Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

College of Science

Faculty of Physical and Computational Science

Department of Meteorology and Climate Science

Determination of Equivalent Potential Temperature, Geopotential Height

and Wind Environment in Kumasi

A thesis submitted to the Department of Meteorology and climate science,

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Bachelor of science Degree

in Meteorology and Climate Science

by

Amoako-Atta Francisca

Boampong Dion

Osei Peprah Ransford

Supervisor: Dr. Marian A. Osei

©Department of Meteorology and Climate Science

September 2022
 DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this thesis is our original work for the undergraduate degree and that,

to the best of our knowledge, it does not contain any information that has been previously

published by another person or information that has been acknowledged for the award of any

other degree from the university, unless specifically noted in the text.

Amoako-Atta Francisca (4670018) ………………… …………………

Student Signature Date

Boampong Dion (4678718) ………………… …………………

Student Signature Date

Osei Peprah Ransford (4676718) ………………… …………………

Student Signature Date

Certified By:
Dr. Marian A. Osei ………………… ………………
(Supervisor) Signature Date

Endorsed By:
Dr. Thompson Annor ………………… ………………
(Head of Department) Signature Date

i
 DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to Almighty God, our parents, siblings, and our entire family for their

unwavering support throughout our education.

We also dedicate this work to all lecturers whose knowledge and guidance have helped us get

this far, especially the lecturers of the entire Meteorology and Climate Science Department.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, we say a very big thank you to God Almighty for bringing us this far. Without Him,

the completion of our work would not have been successful.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor Dr. Marian A. Osei for all her

guidance, support and encouragement throughout our research. Thank you, madam, God bless

you immensely.

Special thanks to our parents and siblings for their support and prayers, we say thank you and

God bless you all.

iii
 ABSTRACT
Estimation of equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), geopotential height (Z) and wind speed is

crucial for determining thunderstorm and convective activities. Studies on these parameters

have been conducted, however, these studies have not focused on the spatio-temporal variation

and relationship between the 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind. It is therefore essential to study these parameters

to aid our understanding of West African weather systems. This study focused on the 𝜃𝑒 -

geopotential height-wind relationship over Kumasi. Monthly values of 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed

from ERA5 were estimated and compared with precipitation for a period of 38 years (1981-

2019) over a semi-deciduous ecosystem. Rainfall dataset was obtained from the GMET rain

gauge from Kumasi airport. On the monthly timescale, 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed increased in the

wet months and decreased in the dry months at 500 hPa whereas Z and wind speed increased

and decreased in the wet months and dry months respectively with 𝜃𝑒 increasing and decreasing

in the dry months and wet months respectively at 925 hPa. The correlation between 𝜃𝑒 , Z and

wind speed with precipitation at 500 hPa were 0.76, 0.24, 0.26 respectively. The correlation

between 𝜃𝑒 and precipitation was the highest (0.76) followed by Z and wind speed. This

confirmed that 𝜃𝑒 had the best correlation with precipitation. Similarly, the correlation between

𝜃𝑒 , wind speed and Z with precipitation at 925 hPa were 0.33, 0.46, 0.2 respectively. This

showed that the correlation between precipitation and wind speed was the highest (0.46) and

had the best correlation with precipitation followed by 𝜃𝑒 and Z. From the results, it was

concluded that level of equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), geopotential height (Z), and wind

speed influenced rainfall and weather in Kumasi and their relationship with precipitation varied

according to pressure.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION i

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 3
1.3 MOTIVATION 4
1.4 OBJECTIVES 5
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
CHAPTER 2 6

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.2.1 EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE (θe) 7
2.2.2 GEOPOTENTIAL HEIGHT (Z) 8
2.2.3 WIND 9
CHAPTER 3 10

METHODOLOGY 10

3.1 STUDY AREA 10

3.2 DATA SOURCES 11
CHAPTER 4 12

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 12

4.1 MONTHLY MEAN ANALYSES 12

4.2 ANNUAL ANALYSES 14
4.3 CORRELATION BETWEEN THE PARAMETERS AND RAINFALL 16
CHAPTER 5 19

5.1 CONCLUSIONS 19
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 20
REFERENCES 21

v
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY

Equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) is a conservative property commonly used in the research

of wet atmospheric dynamics (Zhou et al., 2009). It is conserved in saturated and moist

adiabatic expansion and introduced to characterise saturated atmospheres (Zhou et al., 2009).

The global/tropical trends in 𝜃𝑒 are significantly associated with trends in heat extremes and

extreme precipitation (Song et al., 2022). Between 1980 and 2019, the global equivalent

potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) increased by 1.48 °C, with the tropics increasing by up to 4 °C (Song

et al., 2022). Values of 𝜃𝑒 increased consistently between the southern and Northern

Hemisphere midlatitudes, showing the global character of greenhouse gas-induced warming

(GHGs). The spatio-temporal changes in 𝜃𝑒 also dictate the estimated geopotential height over

a region, with more extreme values in 𝜃𝑒 indicating a more unstable troposphere (deep

convection (Song et al., 2022) and a higher geopotential height.

Geopotential height approximates the actual height of a pressure surface above mean sea level.

Globally geopotential height is a dominant parameter in controlling weather and climatic

conditions at a level of 500 hPa (Hafez et al., 2014), and its anomalies are crucial in assessing

general atmospheric circulation patterns (Nazemosa dat and cordery,1997; Zeng et al., 2016).

Studies have shown that closely packed contours of geopotential height at 500 hPa are

associated with strongest mid-tropospheric wind speed, which are crucial for storm formation

and organisation (Doyle et al., 2009). The formation of troughs is influenced by areas of low

geopotential height (Schemm et al., 2020), with associated strong convection, thunderstorms

and heavy rainfall. Ridges, on the other hand, have relatively high geopotential height

(Schemm et al., 2020), and are linked to reduced convective activity, with little or no cloud

formation and rainfall.

1
It follows that, over West Africa, the complexity of the rainfall pattern and forecasting has led

to some studies on moist convective processes. For instance, Omotosho (1988) observed rain-

producing systems across tropical West Africa from April to October, but the months of

November to March were often dry and dusty. According to the study's findings, the primary

mechanisms for the negative anomalies in equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) observed in

the 900-700 hPa layer during dust haze outbreaks over Kano in winter were horizontal transport

of drier and, to a lesser extent, colder air at the upper levels by eddy motions, resulting in a

weakening of the atmospheric boundary layer. Obasi (1964) and Adefolalu (1972) investigated

rainfall variability over Lagos during the so-called 'little dry season' (July-August) in West

African coastal areas using equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ).

Omotosho (1989) also suggested using anomalies of the parameter (𝜃𝑒 ) as predictors of the

onset, duration, and removal of the dust haze over Kano. Oduro-Afriyie (1988) carried out

research in West Africa. According to the findings, equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) and

monthly rainfall (R) usually decreased north of the equator. Also, for 𝜃𝑒 and R there is a strong

association in the northern zone of West Africa (north of f 7.5° N) but no specific relationship

existed in the southern zone. The departure of 𝜃𝑒 from its annual mean initially appeared

positive, approximately a month before the onset of the northern zone's rains. Positive results

from its annual mean resulted in greater than normal or average rainfall in the zone. Generally,

it was discovered that when 𝜃𝑒 was less than 320 K, there was little or no rainfall in West Africa.

In addition, Iheme (2014) also investigated, calculated and evaluated thermodynamic

parameters such as equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) and saturated equivalent potential

temperature (𝜃𝑒𝑠 ), absolute humidity parameters (specific humidity and saturated specific

humidity) with moisture availability. Using Matlab software, daily profiles of each parameter

were also studied over the period. She found that based on the values of 𝜃𝑒 and 𝜃𝑒𝑠 Kano was

relatively warmer than Lagos and any day with a drop in 𝜃𝑒 indicated a convective activity for

2
both Lagos and Kano. It is noted that studies on the geopotential height over the region is

limited. It is therefore important to understand the θe-geopotential height-wind relationship

over the region to aid in weather forecasting.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

In West Africa, about 90% of the rainfall is associated with mesoscale convection systems (Dai

2001; Mohr 2004; Zhang et al. 2016), which usually occurs at night. Their nocturnal

propagation implies that their initiations occur during the day, with an interplay between moist

convective processes which include equivalent potential temperature, winds and geopotential

height. The diurnal dynamics is such that, rigorous vertical mixing occurring during

convection, increases the 𝜃𝑒 in the boundary layer, turbulence and geopotential height contours.

With the projected increase in severe storm activities in the face of climate change, it is

imperative to study the dynamics of moist convective processes over the region. Most studies

into severe storms over West Africa do not incorporate simultaneously the dynamics of these

three parameters. For instance, the 2020 case study from Ansah et al., (2020) only focused on

African Easterly Waves (AEWs) and Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) exploring the low surface

pressure with a significant amount of moisture influx which led to the storm formation over

Accra and Kumasi. Omotosho et al., (1999) calculated equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 )

from synoptic data (pressure, temperature and relative humidity) and through the variability of

𝜃𝑒 from the seasonal or monthly variation of soil moisture, the variations in the dates of onsets,

cessation and rainfall amounts were accounted for. At the end of the study, Omotosho (1999)

discovered that annual rainfall amounts and cessation can be predicted using synoptic data to

calculate equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ). In a case study from Omotosho (1984), a close

relationship between equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) and squall lines were discovered

and the mean monthly values of 𝜃𝑒 and their anomalies with respect to the annual average were

3
calculated. Warmer and moister locations, i.e., areas with higher than normal 𝜃𝑒 were related

with the highest squall frequency zones, whereas colder and drier parts (areas with lower than

normal 𝜃𝑒 ) were associated with the area of the least squall activity. In addition, Oduro-Afriyie

(1988) plotted isentropes of mean monthly equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) on the ground

and corresponding isohyets of monthly rainfall over West Africa were plotted for the various

months of the year and there was a decreasing 𝜃𝑒 and monthly rainfall with a positive correlation

in the northern zone of West Africa. According to the findings of the study, 𝜃𝑒 becomes positive

a month to the onset of rainfall in the northern zone of West Africa and can therefore be used

to predict the onset of rainfall. However, these studies have not focused on the spatio-temporal

variation and relationship between the 𝜃𝑒 , geopotential height and winds. It is therefore

essential to study these parameters to aid our understanding of West African weather systems

for improved forecasting.

1.3 MOTIVATION

Equivalent potential temperature, geopotential height, and wind all have a significant impact

on convection and thunderstorm activities. High equivalent potential temperature results in

deep convection, cloud formation and thunderstorm. Thunderstorms may cause heavy rainfall,

which can cause flash flooding, leading to the outbreak of diseases, disruption of energy supply,

communication, transport infrastructure and interference in public service delivery (Ansah et

al., 2020). The gradual climate change in the world is caused by an increase in air temperature.

The increase in the air temperature in the world accounts for the increasingly stronger

thunderstorms systems in the world. It is therefore crucial to study their dynamics, as accurate

determination can aid in weather forecasting and comprehension of climatic variability.

4
1.4 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study is to determine the equivalent potential temperature,

geopotential height and wind environment in Kumasi.

Specifically, the study would:

1. determine the seasonal, monthly and annual variability of equivalent potential

temperature, geopotential and wind over Kumasi and;

2. determine their relationship with rainfall over Kumasi.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions would be addressed in the study:

1. How is the seasonal, monthly and annual variability of equivalent potential

temperature, geopotential and wind in Kumasi?

2. What is their relationship with rainfall over Kumasi?

5
 CHAPTER 2
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
Equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) is a conservative property commonly used in the research

of wet atmospheric characteristics. Cloud base height (CBH) and equivalent potential

temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) at 850 hPa may be used to differentiate convective events. Samantha et al.,

(2020) investigated CBH and 𝜃𝑒 as components for the development of a new thermodynamic

index over a tropical station in Kolkata throughout the 2016-2019 pre-monsoon season. The

new index's performance was evaluated using skill score analysis. The findings show that the

CBH/𝜃𝑒 ratio beats either CBH or 𝜃𝑒 alone in identifying thunderstorms. The index was

validated using documented thunderstorm cases over Kolkata outside the index creation period

(Samantha et al., 2020).

The vertical atmospheric profile acquired from the (1200 UTC) radiosonde at the Nigerian

Meteorological Agency's Lagos and Kano Meteorological stations between January and

December 2014 was studied by Iheme et al., (2021). In this study, thermodynamic parameters

such as equivalent and saturated equivalent potential temperatures, absolute humidity

parameters (specific humidity and saturated specific humidity with moisture availability), and

daily profiles of each parameter were calculated, evaluated. Kano was significantly warmer

than Lagos based on the values 𝜃𝑒 and 𝜃𝑒𝑠 , and any day with a decrease in the value of 𝜃𝑒

indicated convective activity for both Lagos and Kano.

In a study conducted by Oduro-Afriyie on the mean monthly equivalent potential temperature

and rainfall in West Africa, 1977 monthly mean surface temperature, humidity, and monthly

rainfall data for over 100 stations in West Africa were accessed from “Agence pour la Sécurité

de la Navigation Adrienne en Afrique et fi Madagascar” (ASECNA). The equivalent-potential

temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) was calculated from the temperature and dew point values. Isentropes of mean

monthly equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ) on the ground and the corresponding isohyets of

6
monthly rainfall over West Africa were plotted for the various months of the year. This gave

indications on how equivalent potential temperature and rainfall varied longitudinally and

latitudinally within the sub-region. The study suggested the following from the results

generated; at the north of the equator, there was a decreasing 𝜃𝑒 and monthly rainfall in West

Africa. A positive correlation was found between monthly rainfall and the 𝜃𝑒 at latitude 7.5 °

N (northern zone of Africa). The same correlation existed between the equivalent potential

temperature against the months of the year and rainfall anomalies against the months of the

years. Finally, the study concluded that there was no or little rainfall whenever the equivalent

potential temperature is less than 320 Kelvin. The study recommended that further studies

should be carried out, considering at least 20 years of historical data in order to rely on the

results of the study (Oduro-Afriyie, 1988).

The reviews above show that there has been interests in this area of research by most scientists

in Africa and worldwide with focus on thunderstorm indicators and or variables and parameters

with relation to thunderstorm and how they aid in its formation. But little or no research has

been done in Ghana or Kumasi specifically. This study therefore looks at the determination of

equivalent potential temperature, geopotential height and wind environment in Kumasi in

relation to thunderstorms.

2.2 THEORY
2.2.1 EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE (𝜽𝒆 )

Equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), also known as wet-equivalent potential temperature, is

a thermodynamic parameter that is conserved in a reversible moist adiabatic process and has a

natural logarithm proportional to the entropy of moist air. It is accurately given in Equation 1

as:

7
 𝑅𝑑 𝐿 𝑟
−𝑟𝑣 𝑅𝑣 [ 𝑣 𝑣 ]
𝑃 𝑐
𝜃𝑒 = 𝑇 × ( 𝑃0 ) 𝑝𝑑 ×𝐻 𝑐𝑝𝑑
× 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑐𝑝𝑑)𝑇 (1)

where 𝜃𝑒 is the equivalent potential temperature, 𝑐𝑝𝑑 is the heat capacity at constant pressure

of dry air, T is the temperature, 𝑅𝑑 is the gas constant for dry air, 𝑝𝑑 is the partial pressure of

dry air, 𝑃0 is a reference pressure, 𝐿𝑣 is the latent heat of vaporisation, 𝑟𝑣 is the vapour mixing

ratio, 𝑅𝑣 is the gas constant for water vapour and H is the relative humidity (Emanuel, K.A.,

1994). 𝜃𝑒 is used to identify areas which have the most unstable and buoyant air masses. The

𝜃𝑒 of an air parcel increases with increasing temperature and increasing moisture content.

Therefore, regions with adequate instability, areas of relatively high 𝜃𝑒 are often the regions for

thermodynamically induced thunderstorms and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) (Haby,

n.d.).

2.2.2 GEOPOTENTIAL HEIGHT (Z)

The geopotential height approximates the actual height of a pressure surface above mean sea

level. As a result, a geopotential height observation indicates the height of the pressure surface

at the time of the observation. When compared to other sites at the same latitude, low

geopotential height indicates the existence of a storm or trough at mid-troposphere levels. A

relatively high geopotential height indicates the presence of a ridge or anticyclone, which is

linked with high pressure and calm weather (Bluestein et al., 1992). The geopotential height is

first derived from the geopotential in Equation 2 as:

ℎ
𝛷(ℎ) = ∫0 𝑔(𝜙, 𝑧)𝑑𝑧 (2)

where, 𝑔(𝜙, 𝑧) is acceleration due to gravity, 𝜙 is the latitude, z is the geometric elevation and
h, height.

Then, the geopotential height (𝑍𝑔 (ℎ)), can be approximated in Equation 3 as:

8
 𝛷(ℎ)
𝑍𝑔 (ℎ) = (3)
𝑔0

where, 𝑔0 is acceleration due to gravity at mean sea level, 𝛷 is the geopotential.

2.2.3 WIND
Wind or large-scale atmospheric motions follow some defined patterns as a result of solar

energy and air temperature differences, which impact air densities and pressures. Warmer air

is less dense than cold air, therefore as the warm air rises, it is replaced by cooler air, thereby

resulting in wind. Wind is therefore a large-scale convection caused by differences in air

densities (Stringer, 1972). Wind affects various Earth system processes and phenomena such

as, regional temperatures, humidity and precipitation patterns. It also affects the distribution

and concentration of clouds, pollutants and airborne particles as well as surface currents in the

ocean (understanding global change, n.d.). Wind speed and direction are calculated using

eastward and northward vector components, denoted by the letters U and V, respectively, with

the U component parallel to the x-axis (latitude) and the V component parallel to the y-axis

(longitude). The positive U wind blows from the west, whereas the negative U wind blows

from the east (zonal winds). Positive V wind blows from the south, whereas negative V wind

blows from the north (meridional) (Ostrenga, 2019).

Wind speed is derived from the given components using the Pythagoras theorem in Equation

4 as:

Wind 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = √𝑈 2 + 𝑉 2 (4)

9
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 STUDY AREA

Kumasi (Figure 1) is about 500 kilometres north of the Equator and about 200 kilometres north

of the Gulf of Guinea (Arku, 2013) and lies close to 6.667° latitude 1.616° longitude with an

elevation of 260 m. Kumasi has a tropical savanna climate, with a wet and dry season and year-

round high temperatures. The average annual high temperature is 30.7 degrees Celsius, while

the average annual low temperature is 21.5 degrees Celsius. Kumasi has a longer rainy season

which starts from March through to July with relatively temporary precipitation in August, and

a shorter dry season from November to February. Kumasi receives an average of 1400 mm of

rain per year.

Figure 3.1: Map of Kumasi in Ashanti Region, Ghana (Monney et al., 2020).

10
3.2 DATA SOURCES

Temperature, relative humidity, wind and geopotential height datasets were obtained from

ERA5 and rainfall data set from GMET rain gauge from Kumasi airport. The ERA5 datasets

were obtained from 1981 to 2021 with spatial resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° and a temporal

resolution of monthly. Python was used as the statistical tool to evaluate and extract data for

analysis.

11
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 MONTHLY MEAN ANALYSES

Figure 4.1: Monthly mean of 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed at 925 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.1 shows the monthly means computed for equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), wind

speed, geopotential height (Z) and precipitation for the period 1981-2019 at 925 hPa. It can be

observed that, e at 925 hPa has its lowest value in January (340 K) and peaks in April (352 K),

decreases to August, increases to November and decreases again in December (344 K). The

wind speed has its lowest value in December (1 m/s), increases to April, decreases in May (4.4

m/s) and peaks in July (6 m/s), then decreases to December. The Z has its lowest value in

March (764 m), increases and peaks in July (800 m), decreases in November (778 m), increases

in December (779 m) and decreases till March (768 m). It can also be observed that Z decreases

as e increases and then increases as e decreases. This pattern is followed throughout the 12

months. Precipitation increases from February (50 mm) and peaks in June (200 mm), decreases

from July to August (87.5 mm), increases to September (175 mm) and decreases from October

12
to December (25 mm). Precipitation also follows an increasing and decreasing pattern

throughout the months.

Figure 4.2: Monthly mean of 𝜃𝑒 , Z, wind speed and precipitation at 500 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.2 shows the monthly means computed for equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), wind

speed, geopotential height (Z) and precipitation for the period 1981-2019 at 500 hPa. It can be

observed that both the equivalent potential temperature (e) and precipitation has an increasing

trend, the geopotential height (Z) has a decreasing trend and the wind speed has a stable trend

throughout the 12 months. Trend wise, the e at 500 hPa has the best relation with precipitation.

It can be observed that the e, Z and precipitation have their lowest values in January (331 K,

5862.3 m and 12.5 mm respectively), which is in the middle of winter or harmattan. These 3

parameters have their values rising from January and peaks at May (337.4 K and 5880.4 m

respectively) for both e and Z, but it peaks in June (200 mm) for precipitation. For both the e

and precipitation, the values at their peaks decrease in August (and 87.5 mm respectively) and

increase in September (and 175 mm respectively) because there is a period of a little dry season

in August and September is the start of the second rainy season. These 2 parameters then
13
decrease till December. The Z, however, decreases from its peak till December, which is the

reason for its decreasing trend. The wind speed on the other hand, has the lowest value in

August (4.3 m/s), increases to November (5.5 m/s), decreases to March (4.8 m/s) then peaks in

May (8.4 m/s) which is the same as e and Z. The e, Z and wind speed are at a maximum in May

before the precipitation maximum in June and may indicate the peak of the major rainy season.

4.2 ANNUAL ANALYSES

Figure 4.3: Yearly mean of 𝜃𝑒 , Z, wind speed and precipitation at 925 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.3 shows the annual mean computed for equivalent potential temperature ( 𝜃𝑒 ), wind

speed, geopotential height (Z) and precipitation for the period 1981-2019 at 925 hPa. The e, Z

and precipitation has an increasing trend throughout the years. Wind speed, on the other hand,

has a decreasing trend. The e has its lowest value in 1983 (344.2 K) and peaks in 2019 (349

K). Wind speed has its lowest value in 2013 (3.6 m/s) and 2016 (3.61 m/s) and peaks in 1983

(4.4 m/s). The geopotential height has its lowest value in 1984 (775.2 m) and peaks in 2015

(788 m). The precipitation has its lowest value in 1983 (72 mm) and peaks in 2007 (149 mm).

14
The decrease in 𝜃𝑒 in 1983 supports the prevalent drought which occurred and led to a decline

in the rainfall (72 mm) over the region.

Figure 4.4: Yearly mean 𝜃𝑒 , Z, wind speed and precipitation at 500 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.4 shows the annual mean computed for equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), wind

speed, geopotential height (Z) and precipitation for the period 1981-2019 at 500 hPa. The e has

its lowest value in 2000 (333.6 K) and peaks in 2019 (336.3 K). Wind speed has its lowest

value in 2019 (4.5 m/s) and peaks in 2002 (7.0 m/s). The Z has its lowest value in 1984 (5855

m) and peaks in 2016 (5884 m). Precipitation has its lowest value in 1983 (78 mm) and peaks

in 2007 (147 mm).

15
4.3 CORRELATION BETWEEN THE PARAMETERS AND RAINFALL

Figure 4.5: Correlation of 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed at 925 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.5 shows the correlation between 𝜃𝑒 , wind speed and Z with precipitation at 925 hPa.

The correlation is 0.33, 0.46, 0.2 respectively. The correlation between precipitation and wind

speed is the highest, but it can be observed that the values of correlation between 𝜃𝑒 and

precipitation are closer to the line of best fit. The wind speed has the best correlation with

16
precipitation followed by 𝜃𝑒 and Z. This confirms the relation between wind speed and

precipitation in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.6: Correlation of 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed at 500 hPa from 1981-2019

Figure 4.6 shows the correlation between 𝜃𝑒 , wind speed and Z with precipitation at 500 hPa.

The correlation is 0.76, 0.24, 0.26 respectively. The correlation between 𝜃𝑒 and precipitation

is the highest, and it can be observed that the values are closer to the line of best fit. Therefore,

17
the 𝜃𝑒 has the best correlation with precipitation followed by Z and wind speed. This confirms

the relation between 𝜃𝑒 and precipitation in Figure 4.2.

18
 CHAPTER 5
5.1 CONCLUSIONS

The effects of equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), geopotential height (Z), and wind are

essential to understanding the moist convective environment in a region. These variables serve

as a measure of convective instability and the potential for atmospheric convection when they

are understood and determined. The main objective of the study is to determine equivalent

potential temperature, geopotential height and wind environment in Kumasi. Specifically, the

study determined the monthly and annual variability of equivalent potential temperature,

geopotential and wind over Kumasi and their relationship with rainfall over Kumasi. Monthly

datasets of equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), relative humidity, wind and geopotential

height (Z) were obtained from ERA5 from 1981-2019 and daily rainfall data set from GMET

rain gauge from Kumasi airport.

The results showed that, both the 𝜃𝑒 and wind speed exhibit a decreasing trend, whereas Z and

precipitation exhibit an increasing trend. The 𝜃𝑒 has a strong relationship with rainfall in

Kumasi, while the other parameters have a weak relationship. Also, 𝜃𝑒 shows a generally

unstable troposphere at the 925 hPa and 500 hPa for all months. The 𝜃𝑒 , Z and wind speed are

at a maximum in May before the precipitation maximum in June and may indicate the peak of

the major rainy season. Additionally, precipitation is moderately correlated with wind speed at

925 hPa (0.46), and strongly correlated with 𝜃𝑒 at 500 hPa (0.76). This implies that, strong

winds, mostly south-westerlies are essential at the 925 hPa level to advect moisture to Kumasi.

At 500 hPa, the usually drier prevalent air may impact 𝜃𝑒 , by providing the dry punch needed

for enhancing precipitation formation.

In conclusion, equivalent potential temperature (𝜃𝑒 ), geopotential height (Z), and wind speed

influence rainfall and weather in Kumasi based on the pressure levels (hPa) used to determine

these parameters. Similarly, the relationship between these three parameters and precipitation

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varies according to the atmospheric pressure. The findings are crucial to understanding moist

convective processes over Kumasi.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

For future works, the equivalent potential temperature, geopotential height and wind dynamics

should be investigated at other atmospheric pressure levels. In addition, the relationship of

other variables such as soil temperature, soil moisture, air temperature and relative humidity,

and the (𝜃𝑒 ), Z and wind speed should be studied. Focus on these future studies would help

improve the understanding of West African moist convective processes to improve weather

forecasting.

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