine
C=127 ways
in one roll of a pair of dice.
Find the total number of possible outcomes
PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT
and total number of failures
 Probability is the likelihood or chance of
Total number of possible outcomes
an event occurring.
= 6 · 6 = 36
number of elements∈event set
Probability of an event= Possible outcomes of forming a sum of
number of elements∈sample space of an experiment
9:
n( E)
P( E)= 3+6
n(S)
4+5
Note:
5+4
6+3
Total number of failures = 36 – 4 = 32 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Failure Outcomes
P not=
Total Number of Possible Outcomes RANDOM VARIABLES - Variable is a
32 characteristic or attribute that can assume
P not 9=
36 different values.
8 Random variable assigns a numerical values to
P not 9=
9 each outcome of a chance event.
Example #3: It is always represented by capital letters.
If the probability of winning a certain game is DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES - Discrete
Pw = ¾, then what is the probability of losing a random variables can take on either a finite or
game? at most a countably infinite set of discrete
 P w=1−Pw values.
3 The outcome can assume only a specific
 P w=1− number of outcomes.
4
Example:
1 Juan is not a very smart student. When he tries
 P w=
4 to answer a multiple-choice question, he used
to guess everything. Suppose he is taking a
Example #4:
quiz that has two multiple choice questions on
If the probability of winning a certain game is it, and that each question has four possible
PE = 2/5, then what is the probability of losing a answers, only one of which is correct. Let X
game? represent the number of correct answers on
the quiz.
 P E=1−PE
Results for answering the two multiple choice
2 questions:
 P E=1−
5 {a, b, c, d} & {1, 2, 3, 4}
{a1, a2, a3, a4, b1, b2, b3, b4, c1, c2, c3, c4,
3
 P E= d1, d2, d3, d4} = 16 outcomes
5
MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION
 If p is the probability that a person will
receive a sum of money S, the Example:
mathematical expectation is defined as: The results of rolling a dice once.
Let X be a random variable representing the
E=pS results of dice Results for tossing a die once:
Example: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
 The student buys 1 of 1000 raffle tickets.
The grand prize is $500. What is the
mathematical expectation?
E=pS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION of a random
p = 1/1000 variable is the lists of all values of random
S = $500 variables (X) and their probabilities {P(X)}.
1 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
E= ×500 Consist of the values a discrete random
1000
E=$ 0.50 variable (X) can assume and the corresponding
probabilities {P(X)} of the values:
 It can be represented by:
·Table
·Graph
·Formula
 Note:
·The sum of all probabilities in a
probability distribution is 1.
·Every probability is a number between
0 and 1.
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

Variance and Standard Deviation measures
or describes how far a set of assumed values
of random variables is “spread out”.
EXPECTED VALUE Small variance or standard deviation means
 The EXPECTED VALUE of a discrete that the assumed values or data points tend
random variable is the weighted average to be very close to the mean.
of all possible values that this random Higher variance or standard deviation
variable can take on. means that the assumed values or data
 Also called as mean, mathematical points are spread out from the mean.
expectation, expectation, first moment.  Var [ X ]=∑ ( X−E [ X ])2 ∙ P ( X )→ variance
 It is the sum of the product of the
random variable to its probability. 
 It is represented by the formula: SD [ X ]= √ Var [ X ]= √∑ ( X−E [ X ]) ∙ P ( X )→ standard d
2
E [X ]=∑ X ∙ P( X )
BINOMIAL EXPERIMENT
 A binomial experiment is a statistical E[𝑋]=np
experiment that has the following The variance is
properties: Var[X]=npq
 The experiment consists of n The standard deviation is
repeated trials. SD[X]=√npq
 Each trial can result in just two
possible outcomes. We call one
of these outcomes a success and
the other, a failure.
 The probability in each trial is
constant.
 The probability of success,
denoted by p, is the same on
every trial.
 The probability of failure, denoted
by q, is the same on every trial.
 The trials are independent; that
is, the outcome on one trial does
not affect the outcome on other
trials.
BINOMIAL PROBABILITY
 Binomial probability refers to the
probability that a binomial experiment
results in exactly “r” successes.
r n−r
P[ X ]=nCr ⋅ p ⋅ q
Where: CUMULATIVE BINOMIAL PROBABILITY

 n = number of trials
 r = number of successes that result from CUMULATIVE BINOMIAL PROBABILITY
a binomial experiment refers to the probability that the binomial
 p = probability of success in every trial random variable falls within a specified range
 q = probability of failure in every trial (e.g., is greater than or equal to a stated lower
 q=1–p limit and less than or equal to a stated upper
limit).
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
 A binomial random variable is the
number of successes “r” in “n” repeated
trials of a binomial experiment.
 The probability distribution of a binomial
At least
random variable is called BINOMIAL At most
DISTRIBUTION.
·Table Less than/ fewer than Greater than/ more than
·Graph
Where:
·Formula
n = number of trials
 Note:  r = number of successes that result from
·The sum of all probabilities in a a binomial experiment
binomial distribution is 1.  p = probability of success in every trial
·Every probability is a number between  q = probability of failure in every trial
0 and 1.  q=1–p
The binomial distribution has the
following properties:
The mean of the distribution is
POISSON DISTRIBUTION
 A POISSON RANDOM VARIABLE is
the number of successes that result
from a Poisson experiment.
 The probability distribution of a Poisson
random variable is called a POISSON
DISTRIBUTION
·Table
·Graph
·Formula
 Note:
·The sum of all probabilities in a poisson
distribution is 1.
·Every probability is a number between
0 and 1.
CUMULATIVE POISSON PROBABILITY
A CUMULATIVE POISSON PROBABILITY
refers to the probability that the Poisson
random variable is greater than some specified
lower limit and less than some specified upper
limit.
At most At least
Less than/ fewer than Greater than/ more than
POISSON PROBABILITY
 In Poisson Probability, it talks about the
probability of how likely an event to
happen for a specific period of time
 The Poisson Probability that exactly “r”
successes occur in a Poisson
experiment, when the mean number of
successes is μ is given by the formula:
Where:
 μ = average number of successes
 μ = variance of Poisson distribution
 μ = mean of the distribution
 r = exact number of successes
 e = Euler’s number = 2.71828
r −μ
μ ·e
P=
r!
Addition Rule of Probability
● The probability that a set of mutually
exclusive events will happen in a single trial
is the sum of the probabilities of the
separate events.
P=P(1)+P(2)+P(3)+…+P(n)
EXAMPLES
1. Find the probability of drawing an ACE or a
Face card in a single draw from an ordinary
deck of 52 playing cards.
Continuation of lesson 2 is to be uploaded

by Vyron….
ODDS
● It is the ratio of the probability of an event’s

occurring to the probability of its not
occurring:
ODDS=(Successful Outcomes)/Failures 2. The probabilities that a student will receive
an A, B, C, D and E grade are 0.35, 0.30,
ODDS=p/q 0.20, 0.10 and 0.05 respectively. What is the
probability that a student will receive at
Where: least a C grade?
p = probability of success
The event of having at least a ‘C’ grades are either
q = probability of failure A grade, B, grade, C grade
Patleast C=P(A)+P(B)+P(C)
q=1-p
Patleast C=0.35+0.30+0.20
EXAMPLE
Patleast C=0.85
1. The probability of an event that an LPA
(Low Pressure Area) will become a typhoon
3. Roll a pair of dice once. What is the
is 0.3. Find the odds in favor of a typhoon. probability of rolling a sum greater than 8.
p = probability of success A. The possible sums that are greater than 8
p = 0.3 are:
q = probability of failure
q=1–p 9, 10, 11, 12
q = 1 – 0.3 B. Possible outcomes of forming a sum of 9:
q = 0.7
ODDS=p/q ➡️ODDS=0.3/0.7 (3+6), (4+5), (5+4), (6+3)
ODDS= 3/7 or 3:7 P9 = 4/36
C. Possible outcomes of forming a sum of 10:
PROBABILITY OF MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS (4+6), (5+5), (6+4)
● Two or more events are mutually exclusive P10 = 3/36
if they cannot occur simultaneously or they
cannot occur at the same time or they don’t D. Possible outcomes of forming a sum of 11:
have a common outcome. (5+6), (6+5)
P(AorB)=P(A)+P(B) or P11 = 2/36
P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B) E. Possible outcomes of forming a sum of 12:
(6+6) 1. An urn contains 6 red marbles and 4 black
marbles. Two marbles are drawn in
P12 = 1/36 succession with replacement from the urn.
P>8=P9+P10+P11+P12 What is the probability that the 1st marble is
red and the 2nd marble is black?
P>8=4/36+3/36+2/36+1/36 LET:
R – event that the first marble is red
P>8=10/36 B – event that the second marble is black
P>8=5/18 Probability of R(1st draw):
P(R) = 6/10
Probability of B|R(2nd draw):
PROBABILITY OF INCLUSIVE EVENTS
P(B|R) = 4/10
● Two or more events are said to be inclusive,
when one or the other or both can occur. In P(R&B)=P(R)⋅P(B|R)
other words, two events are said to be
inclusive if they have a common outcome. P(R&B)=6/10⋅4/10
P(R&B)=24/100
P(A or B)=P(A)+P(B)-P(A and B)
P(R&B)=6/25
P(A ∪ B)=P(A)+P(B)-P(A and B)
PROBABILITY OF DEPENDENT EVENTS

EXAMPLE
● Two events are dependent if the occurrence
1. Find the probability of drawing a or non-occurrence of one has effect on the
club or a number card in a single probability of the occurrence of the other.
draw from an ordinary deck of 52
playing cards. P(AB)=P(A)P(B/A)
P(CLUB∪NUMBER)=P_CLUB+P_NUMBER- P(A&B)=P(A)P(B/A)
PCLUB&NUMBER
P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B/A)
P(CLUB∪NUMBER)=13/52+36/52- 9/52 Multiplication Rule of Probability (Dependent
Events)
P(CLUB∪NUMBER)=40/52
● The probability that a set of dependent
P(CLUB∪NUMBER)=10/13 events will happen is the product of their
separate probabilities.
PROBABILITY OF INDEPENDENT EVENTS P=P(A)⋅P(B)⋅P(C)⋅…⋅P(N)
● Two events are independent if the EXAMPLE

occurrence or non-occurrence of one has
no effect on the probability of the 1. An urn contains 6 red marbles and 4 black
occurrence of the other. marbles. Two marbles are drawn without
replacement from the urn. What is the
P(AB)=P(A)P(B|A) probability that both of the marbles are
black?
P(A&B)=P(A)P(B|A)
P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B|A) LET:
A – event that the first marble is black
Note that the notation “|” is read as “given” B – event that the second marble is black
Probability of A(1st draw):
Multiplication Rule of Probability (Independent
Events) P(A) = 4/10
● The probability that a set of independent Probability of B|A(2nd draw):
events will happen is the product of their
separate probabilities.
P(B|A) = 3/9
P=P(A)⋅P(B)⋅P(C)⋅…⋅P(N)
P(A&B)=P(A)⋅P(B|A)
EXAMPLE
P(A&B)=4/10⋅3/9 2. Find the probability that a number less than
P(A&B)=12/90 5 will result in a single toss of a die given
that the toss resulted is an even number.
P(A&B)=2/15 Probability of showing <5 & EVEN: (2,4)
2. An urn contains 5 red, 7 white, and 10 blue P(<5&EVEN) = 2/6
balls. If three balls are drawn in succession
without replacement, find the probability Probability of showing EVEN: (2, 4, 6)
that the balls drawn are in the order blue,
white, and red. P(EVEN) = 3/6
LET: P(<5|EVEN)=(P(<5&EVEN))/(P(EVEN))
B – event that the first ball is blue P(<5|EVEN)=□(64& 2/6 )/□(64&3/6)
W – event that the second ball is white P(<5|EVEN)=⅔
R – event that the third ball is red
Probability of B(1st draw): 3. In the House of Representatives, a certain

committee is composed of six LP’s and five
P(B) = 10/22 UNA’s. Three of the LP’s are men, and three
of the UNA’s are men. If a man is chosen for
Probability of W|B(2nd draw): chairman, what is the probability that he is
an LP?
P(W|B) = 7/21
Probability of showing LP & MAN:
rd
Probability of R|BW(3 draw): 3 MEN in LP and the committee is composed of 11
individuals
P(R|BW) = 5/20
P(LP&MAN) = 3/11
P(BWR)=P(B)⋅P(W|B)⋅P(R|BW)
P(BWR)=10/22⋅7/21⋅5/20 Probability of showing MAN:
P(BWR)=5/132 There’s a total of 6 men in the committee
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY P(MAN) = 6/11

P(LP|MAN)=(P(MAN&LP))/(P(MAN))
● Given two events, A and B, if the probability P(LP|MAN)=(3/11) / (6/11)
of event B is affected by the occurrence of P(LP|MAN)=1/2
event A, then the probability of event B is
said to be conditional to that of event A. In
general, the condition A occurs reduces the BAYES’ THEOREM
entire sample space to the sample space of
A. Mathematically,
● (Also known as Bayes’ Rule) is a useful tool
P(B|A)=(P(A&B))/(P(A)) for calculating conditional probabilities.
EXAMPLES ● Let E1, E2, …, En be a set of mutually
exclusive events that together form the
1. Roll a die once. Find the probability that a sample space S. Let X be any event from
number less than 4 will come out given that sample space, such that P(X)>0. Then,
the roll resulted to an odd number.
(P(E1)⋅P(X|E1))
Probability of showing <4 & ODD: (1,3)
(P(E1)P(X│E1)+P(E2)P(X│E2)+…+P(En)P(X|En))
P(<4&ODD) = 2/6
EXAMPLE
Probability of showing ODD: (1, 3, 5)
1. In a certain college, 5% of the men and 2%
P(ODD) = 3/6 of the women took engineering.
Furthermore, 60% of the students are men.
P(<4|ODD)=(P(<4&ODD))/(P(ODD)) Now if a student is selected at random and
is found to be an engineering student, what
P(<4|ODD)=□(64& 2/6 )/□(64&3/6) is the probability that the student is man?
P(<4|ODD)=2/3 P(M) = 0.60

P(E|M) = 0.05
P(W) = 0.40
P(E|W) = 0.02
P(M|E)=(P(M&E)) / (P(E)) BINOMIAL PROBABILITY

P(M|E)=(P(M)P(E|M))
● It refers to the probability that a binomial
experiment results in exactly “r” successes.
(P(M)P(E|M)+P(W)P(E|W)) Also known as Repeated Trials Probability.
P(M|E)=(0.60⋅0.05)
P=nCr⋅p^r⋅q^(n-r)
((0.60⋅0.05)+(0.40⋅0.02))
Where:
P(M|E)=15/19=0.7895
•n = number of trials
•r = number of successes that result from a

PROBABILITY FOR GEOMETRIC REGION
binomial experiment
•p = probability of success in every trial

● Suppose points are selected at random
region, and part of that region’s points •q = probability of failure in every trial
represent an event E. The probability P(E) of
•q = 1 - p
the event is given by:
EXAMPLE
P(E)=(measure of region in the event) /
(measure of entire region) 1. Find the probability of getting a prime
number thrice by tossing a die 5 times.
n = total number of trials
n=5
EXAMPLE r = number of success
r=3
1. A dart is thrown at a 15 inches board
containing a circle of radius 2 inches.
p = probability of success (prime number) (2,3,5)
Assuming that the dart hits the board, and
that it is equally likely to land on any point p = 3/6 = ½
on the board, what is the probability that
the dart hits the circle? q = probability of failure
q=1–p
q = 1 – 1/2
Measure of region in the event: q = 1/2
A = πr2
A = π(2)2
A = 12.566
Measure of entire region:

A = s2
A = (15)2
A = 225 POISSON PROBABILITY
● The Poisson Probability that exactly “r”
P(E)=(measure of region in the event)/(measure of successes occur in a Poisson experiment,
entire region) when the mean number of successes is μ is
given by the formula:
P(E)=12.566/225
P(E)=0.05585
1. Suppose we have a bowl with 22 marbles –
4 red marbles, 5 green marbles, 6 blue
marbles, and 7 yellow marbles. We
randomly select 10 marbles from the bowl,
with replacement. What is the probability of
selecting 1 red, 2 green, 3 blue, and 4
yellow marbles?
Where:
•μ = average number of successes N = total number of selections

•μ = variance of Poisson distribution N = 10
r = of selections per event
•μ = mean of the distribution rr = 1 r g = 2
rb = 3 r y = 4
•r = exact number of successes p = probability of each event
pr = 4/22 pg = 5/22
•e = Euler’s number = 2.71828
pb = 6/22 py = 7/22
EXAMPLE
1. If there are 250 typographical errors
randomly distributed in a 1000-page
manuscript, find the probability that any
given page has exactly 2 errors.
μ = average number of successes
μ = 250/1000
μ = 0.25
r = exact number of successes HYPERGEOMETRIC PROBABILITY

r=2
● Suppose a population consists of N items, p

which are the successes. And a random
sample drawn from that population consists
of n items, r which are successes. Then the
hypergeometric probability is:
MULTINOMIAL PROBABILITY
P=((pCr)⋅qC(n-r))/NCn
● If events E1, E2, E3, …, Ek can occur with Where:
probabilities P1, P2, P3, …, Pk, respectively,
then the probability that E1, E2, E3, …, Ek will •N = number of population
occur r1, r2, r3, …, rk times, respectively is
•p = number of successes in the population
(N)
•q = number of failures in the population

(n)
Where
•n = number of sample
•N = total number of selections or
occurrence of events •r = number of successes in the sample (n)
•N = r1 + r2 + r3 + … + rk EXAMPLE
•r = number of selections or occurrence per 1. Four persons are chosen at random
event from a group of 3 men, 2 women
and 4 children. Find the probability
•p = probability of each event that of the 4 persons selected,
exactly 2 are children.
EXAMPLE
N = number of population  That is, the probability that a continuous
N=3+2+4= 9 random variable X takes a value in the
p = number of successes in the population(N) interval [a , b] is given by an integral of
p=4 the probability density function f ( x )
q = number of failures in the population(N) b
q=5 P ( a< X < b )=∫ f ( x ) dx
n = number of sample a
n=4
{
2
r = number of successes in the sample(n) x
,−1< x <2
r=2 For the density function f ( x )= 3 ,
P=((pCr)⋅qC(n-r))/NCn ( 0 ) , elsewhere
evaluate P(0< x ≤ 1).
P=((4C2)⋅5C(4-2))/9C4
P=10/21
A point lands in the interval [0,1] randomly. The

Lesson 3 probability density function of the random
CONTINOUS PROBABILITY variable X which describes the position of the
DISTRIBUTION point is given by f ( x )=3 x 2. What is the
probability that the point lands closer to the
 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE is point 0 than to the point 1.
a random variable that is used to model
a situation where there are uncountably
many outcomes.
 Uncountable set cannot be put into an
order that would allow us to list all of its
elements one at a time. A common
example is the real numbers: there is no
way we could list them all, even if we A point lands in the interval [0,1] randomly. The
had an infinite amount of time. In probability density function of the random
contrast, the integers are countable. variable X which describes the position of the
point is given by f ( x )=3 x 2. What is the
PROBABILITY OF CONTINUOUS RANDOM
probability that the point lands closer to the
VARIABLES
point 1 than to the point 0.
 In dealing with the probability of
continuous random variable, the
probability of any single/particular
outcome is P ( X )=0 .
 In the probability of continuous random
variable, we are dealing with the
probability of random variables in
specified intervals. EXPECTED VALUE OF CONTINUOUS
RANDOM VARIABLES
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION
 Let X be a continuous random variable
 The probability density function of a with range [a , b] and the probability
continuous random variable gives the density function f ( x). Then the expected
relative likelihood of any outcome in an value of X is defined by:
interval occurring.
Expected value is also called mean ( μ),
2
 −(x−μ)
2
2σ
average, expected value. e
f ( x )=
b
σ √2 π
μ= E[ X ]=∫ xf ( x)dx The graphical representation of the normal
a
distribution is popularly known as a normal
 Variance of X , Var [ X ] ∨σ 2 : curve. The normal curve is described clearly
b
by the following characteristics:
σ =Var [ X ]=∫ ( x−μ) f ( x )dx
2 2
1. The normal curve is bell-shaped.
a
2. The curve is symmetrical about
 Standard deviation of X , SD [ X ] ∨σ : its center.
3. The mean, median, and mode
σ =SD [ X ] =√ σ
2
coincide at the center.
4. The width of the curve is
determined by the standard
deviation of the distribution.
5. The tails of the curve are plotted
in both directions and flatten out
indefinitely along the horizontal
axis. The tails are thus
asymptotic to the baseline.
6. The total area under a normal
curve is 1.
NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

 Normal Probability Distribution is a
probability distribution of continuous
random variables.
 It shows graphical representations of
random variables obtained through SHAPE OF A NORMAL DISTRIBUTED
measurement like the height, weight, CURVE
time or any data with infinite values.
The shape of a normal curve is based on the
 It is used to describe the characteristics two given parameters, the mean and the
of populations and help us visualize the standard deviation of the distribution. When
inferences we make about the comparing two distributions each described by
population. the normal curve, the following are the three
 It also used to determine the situations based on the said parameters:
probabilities and percentile of the A. When the means are not equal, but the
continuous random variables in the standard deviations are equal. (µ1 ≠ µ2 ; ơ1 =
distribution. ơ2), the curves have a similar shape but
centered at different points.
 The probability density function of a
normal distribution is represented by:
B When the means are equal, but the standard

deviations are not equal. (µ1 = µ2 ; ơ1 ≠ ơ2), the
curves are centered at the same point, but they
have different heights and spreads.
STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

 Since each normally distributed variable
C.When the means are different and the has its own mean and standard
standard deviations are also different (µ 1≠ µ2; deviation, as stated earlier, the shape
ơ1 ≠ ơ2), the curves are centered at different and location of these curves will vary.
points and vary in shapes.  So to simplify the normal distribution, we
are using Standard Normal
Distribution.
 Standard Normal Distribution is a normal
distribution with a mean of 0 (μ = 0) and
a s.d. of 1 (σ = 1).
EMPIRICAL RULE
 The empirical rule is better known as
68% - 95% - 99.70% rule.
CONVERTING NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
TO STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
STANDARDIZING or STANDARDIZATION
of a random variable is to convert the
random variable X to a standard normal
variable or z-score.
X −μ
z= → random variable ( X ) ¿ z−score (z)
σ
X =z σ + μ→ z−score ( z ) ¿ random variable ( X )
Where:
Empirical Formula: z = standard normal variable or z-score
• About 68 % of all values will lie within X = random variable X
μ ± σ. μ = mean
• About 95 % of all values will lie within σ = standard deviation
μ ±2 σ . Example:
• About 99.7 % of all values will lie within The mean number of hours a Filipino
μ ±3 σ . worker spends on the computer is 3.1 hours
per workday. Assuming that the standard
deviation is 0.5 hour and is normally
distributed, how long does a worker spend
on the computer if his z-score is 1.2?
The average monthly salary for newly –

hired teachers is P21,945. If the distribution
is approximately normal with a standard
deviation of P3,250, how much will a
teacher earn in a month if his salary has a
z-score of 1.15?
Each month, a Filipino household generates

an average of 28 pounds of newspaper for
garbage or recycling. Assuming that the
standard deviation is 2 pounds, determine
the z-score of a household that generates
22 pounds of newspaper.
`
Examples:
EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION
 Exponential Distribution describes the
time between events that follow a
Poisson Distribution. It is often
concerned with the amount of time until
some specific event occurs.
 For the density function of exponential
distribution:
 Where λ = the average number of
events over a time period
Example:
 Time between two flashes of lightning
during a storm

In excess
At a call center, calls come in every 20 minutes

on average. What is the probability that no calls
will come in for a 30-minute period?

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SECOND YEAR – FIRST SEMESTER EE-2103 A.Y.

SAMPLE SPACE, EVENT, AND ELEMENT  The intersection of two events A

 E = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH}  A∩B=?

COMPLIMENT OF AN EVENT - Compliment

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

Where: CUMULATIVE BINOMIAL PROBABILITY

Less than/ fewer than Greater than/ more than

Continuation of lesson 2 is to be uploaded

● It is the ratio of the probability of an event’s

PROBABILITY OF DEPENDENT EVENTS

PROBABILITY OF INDEPENDENT EVENTS P=P(A)⋅P(B)⋅P(C)⋅…⋅P(N)

● Two events are independent if the EXAMPLE

Probability of B(1st draw): 3. In the House of Representatives, a certain

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY P(MAN) = 6/11

P(<4|ODD)=2/3 P(M) = 0.60

P(M|E)=(P(M&E)) / (P(E)) BINOMIAL PROBABILITY

•r = number of successes that result from a

•p = probability of success in every trial

Measure of entire region:

•μ = average number of successes N = total number of selections

r = exact number of successes HYPERGEOMETRIC PROBABILITY

● Suppose a population consists of N items, p

•q = number of failures in the population

A point lands in the interval [0,1] randomly. The

NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

B When the means are equal, but the standard

STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The average monthly salary for newly –

Each month, a Filipino household generates

At a call center, calls come in every 20 minutes

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