POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

Photography is an invaluable aid to modern day scientific crime detection and investigation as well as crime prevention.
Perhaps it could be stated that without photography our law enforcement officer in the so-called modern day scientific crime
detection would still be lagging a hundred years.
The year 1839 is considered generally as the birth year of photography. Its first landmark in police history is generally
confined to its application to the problem of personal identification. In those days the Bertillon system of the facial features of the
criminal were measured, as well as the bone structures of the various parts of the body. These measurements were worked into
a classification system and the photograph of the criminal was used to supplement the classification. Later, the Bertillon system
was superseded by the fingerprint system of personal identification. Under the fingerprint system the photograph of the subject is
still placed on his finger print chart, not to supplement the identification system but to have available photograph if needed for
investigation purposes.

This course is divided into two main topics: TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.

TECHNICAL: technical concepts and principles which includes characteristics of photographic rays, the use of camera, lenses,
filters, structure of film and photographic papers, chemical processing and others.

FORENSIC: covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and crime scene photography.

Objective:

The objective of this course is to help the students become aware of the basic principles and concepts of photography.
Although this course is not intended to make the students become professional photographers, it is designed to give them
enough information for them to realize the vital use of photography as a significant tool in law enforcement and criminal
investigation. As future law enforcers and criminal investigators, they must be knowledgeable on how to utilize effectively and
efficiently photographic evidences during court proceedings.

Significance:

The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very extensive. Small objects but of great importance in
a crime committed may escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but may be seen and recovered, only after
closed examination of the photographs of the crime scene.
Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in court some of the details of the crime scenes they
investigated several months ago. With the bulk of cases the investigator handle, perhaps he would be confused or may not
exactly recall some of these details or exact location of objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the crime
scene, investigator will not find hard time to refresh in their minds and will be able to describe or explain exactly the details in
court.
A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is always available, especially in court presentation. In court
proceedings, judges, prosecutors and defense lawyers have generally never visited the scene of the crime. Therefore,
photographers should bear in mind to obtain a normal, sharp and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule, take many
photograph of the crime scene and select the best.

A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and accurate record of the crime scene because it captures TIME,
SPACE AND EVENT. A photograph is capable of catching and preserving the:
SPACE - the WHERE of the crime (Locus Criminis)
TIME – the WHEN of the crime
EVENT – the WHAT of the crime – what is the nature or character of the crime?
Uses of photography in police work

1. Identification files- Criminals missing persons, lost property, licenses, anonymous letters, bad checks, laundry marks,
and civilian of personal fingerprint IF In the case of atomic attack or a catastrophe such as an airplane crash, the
fingerprints from a civilian file are proving helpful in making positive identification
2. Communication and microfilm files- Investigative report files, Accident files transitions of photos (Wire Photo)
Photographic supplements to reports. With modern day electro photography machines accident reports can be made
in seconds and sold to insurance adjusters for nominal fees. An excellent source of revenue for department is the sale
of photographs of traffic accidents to insurance companies and lawyers.
3. Evidence- Crime scenes, traffic accidents, homicides suicides, fires, objects of evidence, latent fingerprint traces.
Evidence can be improved by contrast control, by magnification and by visible radiation.
4. Offender detection – Surveillance, burglar traps, confession, reenactment of crimes intoxicated driver test. One of the
newest applications of police photography is to record on motion picture film arrests in which the suspect offers
resistance. The practice has been instituted by at least one metropolitan law enforcement agency to counter charges of
police brutality.
5. Court exhibits- Demonstration enlargements, individual photos, projection slides, motion pictures.
6. Reproduction or Copying – Questionable checks and documents, evidential papers, photographs, official records and
notices.
7. Personnel training- Photographs and films relating police tactics, investigation techniques, mob control, and
catastrophe situations.
8. Crime and Fire prevention – Hazard lectures, security clearance, detector devices, photos of hazardous fire, conditions
made when fire prevention inspection are made.
9. Public relations – Films pertaining to safety programs, juvenile delinquency, traffic education, public cooperation, and
civil defense.

*Four primary ways of using photography in Police Work:

1. As means of identification.
2. As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.
3. As a way to present, in the courtroom, an impression of the pertinent elements of a crime.
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs.

PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLE

In photography, the light writes when it strikes minute crystals of light sensitive surfaces (films and photographic
papers), a mechanical device (camera) and chemical processing (film development and printing). As a process, photography is
the method of using light to produce identical image of an object that can be preserved permanently by employing:
a. camera: camera use to regulate, absorb and filter light
b. film and any sensitized material to record light

Photograph is a mechanical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized
material (films and photographic papers). Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the sensitized material while all
other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a light tight
box. The light maybe visible or invisible.
The effect of light on the sensitized material is not visible in the formation of images of objects. The effect could be made
visible with the aid of chemical processing of the exposed sensitized material called development.

Photography is the production of visible images by using the action of light on a sensitized material. The word photography was
derived from two Greek terms PHOTO which means light and GRAPHY which means to write. Thus, literally, photography
means to draw with light.
PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

What is light? Many as good while darkness the opposite as bad have associated light. In case of anxiety, fright, severe
mental disorders and depression many experienced dream like apparitions. In states of religious ecstasy, visions and
hallucinations occur which can be attributed to the high sensitivity of the retina. Many frequently perceived light impressions,
which cannot be attributed to external stimuli of an altogether different kind, such as pressure, impact and functional
disturbances in our body and nervous system.
Everyone also knows light. It excites the retina of the eye. Light makes things visible. There is no exaggeration to say that
man cannot live without light. Same things are true in photography, because light is needed to produce a photograph.

LIGHT AND THE EYE

Our eyes are sensitive to light, which give us information about the shapes, colors and movements of objects around us.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and we know it travels in the form of waves. The complete range of electromagnetic
spectrum and our eyes are capable of seeing only part of the spectrum. We can see a large part of the wavelengths emitted by
the sun, that is white light but the sun also emits other waves, which we cannot see.
Infra red is a wavelength emitted by the sun which cannot be seen, though we can feel it in our bodies as warmth or heat.
Ultra violet is another form of light we cannot see, but we know about it because it tans our skin in summer.

HOW LIGHT BEHAVES

Light moves in straight lines from its source, but it can be bent and scattered by objects placed in its path. We see rays of
sunlight streaming through a window on a sunny day because some of the light is scattered by dust particles in the air. We can
only see a ray of light when it strikes the eye directly. Then it forms an image of the object from which it has come, either the light
source itself, or something from which it has been reflected, such as a motorcar. Non-luminous objects are one, which are only
visible when they reflect the light from a light source. In a totally dark room, you would not be able to see a desk, but you would
be able to see the hands of a luminous clock. If the totally black room had no dust particles floating around it, you would not able
to see the beam of light, but only the light source itself and any object that reflects the light.

SPEED OF LIGHT

Even an electric light appears to glow immediately it is switched on, a small but definite time lag occurs between the light
coming on and the electromagnetic radiation entering our eyes. In a room, this time lag is too short to be noticeable, but for
distant objects like stars, the lag is thousand of years. Even light from the moon, which is relatively close to earth, experiences a
time lag of one second. The speed of light, measured in a vacuum is 299, 792.5 km/sec (approximately 186,281 miles/sec /
186,000).

BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT

INTERFERENCE - Any phenomenon having a periodic disturbance of some sort and travels outward from a source is
called a wave. To understand how energy can travels in waves, think of a wooden log floating in the ocean. Light maybe
visualized as such as the high points are called crest while the low points are called troughs. The distance between two
successive crest and troughs is called a wavelength.
When two light beams cross, they may interfere in such a way that the resultant intensity pattern is affected. When two
waves meet or interfere, they reinforce one another (crest form a higher crest than either) at some points and annul one another
(crest of one wave interfere with the trough of the other) at other points.

The crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave. The phenomenon is called annulment of waves. The British physicist
Thomas Young in the experiment illustrated first demonstrated such an interference pattern. Light that had passed through one
pinhole illuminated an opaque surface that contained two pinholes. The light that passed through the two pinholes formed a
pattern of alternately bright and dark circular fringes on a screen. Wavelets are drawn in the illustration to show that at points
such as A, C, and E (intersection of solid line with solid line) the waves from the two pinholes arrive in phase and combine to
increase the intensity. At other points, such as B and D (intersection of solid line with dashed line), the waves are 180° out of
phase and cancel each other.

DIFFRACTION – light in space and not within the gravitational field of any object travels in a straight line. The bending
of light around an object gives rise to the phenomenon called diffraction. This phenomenon is responsible for the partial
illumination of object parts not directly in the path of the light.

LIGHT AND MATERIALS

Materials, which allow light to pass through so that objects on the other side can be distinguished, are called transparent.

Those that allow light to pass through but diffuse the flow of light so that objects on the other side cannot be distinctly seen are
called translucent.
Materials, which allow no light to pass through, are called opaque.

When light strikes an object such light is absorbed, transmitted and or reflected practically. The amount of light transmitted or
reflected depends upon the characteristics of the material, the quantity and quality of the light the angle of the source etc.

THE LAW OF REFLECTION – refers to the rebounding or deflection of light. The angle of reflection depends upon the
angle of the light striking the material, which is referred to as the angle of incidence.

THE LAW OF REFRACTION – when the material in the path of the light is transparent a change in the direction of the light
occurs.

The change in the direction of light when passing from one medium to another is called the phenomenon of refraction.

The change in the direction of the light is due to the change in the speed of light when passing from one medium to another.

The displacement depends upon the angle of incidence, the kind of material and its thickness.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

By using a prism made of glass or plastic, it is possible to see the colors that made up the sunlight. The colors
separated in this way are called a spectrum. Another way to see the spectrum of sunlight is to look at a rainbow. The light is
bend as observed, and because some of wavelengths bend more than others, the colors are separated. The violet rays are bent
the most, and the red rays least.
 The prism experiment shows how white light is made up of a combination of wavelengths of different colored lights. To
make colors it would seem that we would need paints or dyes of every possible colors and shade to get exactly what we want but
in fact any color can be made by combining various proportions of the three basic colors. These are called the primary colors.
The whole range of radiant energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultra violet lights, x-
rays and gamma rays. Visible light, which makes up only of a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is the only electronic
radiation that humans can perceive with in their eyes.

SOURCES OF LIGHT

There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and artificial. Natural lights are lights which come to existence
without the intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man made. In photography natural light is used for
outdoor photography and artificial lights are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.

NATURAL LIGHT

The source of all daylight is the sun. The combination of color and contrast ascertains the quality of the daylight. The
lighting contrast depends upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when clouds do not cover the sun. Then, the contrast is
high on the contrary; if clouds cover the sun the contrast is low. In the process of photographing and object; the lighting contrast
must be considered in the exposure of the film. It is suggested that the recommendations, given by the manufacturer of the film
be observed religiously to produce good and presentable photographs.

Color of the daylight will also affect the appearance of the objects being photographed specially in color photography.
Some of the factors affecting the color of the daylight:

a) atmospheric vapor
b) atmospheric dust
c) reflected light reached the objects and directly coming from the source.

Daylight maybe classified according to its intensity. They are:

a) Bright sunlight
b) Hazy sunlight
c) Dull sunlight.

These classifications are modified by the film manufacturers like

a) Open bright sunlight
b) Under shade bright sunlight
c) Hazy sunlight
d) Cloudy bright sunlight
e) Cloudy dull sunlight.

To distinguish this classification of daylight according to intensity, the appearance of the shadows of the objects must be
considered.
In bright sunlight, the subject will produced a strong shadow, because the source of light in not covered and the objects or
subjects appear glossy in open space due to direct sunlight and reflected light coming from the sky which act as a reflector.

In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow appears bluish because of the decrease of light falling on the
subject in open space. The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting condition than a
bright sunlight.
In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadow is cast to the uniform illumination of lights all around the
subjects in open space.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing the
sensitized materials (film). Some of the artificial lights are electronic flash, photoflood lamp, fluorescent lamp, and Infrared and
Ultra-Violet lamp.

COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE SPECTRUM

Visible Spectrum - a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that affect the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength
ranging from 400 – 700 mu.

COLOR

Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength

A. Red (longest wavelength) 700 mu

B. Blue 450 mu
C. Green 550 mu

Complementary Colors

A. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400

B. Cyan 500
C. Yellow 590

Neutral Color

A. Gray
B. White
R
C. Black

COLOR MIXING
M Y
1. Color Addition
R+B+G = W
W
R+B= M M+Y= R
W
R+G= Y Y+C= B
B+G= C Y+C= G
B
G
2. Color Subtraction
W-R= C W-C=R C-G=B
W-B=Y W-Y=B Y-G=R
C
W-G=M W-M=G Y-R=G
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS

The three primary colors in light are red, green and blue. White light can be made by mixing red, blue and green. The
process of making colors by mixing primary colors of light is called addition, because one color is added to another.
Colors made by combining two primary colors are called secondary colors. They are yellow (red and green), cyan (blue
and green) and magenta (blue and red). When the primary colors are mixed in different proportions any color at all can be
produced.
Painted objects do not produce their own light, they reflect light, when objects look red, because it is reflecting only red light
to our eyes. To do this, it absorbed the other primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It absorbed green and blue and
reflects red.

OPTICS

Optics is the study of light. It is concerned with the nature of light and the way it behaves in optical instruments. Light is a
form of energy and so an object may only produce light when there is energy present. A red-hot piece of metal receives energy
in the form of heat and converts some of it into red light.

ATTRIBUTE OF COLORS

Radiant energy within a limited frequency range has the property of stimulating the retina of the eye to create color
sensation, which the brain interprets. Radiant energy, which has this property, is called light, the physical stimulus of vision.

Color can be defined in qualitative terms according to certain psychological attributes. These attributes are hue, brightness
and saturation. Hue is the attributes of chromatic colors, which distinguishes them from achromatic colors. Brightness is the
attributes of colors, which allows the relation of colors in it to be related to given tones of gray ranging in a series from white to
black. Saturation is the attribute of a chromatic color, which designates to which the color differs from a gray of the same
brightness. Brightness and saturation can be understood in a practical sense from the following, take a very vivid red (single
saturation) and either a small amount of white or black. The color will change to lighter or darker. In both instances, the vividness
of the color is lessened (decreased saturation). The purity of the color is then affected. By adding at the same time small amount
of white and black, the brightness can be held constant and only saturation is affected. When sufficient amount of white and
black are added the hue becomes no longer recognized from the gray tone to which it was originally related in brightness.

SELECTIVE AND NON SELECTIVE

Absorption refers to the taking in of light by the material. Following the law of conservation of energy, such light taken in is
not lost but merely transformed into heat.
Materials in their appearance are sometimes deceiving when light strikes them. For instance, when light strikes a material
and all the light is practically reflected, it will appear white. However when red light strikes the same material, it will appear red.
And green light of the same material it will appear green. Such material exhibits what is called non-selective absorption.
There are other materials, which behave differently as stated above, when light incident upon other such material they
appear red, or blue or green but not white. With green or blue light the same material appears black because practically all lights
are absorbed. A material appears red under white light because only red light is practically reflected while all other wavelengths
are absorbed. Such materials which selectively reflects and absorbed others wavelength exhibits selective absorption
characteristics.
MEDIUMS OF LIGHT

Objects that influence the intensity of light as they may reflect absorb or transmit.

Mediums of light maybe classified as:

TRANSPARENT OBJECTS – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in other
respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.

TRANSLUCENT OBJECTS – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of the source of
light is not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

OPAQUE OBJECTS – A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass though, they absorb most
of the light while reflecting some of it.

THE RAT LAW

When incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the light maybe:

A. Reflected
B. Absorbed
C. Transmitted

MECHANICAL DEVICE (CAMERA)

The principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or paper made by the rays or light
through the camera are dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the retina through the lens which
produce images upon the retina through the lens of the eye.

A camera basically is nothing more than a light tight box with pinholes or lens, a shutter at one end and a holder of the
sensitized material at one end. While there is various kind of camera from the simplest in construction (the box type) to the most
complicated, all operate in the same principle. The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and its
aperture and the shutter through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.

The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens, a shutter, and a holder of sensitized material. All other
accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and convenient for the operator and is call accessories.

Light tight box suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure is one which would prevent light from exposing the
sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure be always light tight at all times
because if it does, then no light can reach the sensitized material during exposure. Light tight box means that before and after
the exposed to extraneous light which is not necessary to form the final image.

The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera.
The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the same way as the lens of the
eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
sensitized material inside the light tight box. The area of the lens may large or small during the exposure of the sensitized
material depending upon the light coming form the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light coming from the
subject depend upon the light source. As a rule the more light we have from the source the more light will be reflected and vice
versa. Should the light be too great the area of the lens maybe reduced with the focal number adjustment. The smaller the area
of the lens the greater is the numerical value of the focal number. The greater the focal number numerically the less light will
pass through the lens but more distance will appear in reasonable sharpness.

The shutter has for its function through its action called shutter speed the control of the duration of the exposure of the
sensitized material to light. The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the shorter will be the duration of the opening
and closing of the lens. As an effect only a small amount of light will pass through the lens.

Thee holder of sensitized material located at the opposite side of the lens has for its function to hold firmly the sensitized
material in its place during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.

CAMERA TYPES

Frequently it asked, “What is the best camera?” The answer would be the best camera is the one that takes the best
pictures. Regardless of the type or kind of camera, a good operator will get results even with a cheap one.

THE PINHOLE CAMERA - The simplest camera is a pinhole camera, which consists of a box with a small hole in one
of its sides. To produce a sharp image, the hole must be very small and this restricts the amount of light entering the camera.
Quite a long time may be necessary to let enough light through to affect the film and this causes problems because if the subject
moves the picture will be blurred. It is impossible to photograph anything like a moving car or a galloping horse with a pinhole
camera.

CAMERA OBSCURA - Is a box used for sketching large objects? The term means dark chamber. The box contains a
mirror set at 45-degree angle. Mounted in the front end of the box is a double convex lens like that in a photographic camera.
Light from the object or scene is transmitted through the lens. The mirror reflects this light upward to ground glass screen on the
top of the box. There the light forms an image of the object or scene that can be sketched easily.

FIXED FOCUS CAMERA - The most basic of all camera, have a non-adjustable lens. Most models have a single
diaphragm setting and only one or two shutter speeds. Most fixed focus cameras, including many inexpensive, pocket-sized
models, use 110 or 126 size film. The negative of such film require considerable enlargement, which may produce a fuzzy
image.
In general, a fixed focus camera can take satisfactory photographs in ordinary daylight but not in dim light, because its lens
does not admit much light. The camera may produce a blurred picture is moving or less than two meters away. Many fix-focused
cameras can take flash pictures.

Disposable cameras are a kind of fixed - focus camera that combine a plastic lens, a shutter, a film in one small box.
The entire camera is taken to the photo laboratory when the roll of film has been exposed.

POINT AND SHOOT CAMERA - Have many automatic features that make them easy to use. Electronic devices inside
the cameras automatically adjust the focus, set the light exposure and the shutter speed and advance and rewind the film. A built
in electronic flash automatically supplies light when too little light reflects from the subject. The cameras are equipped with high
quality lenses that produce a sharp image. Some of them have a zoom lens. Point and Shoot cameras use films that measure 35
mm. Since their introduction in 1970’s theses cameras have gained wide popularity among amateur’s photographers.

SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Appealed to skilled amateur photographers and to professional photographers.
The camera’s name refers to its viewing system. The photographer views the subject through the camera lens rather than
through a separate viewing lens. A mirror between the lens and the film reflects the image onto a viewing screen. When the
shutter release button is pressed to take a picture, the mirror lifts out of the way to allow the light to expose the film. Thus the
photographer sees almost the exact image that is recorded on the film. SLR cameras use 35 mm film. The photographer can
adjust the focus, select the shutter speed, and control the opening of the diaphragm. Many new models can also adjust the focus
and control the light exposure automatically.
 The standard lens of the SLR camera can be replaced by special purpose lenses that change the size and depth
relationship of objects in a scene. These lenses include wide-angle lens, telephoto lens, and zoom lenses. A wide-angle lens
provides a wider view of a scene than a standard lens does. A telephoto lens has a narrow angle of view and makes objects
appear larger and closer. A zoom lens combines many features of standard, wide angle and telephoto lenses. With other
accessories, many SLR cameras can take pictures through a microscope, telescope or underwater.

Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped with mirrors that reflect in the viewfinder the scene to be
photographed. The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder consisting of a horizontal ground-glass screen located at
the top of the camera. Mounted vertically on the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking photographs and the
other for viewing. The lenses are coupled, so that focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the
upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror mounted at a 45° angle. The photographer focuses
the camera and adjusts the composition while looking at the screen. The image formed by the lower lens is focused on the film
at the back of the camera. Like rangefinder cameras, TLRs are subject to parallax.
In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both viewing the scene and taking the photograph. A
hinged mirror situated between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the lens through a five-sided prism and on to
a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At the moment the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror out
of the path between lens and film. Because of the prism, the image recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the
camera lens “sees”, without any parallax effects.
Most SLRs are precision instruments equipped with focal-plane shutters. Many have automatic exposure-control
features and built-in light meters. Most modern SLRs have electronically triggered shutters; apertures, too, may be
electronically actuated or they may be adjusted manually. Increasingly, camera manufacturers produce SLRs with automatic
focusing, an innovation originally reserved for amateur cameras. Minolta's Maxxum series, Canon's EOS series, and Nikon's
advanced professional camera, the F-4, all have autofocus capability and are completely electronic. Central processing units
(CPUs) control the electronic functions in these cameras. Minolta's Maxxum 7000i has software “cards” which, when inserted
in a slot on the side of the camera, expand the camera's capabilities.
Autofocus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample automatically the distance between camera and subject
and to determine the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an infrared light beam or ultrasonic
(sonar) waves off the subject to determine distance and set the focus. Some cameras, including Canon's EOS and Nikon's
SLRs, use passive autofocus systems. Instead of emitting waves or beams, these cameras automatically adjust the focus of
the lens until sensors detect the area of maximum contrast in a rectangular target at the centre of the focusing screen.
TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Have a viewing lens directly above the picture - taking lens. The image in the
viewfinder appears on a flat screen on top of the camera. Photographer found such a viewing screen helpful in composing a
picture. Photographers do not hold the viewfinder to the eye, as they do with a fixed focus, point and shoot, and single lens reflex
camera. They usually hold the camera at the chest or waist and look down into the viewfinder. The image appears reversed
from left to right. In most models, nearby subjects appear lower in the picture area of the viewfinder than they appear in the
photograph. Most twin lens reflex cameras use film that produces negatives measuring six by six centimeters.

VIEW CAMERAS - View cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and
are most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use large-format films that produce
either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and sharpness than smaller format film. View cameras have a metal or
wooden base with a geared track on which two metal standards ride, one at the front and one at the back, connected by a
bellows. The front standard contains the lens and shutter; the rear holds a framed ground-glass panel, in front of which the film
holder is inserted. The body configuration of the view camera, unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is adjustable. The
front and rear standards can be shifted, tilted, raised, or swung, allowing the photographer unparalleled control of perspective
and focus.

It is the largest and most adjustable type of camera. Most have accordion like body, with a replaceable lens in front.
They have a large viewing screen instead of a viewfinder. Most models have an adjustable diaphragm and shutter speed. View
cameras must be mounted on a stand for efficient operation.
 A photographer focuses a view camera by moving the lens end or the back end of the camera forward or backward to
produce a sharp image. A view camera can provide artistic distortions of subjects more effectively than any other kind of
camera.

Many professional photographers use view camera for portraits and other subjects. A view camera uses sheet of film
that range in size from 60 to 90 mm to 280 by 360 mm. The picture is often contact printed. A contact print is a photograph made
to exactly the same size a negative. It is made by shining light through the negative, which is held in contact with light sensitive
paper.

INSTANT CAMERAS - Use film that provides a print without first being developed into a negative. The cameras
produce a print 15 seconds to 2 minutes after the photographer takes a picture. The time varies according to the camera and to
the type of film. Instant camera use film that provides pictures ranging in size from 73 by 94 mm to 508 by 610 mm. Special types
of film for instant camera also provide negatives. Some instant cameras can take flash pictures and focus automatically as the
photographer lines up a subject in the viewfinder.

ELECTRONIC CAMERA - Create pictures that can be viewed on a television screen. The lens in most electronic
cameras focuses light on light sensitive mechanism called CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE OR CCD. The CCD changes the light
into electronic signals. The electronic pictures can then be stored on small magnetic discs similar to those I=used in computers.
With additional equipment, electronic images can also be sent over telephone lines or printed on paper.
FILM CAMERAS - Takes pictures that re-create the motion of a subject when they are viewed. Professional filmmakers
generally use large cameras that take 35 or 16 mm film. Most amateur’s records on 8 mm film called super 8. Today, many
amateur filmmakers use portable video cameras called CAMCORDERS. These cameras convert light reflected by the subject
into electronic signals that are recorded on magnetic tape. Most film cameras and camcorders can record sound at the same as
they record images. Most of them also have a zoom lens.

STEREO CAMERAS - Have two identical picture taking lenses with matched shutter. When a stereo camera takes a
picture, each lens photographs the same subject, but from a slightly different angle. When shown to a device called a
stereoscope or seen through glasses that polarize light, the two images blend in one picture that seems to have depth. Stereo
cameras are made for taking photographs or for making films.

SPECIAL PURPOSE CAMERA - Have been designed for industrial, medical, military, and scientific uses they include
aerial cameras used in space and underwater cameras.
Folding cameras favored for their compact design and movable bellows, have been in use for many years. The
camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back and forth along a rail to change focus. The dark
clothe covering the photographer and the box body of the camera blocks out undesirable light, which might
otherwise interfere with the picture.
Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras used by the general public. Relatively simple in design
and operation, they consisted of a wooden or plastic box, a drop-blade shutter, and a holding device for the film.
Modern box cameras are similar to early models, generally featuring only one shutter speed and one opening; the
very easy operation makes it a popular camera among casual photographers.
The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print directly following exposure. Although most models are
somewhat larger than the standard personal camera, the advantage of this system is the convenience and speed of
the results. Special film used in conjunction with the camera is designed to develop itself, and represents one of the
more recent chemical revolutions in photography.
Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene to be photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-mm single-
lens reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular cameras on the market today because of its compact size,
speed, and versatility. Most models offer a combination of automatic and manual options.
 Single-lens reflex, or SLR, cameras are among the most common in use today. Single-lens reflex means that the same
lens is used for viewing and taking the photograph. The movable mirror between the lens and the film reflects the image on
a ground-glass viewing screen while the user adjusts the focus. When the shutter release button is depressed, a spring
pushes the mirror out of the way, and the image is recorded on the film. The cameras are popular because users often
have the option to control elements such as shutter speed, focus, and aperture manually or automatically. This option
allows photographers to achieve a wide variety of effects with relative ease. The quality of SLR camera pictures is
generally superior to that of the so-called point-and-shoot camera.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

CAMERA WITH LENSES

A lens can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a bright, clear image. The hole behind the lens is called the
aperture and on many cameras the size of the hole, or aperture can be altered. The length of time that light is allowed to enter
the camera is called the exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is closed and prevents light
entering the camera. When the button is pressed, the shutter flies open for a pre-determined length of time, depending on the
light conditions in which the photograph is being taken. This can be as long as one second or as short as 1/1000 second or even
shorter. On a dull day you need a longer exposure than on a sunny day.

Both the diaphragm and the shutter need to be adjusted according to the amount of light that is available for taking a
photograph. At midday in summer there will probably be plenty of light. On a winter afternoon there may not. In a living room at
night, the light maybe quite good for the eye, but not enough for the camera.

A camera is essentially a sealed with an opening at one end to admit light and a device at the other end for holding
photographic film or other light sensitive material.

THE CAMERA AND ACCESSORIES

 LENS – The lens of a camera consist of one or more glass or plastic disk with flat, concave, or convex surfaces, each
disk is called element. The purpose of the lens is to focus light on the film. The focal length of the lens is the distance between
the optical center and the film. For any given film size, the shorter the focal length is, the greater the field of view – that is, the
greater the area covered in the picture. Focal length also affects depth of field – the amount of the foreground and background
that will be in sharp focus in the picture. The shorter the focal the greater is the depth of field.

Lenses of various focal lengths can be used interchangeably on some cameras, allowing the photographer to vary the
field of view without taking the camera to a different position. A zoom lens has an adjustable focal length and stays focused on
one object as its focal length is change.

The light power of the lens is determined by the ratio of its focal length to its effective diameter (the effective diameter
is equal to the diameter of the aperture - the circular opening that controls the amount of light that passes through the lens). The
ratio expressed with the symbol f/, is called the f- number. The larger the aperture in relation to the focal length, the smaller is the
f- number.

SHUTTER – The shutters on most cameras can be adjusted to different shutter speeds. The shutter speed means the
length of time the shutter is open. This might be several seconds ( or even hours if you are photographing a night sky ) or one
thousandth of a second or even less with special cameras. Most cameras have a shutter speed dial showing speeds from one
second to, for example, one thousand of a second. The dial is set to the speed the photographer wants. Of course, the faster the
shutter speeds the shorter the time the shutter is open and the smaller the amount of light let in. Shutter speed are arrange so
that each setting will let in half the amount of light let it half the amount let in by the one below it and twice the amount of the one
above it. There is usually also a time exposure setting so that the shutter can be left open for minutes or even hours in certain
conditions.

The shutter is a device that prevents light from reaching the film until the photographer is ready to take a picture. When
a lever or button is released or button is pushed, the shutter is released, and a spring or magnet snaps its aside, exposing the
film to light for a certain light of time. The length of time is adjustable on all but the simplest camera,, it ranges from one second
to 1/1000 of a second or less. Most adjustable cameras are capable of making time exposure – exposure of more than one
second. Typically, time exposure is made by using a special shutter setting marked “T “(FOR TIME) or “B’ (FOR BULB) referring
to a shutter release device used with early cameras.

An adjustable speed shutter is one of two devices a camera has to permit the photographer to regulate the amount of
light reaching the film ( the diaphragm is the other ) At a given aperture setting, a small shutter speed will let more light reach the
film than a fast shutter speed. However, the lower the shutter speed, the greater is the chance that the image on the film will be
blurred by the movement of the subject or camera. Some cameras have electronic shutter control. After the shutter is released
the control uses a light sensing device called a photocell to determine when enough light has been received for a proper
exposure and it then it closes the shutter automatically.

The shutter is located behind the lens, between the elements of the lens (between the lens shutter) or immediately in
front of the films (focal plane shutter).
 The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the aperture (opening) onto the film. Different settings on
a small dial on the top of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain open. The aperture selector is on the body of the
lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio of the
focal length of the lens to the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and f-stop determine the exposure—that is, the overall
amount of light that will reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect may be different.
Photographers experiment with different combinations to achieve various effects.

The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the camera except during the interval of
exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older amateur cameras use a drop-blade shutter,
consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls across the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a
second.
In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover the full lens aperture and
then springs shut. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a variable-size slit across its width. When released, the
shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it progressively as the slit moves.

DIAPHRAGM – The diaphragm changes the size of the aperture of the lens. Like a shutter with valuable speed, a
diaphragm regulates the amount of light reaching the film. The diaphragm also affects depth of field – the smaller the aperture
the greater the depth of field.

The diaphragm controls the size of the aperture in the same way as the iris of the eye, if you look at a cat’s eye when it
comes in out of the darkness you will that the irises have contracted to make the pupils bigger. After a few moments in a bright
light the irises expand and cause the pupils to become much smaller. The aperture of the camera must also be larger in dim light
and smaller in bright light.
The diaphragm is usually a ring of overlapping metal leaves, which can be adjusted. The control settings for the diaphragm are
referred to as f – stops and going from one f – stop to the next reduces the amount of light by one half. The common setting are f
/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16 and f/22.
 The diaphragm usually consists of a series of movable blades attached to a supporting ring. Its various positions are
called stops, or f – stops. The diaphragm is controlled by a hand operated ring or lever, or by automatic electromechanical
device. Simple cameras do not have diaphragm, so the aperture cannot be changed.

Most cameras with diaphragms have a series of standard f- stop numbers marked on the lens mount, in some
cameras, these numbers are also visible in the viewfinder. At each succeeding stop, the lens admits half as much light as at the
previous one.

As the shutter speed is increased, the aperture must be larger, if the same amount of light is to reach the film. The
amount of light reaching the film is the same at f/8 and 1/500 of a second as at f/11 and 1/250 ( the setting of f/8 provides twice
as much light f/11, but the shutter speed of 1/500 provides half as much light as 1/250).

In taking pictures, a photographer will often select a particular shutter speed and then adjust the f – stop for getting the
proper exposure or the photographer will select a particular f-stop and then adjust the shutter speed.

The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in conjunction with the shutter to admit light into the light-
proof chamber. This opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it may be adjustable. Adjustable diaphragms are
composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic that, when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens;
when meshed together, they form a small opening behind the centre of the lens. The aperture openings correspond to numerical
settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens.

The function of the Diaphragm (F/Number)

1. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm or increasing or decreasing the F/ number numerically it is

possible to regulate the amount of light passing through the lens reaching the sensitized material.

2. By expanding or increasing or decreasing the f/number numerically it is possible to control the depth of field.

3. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm, it is possible to control the degree of sharpness due to lens
defects.

VIEWING AND FOCUSING DEVICES – The viewfinder shows the photographer the scene being photographed. It
maybe a viewing screen, a miniature lens system, or a sample wire frames.

Most modern cameras also have some sort of viewing system or viewfinder to enable the photographer to see, through
the lens of the camera, the scene being photographed. Single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs) all incorporate this design feature, and
almost all general-use cameras have some form of focusing system as well as a film-advance mechanism.

LENS APERTURE – Adjustable cameras are equipped with an iris diaphragm, a device located in or near the lens and
consisting of thin overlapping leaves that fold together to create a hole of continuously variable size. In this way the aperture or
lens opening, can be adjusted to admit more or less light as required. The diaphragm is usually marked with a series of settings
called STOPS, which are designated by F- NUMBERS, such as f/5.6 or f/5.8. The f/ number expresses the ratio of focal length to
aperture. The larger the number, the smaller the aperture.

To “stop down” or “close one stop” is to set the diaphragm control at the next smaller marked stop, for instance from f/4 to
f/6, or from f/6 to f/11. This reduces the amount of light admitted by one half. To open up one stop, means to set the diaphragm
control at the next wider aperture.

DEPTH OF FIELD - The lens aperture not only controls the amount of light entering the camera, it also affects another
fundamental aspect of the photograph – depth of field. Depth of field is the range in front of and behind a sharply focused subject
in which details also look sharp in the final photographic image. It depends on lens aperture, the focused distance, and the focal
length of the lens. A small lens aperture, great camera to subject distance, and focal length result in greater depth of field.
 SHUTTER SPEED AND MOTION – Shutter speed determines how effectively a moving object can be stopped, that is,
how sharply it can be reproduced without blurring, or streaking in the final image. With a fast shutter speed, the shutter is opened
only briefly and the moving object has little time to change its position before exposure is completed. With a slow shutter speed,
on the other hand, the shutter remains open for a relatively long time. Thus, the faster the shutter speed, the sharper the moving
object will appear on the final image, and the slower the shutter speed, the more blurred object will appear.

The camera shutter must stop the subjects’ apparent speed or the speed at which its image move across the film,
regardless of the subjects’ actual motion through space. Factors such as distance, direction of motion, and focal length of the
lens must all be taken into consideration. Generally, the closer the moving subject is to the camera, the greater it’s apparent,
motion will be. Thus, if they wish to get sharp image, most photographers avoid extreme close – ups of moving subjects.

FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM – Moves new, unexposed film into position for the next picture.

FILM ADVANCER – Necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred to the take up spool while the unexposed
film remain on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

FILM ADVANCE LEVER

FILM REWIND CRANK
FILM REWIND KNOB
FILM TAKE-UP SPOOL

SHUTTER SPEED DIAL – Controls the opening and closing of the shutter, regulates the quantity of light that reaches
and affects the sensitized material, a dial which sets the length of time in which the light is allowed to enter the camera.

SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – The “click” of the camera that releases the shutter

FOCUSING MECHANISM – The mechanism that estimates the appropriate objects distance from the camera to form a
sharp or clear image on the photograph.

FOCUSING RING – The outer ring of the lens which is rotated or adjusted to obtain a clear and sharp photograph and
it enables the photographer to adjust focal range.

F-STOP RING
F-NUMBERS
ASA DIAL/SHUTTER SPEED DIAL
FLASH UNIT
FLASH TERMINAL
FLASH ACCESSORY SHOE
TIMER/SELF-TIMER
CABLE RELEASE
TRIPOD

DAYTIME EXPOSURE (Outdoor) – Without Flash

Bright Sunlight – SS – 125 or250

LO – F5.6 or F8
Hazy Sunlight - SS – 125

Bright Hazy -LO – F5.6 or F4

Low Hazy -LO – F2 or F4
-LO – F5.6 or F4
 Low Shaded -SS – 30 or 125
-LO – F2 or full open

INDOOR WITHOUR FLASH BUT THERE ARE 2 TO 4 FLOURESCENT BULB

SHUTTER SPEED – 15
LENS OPENING - F1.2 or F2

INDOOR BUT WELL LIGHTED- (BRIGHT LLIGHT)

SHUTTER SPEED –60

LENS OPENING - F5.6 orf4

INDOOR OR OUTDOOR WITH FLASH (DAY OR NIGHT)

USE SYNCHRONIZED SHUTTER SPEED WHICH IS 60 OR X ANY COLORED NUMBER IN THE SHUTTER SPEED.

Distance of the Subject :

1-6 ft = F8
6-10FT = F5.6
10-15FT = F4
15FT and above = full open

NIGHT EXPOSURE (TOTAL DARKNESS WITHOUT FLASH)`

Shutter Speed is = B
Lens Opening is full open

ESTIMATE THE TIME, THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT ENTERS THE CAMERA, USE TRIPOD AND CABLE RELEASE.

EX. SS = B
LO = F1.2
TIME = 90 seconds (Depends upon the available light)

CAMERA LENSES

A camera lens is a transparent material made of glass or plastic, which has two opposite symmetrical and spherical
surfaces. A lens is also a piece of transparent material that has at least one curved surface. The lenses refract (bend) light rays
and in doing so can form images of an object. The image maybe larger, smaller or the same as the object itself.

The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture taking, is one of the most important parts of any camera.
The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less in the same way as the lens of the
eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure of the
sensitized materials inside the camera. The area of the lens may large or small during the exposure of the sensitized materials
depending upon the light coming from the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light coming from the subject
depend upon the light source. Should the light be too great, the area of the lens maybe reduce with the focal number adjustment.
The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the numerical value of the focal number. The greater the focal number numerically
the less light will pass through the lens but more distance will appear in reasonable sharpness.

The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed, the shorter will be the duration of the opening and closing of the
lens. As an effect only small amount of light will pass through the lens.

Artificial lenses are made of various transparent materials such as glass, plastics or crystals. Quartz crystals are used to
refract ultra violet light, which a very short wavelength.
 Interchangeable lenses allow a photographer to capture a variety of pictures that would otherwise be difficult or
impossible to obtain with a single camera. For instance, a zoom lens may be used to photograph individual drops of dew on a
spider’s web. A telephoto lens might be used to shoot a close-up view of a dangerous or easily frightened wild animal. Other
options provided by special lenses include wide-angle lenses such as the fisheye lens, which curves outward to show a view of
180 degrees or more.

The lens is as important a part of a camera as the body. Lenses are referred to in generic terms as wide-angle, normal,
and telephoto. The three terms refer to the focal length of the lens, which is customarily measured in millimetres. Focal length is
defined as the distance from the centre of the lens to the image it forms when the lens is set at infinity. In practice, focal length
affects the field of view, magnification, and depth of field of a lens.

Cameras used by professional photographers and serious amateurs are designed to accept all three lens types
interchangeably. In 35-mm photography, lenses with focal lengths from 20 to 35 mm are considered wide-angle lenses. They
provide greater depth of field and encompass a larger field (or angle) of view but provide relatively low magnification. Extreme
wide-angle, or fisheye, lenses provide fields of view of 180° or more. A 6-mm fisheye lens made by Nikon has a 220° field of
view that produces a circular image on film, rather than the normal rectangular or square image.

Lenses with focal lengths of 45 to 55 mm are referred to as normal lenses because they produce an image that
approximates the perspective perceived by the human eye. Lenses with longer focal lengths, called telephoto lenses, constrict
the field of view and decrease the depth of field while greatly magnifying the image. For a 35-mm camera, lenses with focal
lengths of 85 mm or more are considered telephoto.
A fourth generic lens type, the zoom lens, is designed to have a variable focal length, which can be adjusted
continuously between two fixed limits. Zoom lenses are especially useful in conjunction with single-lens reflex cameras, for
which they allow continuous control of image scale.
History of Lenses

The early history of lenses is unknown. In 1845, an archeologist uncovered in what is now Iraq an ancient rock crystal
ground to form a small convex lens, but there is no evidence that lenses were widely known or used in ancient time. An early
investigation of the principles of lenses was made in the 11 th century by Alhazen, a Persian physicist. Spectacles with convex
lenses were in common use both in Europe an din China as early as the 13 th century.

Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch optician, is credited with combining lenses to make a compound microscope about 1590.
Galileo improved the telescope in 1609. The art of designing and manufacturing lenses has progressed steadily since that time.

How Lenses Are Made

The refraction of light is always the same under identical circumstances, allowing physicist to draw up mathematical
laws of optics. These laws are use in determining the shape of a lens for a particular purpose. The shape is computed
mathematically and is expressed by a formula that guides the lens maker in his or her work.

The glass used for a lens is of the highest quality. It is first molded into blanks, which are disk about the size of the
finished lenses. A lens is formed by grinding and polishing a blank into shape. Grinding operations are performed by revolving
dish-shaped devices coated with abrasives. The first grinding, with a carborundum abrasive, gives the lens its general shape.
Later, grindings with finer and finer abrasives give it its final shape. The lens is then polished with rouge (fine ferrous oxide) and
cut to the proper size.

Principles of Lens Action

 The ability of a lens to bring light to a focus or make it diverge derives from the fact that the velocity of light changes as the
light passes through different materials. Thus when a ray of light leaves the atmosphere and enters a lens, it slows down.
According to the angle at which it strikes the lens surface, it is refracted – that is, it changes direction. The ratio of velocity of light
in air to its velocity in the lens material is called the index of refraction of the material.

A lens refracts light rays in such a way that on of three things will occur:
1. The rays will come together at a point.
2. The rays will produce an image.
3. The rays will move in parallel lines or in diverging lines.

A LENS can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a bright, clear and sharp image. The hole behind the lens is
called the aperture and on many cameras the size of the hole or aperture can be altered. The length of time that the light is
allowed to enter the camera is called the exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is closed and
prevents the light entering the camera. Both the diaphragm and the shutter need to be adjusted according to the amount of light
that is available for taking a photograph.

All photographic lenses do the same basic job. Collect light rays from a scene in front of the camera and project them as
images unto the film at the back. However, the choice of lenses also plays a very important role in the creative aspects of
photography.

CAMERA LENSES CAN BE USED TO CONTROL THE

1. Amount of light that reaches the film.

2. Magnification of the image.
3. Lastly, area of the image to be recorded on the film.

IMAGE FORMATION

The focal length of a single lens is the distance from the lens to the point at which incoming parallel rays focus. Light
converged in the manner can produce a real images, that is, an image that can actually be projected onto screen. In a negative
lens, rays do not actually come to a real focus but appear to originate from a point called the virtual focus.

TYPOLOGY OF LENSES

There are two types of lenses, the converging and diverging lens. As to converging lenses we have the double convex,
Plano convex and the concavo-convex. Under diverging lenses we have double concave, Plano concave and the concavo
concave.

1. CONVEX LENS – DIVERGING LENS

A convex lens causes light rays to converge, or come together, and is called a positive lens. A positive lens focuses
light, form a distant source into visible image that appears on the opposite side of the lens to the object.

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges. When parallel rays of light pass through this type of lens, they
are bent inward and meet at a point called the focus. The distance from the center of the lens to the focus is known as the focal
length.

The size, position, and type of image produced by a converging lens vary according to the distance of the object from
the lens. If an object is more than one focal length from the lens, an inverted real image of it is formed on the opposite side of the
lens. Light rays from the object pass through a real image and can be focused on a screen. When an object is located a distance
of two focal lengths on a converging lens, the image is the same size as the object and is located on the opposite side of the
lens. A smaller image of the object can be obtained by moving the objects by more than two focal lengths from the lens. Placing
the object between one and two focal lengths from the lens can produce a larger image.

If the object is less than one focal length from the lens, no real image can be formed. Instead a magnified virtual image
is formed behind the object and is right side up. Light rays from the object do not pass through a virtual image, and such an
image cannot be focused on the screen.

A convex lens has a thick centre and thinner edges. Light passing through a convex lens is bent inward, or made to
converge. This causes an image of the object to form on a screen on the opposite side of the lens. The image is in focus if
the screen is placed at a particular distance from the lens that depends upon the distance of the object and the focal point of
the lens. This diagram shows how rays of light starting from a point, O, on the object, strike the lens and are then brought to
focus at another point, I. The same applies to every point on the object, as is shown by the pair of points P and J; thus an
image, exactly similar to the object is built up.

1. SIMPLE CONVEX – convexo – convex

2. SPECIAL CONVEX – special positive lens
a. – Plano – convex
b. – convexo – concave

2. CONCAVE LENS – DIVERGING LENS

Concave lens or negative lens spreads the light depends on the amount of curved on the faces of the lens. The
distance between the lens and the image it produces is called the FOCAL LENGTH. The shorter the focal length, the smaller the
image. The greater the curvature of the faces of the lens, the shorter its focal length will be. Lens that possess at least one
surface that curves inward. It is a diverging lens, spreading out those light rays that have been refracted to it. Concave lens is
thicker at the edges than they are at the center. Light rays passing through a diverging lens are bent outward. Diverging lens
form only virtual image.

1. SIMPLE CONCAVE – concavo – concave - Biconcave lens (with both surfaces curved inward)
2. SPECIAL CONCAVE – special negative lens
a. Plano - concave – lens with one flat surface and one concave.
b. Concavo – convex
 A concave lens is curved inward; it is shaped like two dishes placed back-to-back. Light passing through a concave
lens bends outward, or diverges. Unlike convex lenses, which produce real images, concave lenses produce only virtual
images. A virtual image is one from which light rays only appear to come. This one appears as a smaller image just in front of
the actual object (in this case a shamrock). Concave lenses are generally prescribed for myopic, or short-sighted, people.
Concave lenses help the eyes to produce a sharp image on the retina instead of in front of it.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

3. COMPOUND LENSES

Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images. This imperfection in image formation can be reduced
using compound lenses.

TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON LENS SPEED

Lens speed refers to the largest opening of the diaphragm that the light can pass through it determines the maximum
intensity of the light entering the light tight box.

A. FAST LENS – Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed is used during nighttime or in dark room.
B. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used during daytime or where the room is very bright.

TYPES OF LENSES BASED ON THEIR FOCUS

Focus: the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp images.
It also refers to the point at which light rays converge. It is the point where a set of lights rays converges after passing
through a lens or other optical arrangement. It also refers to the point from which rays appear to diverge, the place where the
visual image is clearly formed, as in the eye or a camera. The point of principal focus is called focal point.

Focusing is the process of changing the distance between the centers of the lens to the focal plane. It is the technique of
adjusting the focal length to get the sharp image of the object or scene to be photographed.

Infinity refers to the distance so far removed from the observer that the rays of light reflected to a lens from a point at the
distance maybe regarded as parallel. It is a distance setting on a camera focusing scale, beyond which all objects are in focus.

REAL FOCUS – the point of convergence of the light rays.

VIRTUAL FOCUS - the point where diverging rays would meet if their direction were reversed.

In terms of focus, there are two types of lenses sold today:

 1. AUTO FOCUS – are the predominant types to the market. AFLSR’s focus using a phase detection system that slits the
incoming light into two or more parts and compares them to determine the amount of DEFOCUS. AF is not perfect, but
the technology has greatly improved since the first AF lenses made their appearance. As it is, sometimes this phase
detection system can have difficulty with dim lighting and fast – moving objects, but they are more accurate than the
infrared systems found on point and shot cameras.
2. MANUAL – FOCUS LENSES – YOU SIMPLY TURN THE FOCUSING RING BY HAND UNTIL THE SUBJECT IS
SHARP IN THE VIEW FINDER. Although AF lenses dominate the market today, nearly all interchangeable AF Lenses
allow the user to over ride the AF mode with the manual focus option. These lenses usually have a switch on the
barrel, so that you can choose one or the other to suit the shooting circumstances.

WHY DO LENSES VARY TO EACH OTHER?

The most important way lenses differ is in their FOCAL LENGTH.

FOCAL LENGTH – the distance between the lens and the film plane when the lens is focused on infinity. Focal length
controls magnification (the size of the image formed by the lens). A lens is also described in terms of its view angle, the mount of
the image shown on the film.

GROUP OF LENSES ACCORDING TO THE ANGLE OF VIEW

1. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure the image area. The image area of 35 mm
camera is 24x36 mm, thus a normal lens for any 35 mm SLR is 50 mm international standards, 50 mm lens may have
an actual focal length of 48 – 52 mm, and the normal lens has a picture angle of 5 degrees that correspond to the
viewing angle of the human eye.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Optimum area coverage than any lens type.
 Minimum distortion and fewer common lens defects.
 Angle of view equal to 75 degrees but not less than 45 degrees.

2. Wide Angle Lens – The wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length than the normal lens. As a result, it covers a picture
angle of 60 – 90 degrees. It enables photographing a widely extended scene from a close proximity or within a
confined area. The range for wide angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm, 24mm, 28 mm, and 35 mm. The 28
mm and 35 mm are the most important for general wide angle for police work.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Reduced scale but increases area coverage compared with any lens at the same distance.
 Increased deep perception at a given scale.
 Increased distortion toward the edges of the negative material.
 Reducing illumination from the center toward the edges of the negative material.
 Angle of view exceeds 75 degrees.

3. Telephoto Lens – as telephoto lens, or long focus lens has a longer focal length and provides a close up image of a
distant object. In contrast to the wide-angle lens, the telephoto lens covers a small field of view and a shallower depth
of field. Because of shallow depth of field, there will be lack of sharpness of the subject focus areas in the photograph
to be produced. Another characteristics of the telephoto lens is production of flat composition, far objects appear
enlarged while near objects do not appear proportionally large.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Increase scale but reduced area coverage compared to any lens type.
 Decreased depth perception.
 Image quality usually deteriorates which is apparent when subject is in great motion.
  Angle of view less than 45 degrees.

Lenses beyond 58 mm are included in the group of telephoto lenses. For identification shots in police works, lenses of
85 to 135 mm focal length are frequently used. Long tele lenses are those beyond 200 mm.

4. Super wide Angle Lenses – In this category are fish eye lenses with a 180 degrees angle of view. Focal lengths run
from an amazing 6 mm to about 18mm. F stop ranges begin at F 1.8 but average f 3.5 and f 4.

5. Macro Lenses – The word macro is derived from the Greek word and means, “ to enlarge “. In photographic terms, a
macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches from a subject. A lens used for close
up photography particularly in taking pictures in minute objects. Using a macro lens, the subject being photographed
will appear bigger than its actual size. This group of lens is most helpful in fingerprint work, in recording evidences such
as pollen grains, hair, fiber and the like.

Two Main Types of MACRO LENS:

- One is meant to be used on a held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40 mm to about 90 mm with the average
about 25 mm.
- The other type is either a wide angle or a lens with a focal length with 100 mm or more and is designed with a close up
bellows attachment to the camera. The longer lenses give a larger image and are most suitable for static subjects and
painstaking photography.

6. Zoom Lenses – The macro zoom is relatively new in both long and short-range classes. By turning a ring on the lens
barrel, you are able to focus as close as three four inches and still use zoom capability. Such lens gives you close –
ups as well as variable focal lengths. and the macro zoom is taking this field. A final zoom category is the variable-
focal length lens that operates in the same manner as the zoom.

7. Special Purpose Lenses – Two special- purpose lenses in particular should be familiar to you. The first is adjustable
through movement of the front portion up and down for perspective control (PC). Architectural photographers benefit
using a PC lens that offers some control of perspective similar to the using the tilting front and back of a view camera.

The other lens, a guide-number (GN) lens, includes a diaphragm mechanism that changes aperture as the lens is
focused to synchronize exposure and distance with specific flash attachment on the camera. A GN lens can be handy,
but the use of automatic electronic flash unit would make the GN lens unnecessary.

Incidentally, a number of compact 35 mm range finder cameras with fixed (non interchangeable) lenses are guide-
number equipped. As a flash unit slips into the accessory shoe on top of the camera a small pin is activated that
synchronizes change of aperture with focusing. In this way distant subjects are photographed through wider f tops than
close ones, giving the effect of exposure automation.

8. Add – On Teleconverter Lenses – Add-on lenses. Principal among add- on lenses is the fishnet lens that is screwed
into the front of a normal 35 mm camera lens, offering a super wide effect for less cost than a separate fisheye lens.

FOCUSING THE LENS

It is important to have the lens at the right distance from the film otherwise the image of an object point will be seen as a
circle which is blurred in appearance. The permissible diameter of this circle or disc must be small enough under certain viewing
condition to make impossible to distinguish it from a point. The image will be seen sharp as long as this circle appears to the eye
as a point. The diameter of the circle that can be accepted varies with the application. The acuity of the vision of the eye and the
condition under which the print is viewed (contact or enlargement or projected).
 For a pinhole camera no focusing is required because the aperture is too small that such produces a point image of an
object point. The image is almost equally good over a very wide range of positions of the film.

For a lens camera to produce a sharp image must be focused at the subject. When the camera lens is being focused at the
subject one can observed that the lens travels back and forth from the film. The lens must be focused at the object point to
produce an image point instead of a visible circle of light.

The question is how an object point pictured as an image point by focusing the lens? Why are not all objects at different
distances from the lens sharp in the picture? The light bending ability of any one lens is constant that is the light is bending to the
same degree.

GATHERING POWER OF LENS

The light gathering power of lens that is express F/ number system is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to the
diameter of the aperture. It is otherwise called the relative aperture. A lens does not perform the same at all apertures. If an f/2
lens is being used its widest aperture, it will have less depth, poorer resolution and coverage at the corners that if this same lens
were field stopped down to the point of best resolution.

It is important to differentiate between sharpness at the corners of the field and illumination at these same points. Some
lenses will give a needle-sharp image across the entire slide, but lack of coverage will cause a darkening at the corners.
Conversely, there are those lenses that will give unsharp images at the corners although the illumination supplied by the lens is
absolutely uniform and no darkening will take place.

In most modern high-quality cameras performance at the center of the field is a seldom a problem at any aperture; it’s the
edges that make the difference. In the case of both illumination and sharpness, the point of best performance usually occurs
when a lens is stopped down from two to three stops. Actually, this optimum diaphragm setting gives the greatest amount of
sharpness, brilliance, and gradation over the entire field.

When a lens, even a fine lens is used at its widest aperture, the extreme edges of the lens are being used to form part of
the image. These edges are major source of aberrations. Stopping down prevents these aberrated rays from reaching the film; it
might seem logical, then, that the further the lens is stopped down, the better. This is not the case, here’ what actually happens.
As the lens is stopped down, further and further, the opening gets smaller and smaller. When the opening gets so small two
things happen. First of all the opening gets so small that the thickness of the diaphragm leaves approach the diameter of the
opening. When this happen, the edges of the diaphragm become a refractive unit and a general loss of sharpness occurs. A
second phenomenon of a completely stopped down lens is shift of focus. Since the image that strikes the film is made up of light
from all portions of the lens, and the lens is actually set for the focus of the rays passing through an area about 1/3 from its
center. In many lenses the point of focus between these extreme central rays that provides most of the illumination (1/3 from the
center) fall at different points, hence a loss of sharpness due to apparent shift of focus.

LENS DEFECTS

No lens is perfect in every respect. Usually a lens maker tries to find the best compromise among such qualities as
sharpness of definition, speed of light transmission, simplicity of construction and others. Special purpose lenses however are
computed for a single purpose only and in order to achieve the maximum of usefulness in one special field, other qualities are
sacrificed.
Except, the very finest lenses, traces of the following common lens defects will be found in all, such as chromatic
aberration, spherical aberration, curvilinear, distortion, curvature of field, astigmatism and others. No camera lens will produce
defects so exaggerated as the ones which will be demonstrated. However, even considerably less pronounced fault
manifestation maybe enough to produce fuzziness, which usually becomes more severe toward the edges of a picture.
 ABERRATION in optics, is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a mirror.
Proper focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at a single point. ABERRATION occurs because of minute variations
in lenses and mirrors, and because different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or refracted by varying amounts.

ABERRATION also defined as an optical imperfection responsible for image distortion. It can be avoided by combining
several lenses and by elimination of marginal rays refracted through the outer edges of the lens. Lenses or mirrors that are
sections of spheres produce spherical aberrations. If a beam of parallel rays reflects from a concave mirror, the rays that reflects
from the center of the mirror cross one another at a single point. The rays that reflects far from the center cross at points closer
to the mirror surface. The imaginary line connecting these points of focus is called a CAUSTIC.

A CAUSTIC appears as a bright line if it shines on a surface. For example, when sunlight shines through the open top of a
glass of milk and onto the curve interior acts as a mirror. Consequently, the light reflects onto the milk in a caustic curve. Without
aberration, a bright spot would appear on the milk. Convex lenses also produce spherical aberration. The light rays that pass
through the middle of the lens focus farther from the lens than do the rays that pass through the lens of the edges. If the lens is in
a camera, the image on this is blurry. To sharpen the image, a camera has a small opening called a stop. The stop allows only
the rays passing through the center of the lens to reach the film. Thus, the rays focus at one spot on the film, and the picture is
clear.

There are six ( 6 ) types of optical aberrations:

1. Spherical Aberration
2. Chromatic Aberrations
3. Astigmatism
4. Coma
5. Curvature of Field
6. Distortion

SPHERICAL ABERRATION

Aberration Geometrical optics predicts that rays of light emanating from a point are imaged by spherical optical elements
as a small blur. The outer parts of a spherical surface have a focal length different from that of the central area, and this defect
causes a point to be imaged as a small circle. The difference in focal length for the various parts of the spherical section is called
spherical aberration

Spherical Aberration is found in all lenses bounded by spherical aberration / surfaces. The marginal portions of the lens
bring rays of light to shorter focus than the central region. The image of a point in space is therefore not a point, but a blur circle.
Spherical aberration is the focusing at the different parts of spherical lens. This aberration occurs because light hitting the outer
parts of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus sooner than that passing through the middle. In spherical aberration,
the image is blurred because different parts of a spherical lens or mirror have different focal lengths.

When parallel marginal rays and axial rays passing through a simple lens focus at several planes along the optical axis.

CHROMATIC ABERRATION

All lenses (single) made of one material refract rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelenght and
so brings blue more to a shorter focus than red. The result is that the image of a point white light is not a white point, but a blur
circle bordered with colors.

Chromatic aberration is the failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens, focusing of light of
different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image. When white light, which consists of colors, passes through a lens,
the lens bends the rays. The rays then cross one another on the other side. The violet rays bend more than the other colors and
focus close to the lens. The red rays bend the least and focus farther from the lens. Rays on the other colors focus at points
between these two points. In chromatic aberration the image is surrounded by colored fringes, because light at different colors is
brought to different focal points by a lens.

The inability of a lens to bring the different wavelengths (colors) of white light to a focus on the same plane. Because the
index of refraction varies with wavelength, the focal length of a lens also varies and causes longitudinal or axial chromatic
aberration. Each wavelength forms an image of a slightly different size, giving rise to what is known as lateral chromatic
aberration. Combinations of converging and diverging lenses and of components made of glasses with different dispersions, help
to minimize chromatic aberration. Mirrors are free of this defect. In general, achromatic lens combinations are corrected for
chromatic aberration for two or three colours.

ASTIGMATISM

Astigmatism is the defect in which the light coming from an off-axis object point is spread along the direction of the optic
axis. If the object is a vertical line, the cross section of the refracted beam at successively greater distances from the lens is an
ellipse that collapses first into a horizontal line, spreads out again, and later becomes a vertical line

Astigmatism is the failure of a lens to produce a point image of an object point. Such condition occurs when the lens
surfaces are not symmetrical with respect to the principal axis of the lens. An extreme example would be one surface is spherical
and the other is cylindrical, or when the lens surfaces are perfectly spherical but the beam of light from the object point passes
through the lens very obliquely.

In astigmatism, the image appears elliptical or cross shaped because of an irregularity in the curvature of the lens. This is
the inability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same plane of focus in the image.

The inability of the lens to project a sharply focused image of both vertical and horizontal lines upon the same plane, at one
lens to image distance.

COMA

The result of differences in lateral magnification for rays coming from an object point not on the optic axis is an effect called
coma. If coma is present, light from a point is spread out into a family of circles that fit into a cone, and in a plane perpendicular
to the optic axis the image pattern is comet-shaped. Coma may be eliminated for a single object-image point pair, but not for all
such points, by a suitable choice of surfaces.

A pear – shaped image of small circle or point near the edges of the image plane.

Coma occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones is brought to a focus
at different distances from the plane film. A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet. In come, the images appear
progressively elongated toward the edge of the field of view. The term Coma was coined 1733 by French mathematician Alexis
Clairaut ( 1713 – 1765 ).

CURVATURE OF FIELD

A curved, concave, or saucer – shaped image of an object which has a flat surface produced by simple lens.

In curvature aberration the relation of the images of the different points are incorrect with respect to one another. In
curvature, the images of the different points of the plane image lie on a curved surface, with points at the edge of the field lying
nearer to the lens than those at the center. In curvature, the images distance is different for different points of the same object
due to their differing distance from the axis.

The fuzziness increases toward the edge of the film. Refocusing brings different circle into focus but others now are
blurred.
DISTORTION

Distortion arises from a variation of magnification with axial distance and is not caused by a lack of sharpness in the image.

When there exists a different magnification for rays at different angles distortion exists. Any straight light extending
across the field is considered curved and for different lenses the curvature maybe from or toward the center. The distortion is
called barrel distortion (in the first case). It is the common type of curvilinear defect. The second distortion is the pincushion
defect.

For correction two similar lenses, each of half necessary power are placed a short distance apart, with a diaphragm
between. Such a lens is called RECTILINEAR LENS.

OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS

These defects are usually corrected when the lens is designed; however, they can occur if the lens is misused or through
normal wear.

FLARE or OPTICAL FLARE

In a result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits itself as a misty haze, or a cloudy semicircular patch of
light, which may cover part or the entire image. This doubly reflection may form an image called a ghost image.

MECHANICAL FLARE

Are bright spots on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such as the stop, shutter lens mount, or
from the camera itself.

LIGHT LOSS

Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare ( optical ) and which will also increase
the optics ability to transmit light thus reducing light loss.

STRAY LIGHT

Can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade placed on the front of the lens as shield.

FOCAL LENGTH

What is focal length?

It is usual to think of the focal length of the lens as the distance from the lens center or the position of the image it
forms of a distant object. It is important to know that it is the focal length that determines how large an image is formed by the
lens. All lenses of the same focal at the same distance produce the same of size; whether they are called wide angle, or by any
other names.

The focal length of a lens can be define as the distance from the optical center of the lens to its focal plane, when the
lens is focused upon an object at infinity in practical terms, means focused on a subject a great distance away ( 200 ft. or more )
the light rays reflected by that the subject will be traveling on parallel paths, for all practical purposes, when they reach the film.
The photographer seldom or need not measure the focal length of a lens, for this characteristic is almost always marked on the
front of the lens mount.
 The focal length is a fixed value of a lens that cannot be changed. It is an inherent factor determined by the thickness
of the lens and curvatures of its surface. The focal is frequently employed to indicate the size of the lens in millimeter or inches.
Thus, a lens labeled as F.L 50 mm. Indicates that when it is focused on a point at infinity, the distance from the optical center to
the focal plane is 50 mm. And it is also the nearest distance at which such a lens will sharply focuses an image.
The focal length also controls the image brightness, speed of the lens and the image size of the focal plane; IMAGE SIZE,
the focal length determines the size of the image at the focal plane, the longer the focal length, the greater the size of the image
on the film when the subject remains at the given distance. In fact, image size and focal are directly proportional, doubling the
F.L. results in doubling the image size. Because the image size increases with focal length, it is logically to follow that the longer
the focal length the less of the subject the lens will include on the negative, that is the negative size remains constant. Or, to
state it another way, the greater the lens focal length, the narrower its field of view (often called angle of view). A short focal
length produces smaller image.

LENS SPEED, the largest opening of diaphragm (aperture) at which a lens can be used is also known as the speed of
the lens. Hence the light gathering capability of a lens is called lens speed. Speed here refers to intensity of light reaching the
film, and not to any movement. Thus, an F/2 lens is faster than F74, because an F2 has a larger aperture and will admit more
light at a given time. Lenses having a large aperture are called “fast” lenses because their large aperture makes it possible to
take photograph at a very short exposure interval or under very dim light conditions. The closer this largest aperture to one (1) or
to being equal in diameter to the focal length of the lens, the faster the lens.

SENSITIZED MATERIAL

Sensitized Material refers to films and papers that are composed of emulsion containing SILVER HALIDE crystals
suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

FILM

A film consists basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a layer of animal gelatin
which is coated onto acetate support or base.

THE FILM STRUCTURE

A. STRUCTURE OF WHITE and BLACK FILM

1. TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an over coating composed of a
thin transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The
hard gelatin, which is derived from cows, contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is very much compatible with silver halides.
2. EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive
and halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in fast film emulsion). A silver compound when combined
with a halogen becomes SILVER HALIDE. Silver Halides are rare compound that are responsible in forming the so
called the LATENT IMAGE in the photographic film.
3. FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such as paper, plastic, or glass, which supports the
emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.
4. ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare surface of the film. Its function is to absorb light that may
penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper since it suppresses double image. It prevents halo formation in
the photograph. The black dye is removed during processing by one of the chemicals in the developer. Its second
function is to control the film from curling inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).

B. STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM

1. TOP LAYER – sensitive to blue light only, green and red light passes through it without exposing the color halide.
 2. EMULSION LAYER

a. Blue filter
b. Yellow filter – CAREY LEA silver suspended in gelatin, it is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to pass through.
c. Green filter – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer sensitive to blue light (which can not reach it) and
green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
d. Red filter – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue (which can’t reach it) and red. It is also sensitive to green
light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.

3. ANTIHALATION BACKING / COATING

4. FILM BASE – Plastic film base
Emulsions are thin, gelatinous, light-sensitive coatings on film that react chemically to capture the color and
shadings of a scene. The four layers pictured above show the same image as it would appear on different emulsions in
photographic film after the first stage of developing. For black-and-white photographs, only one emulsion is required, because
it is the amount of light, not the colour that activates the chemical reaction. Color film requires three layers of emulsion, each
of which is sensitive to only one of the primary colors of light: blue, green, or red. As light passes through the layers, each
emulsion records areas where its particular color appears in the scene. When developed, the emulsion releases dye that is
the complementary color of the light recorded: blue light activates yellow dye, green light is magenta, and red light is cyan
(bluish-green). Complementary colors are used because they produce the original color of the scene when the film is
processed.
Color films are more complex than black-and-white films because they are designed to reproduce the full range of
color tones as color, not as black, white, and grey tones. The design and composition of most color transparency films and
color negative films are based on the principles of the subtractive color process, in which the three primary colors, yellow,
magenta, and cyan (blue-green), are combined with their complements to reproduce a full range of colors. Such films consist
of three silver halide emulsions on a single layer. The top emulsion is sensitive only to blue. Beneath this is a yellow filter that
blocks blues but transmits greens and reds to the second emulsion, which absorbs greens but not red. The bottom emulsion
records reds.
When color film is exposed to light by a camera, latent black-and-white images are formed on each of the three
emulsions. During processing, the chemical action of the developer creates actual images in metallic silver, just as in black-
and-white processing. The developer combines with dye couplers incorporated into each of the emulsions to form cyan,
magenta, and yellow images. Then the film is bleached, leaving a negative image in the primary colors. In color transparency
film, unexposed silver-halide crystals not converted to metallic silver during the initial development are converted to positive
images in dye and silver during a second stage of development. After the development action has been arrested, the film is
bleached and the image fixed on it.

C. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS

Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers. Each layer responding to only one of the additive primary colors (red,
blue and green). After exposure and during the film processing, the yellow color of the filter layer is destroyed.

Films maybe classified according to their forms and types. Basically, films that are available in the markets today are in
various forms. They can be in rolls, in cartridges and cut sheets. Light sensitivity of the film can be ascertained through its
various types.

There are some films that are sensitive to all colors while there is some that are sensitive only to one or specific set of
colors.

Classification according to USE

 1. BLACK and WHITE FILM – for B and W Photography
2. COLOR FILM – films that have names ending in COLOR
- Color negatives for prints
The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color positive. It is composed of hue dyes. In between the blue
and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect the green hue and in between the green
and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so that the green rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the emulsion.

3. CHROME FILMS – films with names ending in CHROME

- For color transparency (slides); films that are exposed by slides, mounted in a cardboard for slide projectors:
reversal type.
4. X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations

Types based on FILM SPEED (according to light sensitivity)

1. FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually develop in groups; film that are
very sensitive to light. When the available is dim, this type of film is the best choice because of the low reflection power
of the subject against a background. It is low in contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of fast speed film is
not advisable due to its graininess result.

2. SLOW FILM – film that require longer period of time to completely expose their emulsion to light; film with fine grains of
silver halides.

Film Speed Film is classified by speed as well as by format. Film speed is defined as an emulsion's degree of
sensitivity to light, and determines the amount of exposure required to photograph a subject under given lighting conditions. The
manufacturer of the film assigns a standardized numerical rating in which high numbers correspond to “fast” emulsions and low
numbers to “slow” ones. The standards set by the International Standards Organization (ISO) are used throughout the world,
although some European manufacturers still use the German Industrial Standard, or Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN). The ISO
system evolved by combining the DIN system with the ASA (the industry standard previously used in the United States). The first
number of an ISO rating, equivalent to an ASA rating, represents an arithmetic measure of film speed, whereas the second
number, equivalent to a DIN rating, represents a logarithmic measure.

Low-speed films are generally rated from ISO 25/15 to ISO 100/21, but even slower films exist. Kodak's Rapid
Process Copy Film, a special process film, has an ISO rating of 0.06/-12. Films in the ISO 125/22 to 200/24 range are
considered medium speed, while films above ISO 200/24 are considered fast. In recent years, many major manufacturers
have introduced super fast films with ISO ratings higher than 400/27. And certain films can be pushed well beyond their ratings
by exposing them as though they had a higher rating and developing them for a greater length of time to compensate for the
underexposure.
DX coding is a recent innovation in film and camera technology. DX-coded cartridges of 35-mm film have printed on
them a characteristic panel corresponding to an electronic code that tells the camera the ISO rating of the film as well as the
number of frames on the roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped with DX sensors that electronically sense
this information and automatically adjust exposures accordingly.
Differences in sensitivity of a film emulsion to light depend on various chemical additives. For example,
hypersensitizing compounds increase film speed without affecting the film's color sensitivity. High-speed film can also be
manufactured by increasing the concentration of large silver-halide crystals in the emulsion. In recent years, a generation of
faster, more sensitive films has been created by altering the shape of crystals. Flatter silver-halide crystals offer greater
surface area. Films incorporating such crystals, such as Kodak's T-grain Kodacolour films, have a correspondingly greater
sensitivity to light.
The grain structure of faster films is generally heavier than that of slower films. Grain structure may give rise to a
mottled pattern on prints that have been greatly enlarged. Photographs taken with slower-speed film appear less grainy when
enlarged. Because of the small size of their silver-halide grains, slow-speed films generally have a higher resolution—that is,
they can render fine details with greater sharpness—and can produce a broader range of tones than fast films. When tonal
range and sharpness of detail are not as important as capturing a moving subject without blurring, fast films are used.

Types based on SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (color sensitivity)

Spectral sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.

1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to a single color of light (for white and black)
a. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light
b. ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVE FILM – sensitive to UV rays only

2. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum, especially to blue
and violet light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and white photography because it produces
the most natural recording of colors.

Panchromatic films are further sub classified according to their degree of sensitivity to each primary colors or light.
There are three classes of panchromatic film. They are the following:

a. Process Panchromatic Film – permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
b. Grain Panchromatic Film
c. High Speed Panchromatic Film – designed originally for photographing objects under adverse lighting
condition.

Contrast of the panchromatic film usually varies with the color of the light and using filters can attain proper contrast in
photograph.

3. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red. Red portions are
recorded as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones when printed. This type of film is popular in
the market as the KODALITH FILM.
4. INFRARED FILM – a special type of film that is sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation (radiation beyond the
human eye’s sensitive). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the visible spectrum. Although the infrared film is
sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the blue color. The red filter transmits only long red and infrared
radiation. IR film is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In Investigative Photography, it is
useful in laboratory analysis of questioned documents, in discovering old ( or faded ) tattoos under the skin, and in
the construction of camera types.

D. FILM SPEED – (EMULSION SPEED)

EMULSION SPEED – the sensitivity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensitive to light.
The light sensitivity of the film is also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of the film is determined through the numerical film
speed labels given by the film manufacturer. There are two classical speed ratings that became popular:

1. ASA (American Standard Association) rating - This is expressed in arithmetical value system. The speed in numbers is
directly proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one
with a speed of 100.
2. DIN (Deutche Industrie Norman) rating – This is expressed in logarithmic value system. In this system, an increase of 3
degree doubles the sensitivity of the film.

3. ISO rating (International Standards Organization) – combination of ASA and DIN rating. The higher the ISO number,
the more sensitive the film to light and the pictures can be taken indoors or in dim light condition.
  ISO 100-200 – film for general purpose

One film maybe rated ISO – 100, and another film ISO- 200. This means that the 200 films are twice as fast ( twice
more sensitive to light ) than the ISO-100 film. Hence, it would only require half the amount of light to produce a satisfactory
negative. Each time the film speed is doubled, it is equal to one f / stop higher. For instance, in the example given, if ISO-1 is
exposed at f / 8, then ISO-200 should be exposed at f / 11 to produce the same negative image quality. Any film above ISO-200
can be considered grain. The suggested uses of the following film exposure under varying conditions are:

1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
3. ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter speed; has fine grains of silver halides; produce
sharp image.
4. ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains; produce large sharp image.
5. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
6. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast moving objects

 When DX is attached to the film speed, it means that the film automatically sets the film speed dial (ASA
dial).
E. FILM SIZE

1. 110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras

2. 126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type
3. 120 – variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first introduced for box cameras a decade ago and now used in
professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or Mamiya.
4. 135 – commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is 35 mm wide
5. 220 – the same with 120 but twice as many exposure

FILM AND LIGHT

An alteration in the spectral response of a photographic material brought about by a change in the spectral distribution of
energy in the light source used for exposure is a difference in a relative brightness in which different colors are reproduced by the
photographic material.

A comparison of the relative brightness in which the different colors of the original are produced by two light sources shows
that the employment of tungsten illumination with its greater abundance of long wave radiation, has resulted in yellow, orange
and red being produced relatively lighter, and violet and blue darker, than with sunlight. The relative brightness in which different
colors are reproduced depends on the distribution of spectral sensitivity with the particular light source used for the exposure.
The greater the effective sensitivity in any particular part of the spectrum, the greater the density of the negative and the lighter
the tone of gray in which the corresponding color sensation is represented in the print.

EXPOSURE

Photographic exposure is defined as the product of illumination and time. The unit of exposure is usually in meter candle
second which is equivalent to exposure produced by a light source of one candlepower, in the second at a distance of one meter
from the surface of the sensitive material.

When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes the front surface of the film emulsion, a number of tiny
crystals of light sensitive silver halide rendered developable forming later the image is known as the latent photographic image.
This image becomes visible by chemical development. This image conforms to the shape of the object points in the subject
according to the capability of the lens and film.
 While at this point the light had done all that it has to do, however it continue to penetrate the emulsion layers throughout
whose depth lie suspended millions of other light sensitive halide crystals. As the ray moves deeper and deeper into the
emulsion, it moves farther and farther away from its original point of entry into the emulsion, and parts are scattered off in every
direction. During this travel it has struck and therefore made developable, many more light sensitive crystals than it originally
affected to form the latent image at the surface of the emulsion. Finally, it bumps into the anti- halation backing and is absorbed.

FILTERS

Filters made of gelatin or glass; filters are used in front of a camera lens to alter the color balance of light, to change
contrast or brightness, to minimize haze, or to create special effects. In black-and-white photography, color filters are used
with panchromatic film to transmit light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting color. In a landscape
photograph taken with a red filter, for example, some of the blue light of the sky is blocked, causing the sky to appear darker
and thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a less extreme effect because more blue light is
transmitted to the film. The No. 8 yellow filter is often used for outdoor black-and-white photography because it renders the
tone of a blue sky in much the same way that the human eye perceives it.
Conversion filters, light-balancing filters, and color-compensating filters are all widely used in color photography.
Conversion filters change the color balance of light for a given film. Tungsten films, for example, are designed and balanced
for the color temperature of amber tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will produce pictures with a bluish cast. A series
85-conversion filter can correct this. Daylight film, on the other hand, balanced for sunlight at noon, which has a greater
concentration of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellow-amber cast when exposed under tungsten light. A
series 80-conversion filter corrects this problem.
Light-balancing filters are generally used to make small adjustments in color. These pale-toned filters eliminate
undesirable colorcasts or add a general warming hue. Color-compensating (CC) magenta filters can balance greenish
fluorescent light for daylight or tungsten film. Another type of filter, the polarizer, is used primarily to reduce reflection from the
surface of shiny subjects. Polarizing filters are also used in color photography to increase color saturation.
Photographic filters maybe divided into four classes: a) color filters b) viewing filters c) neutral density filters and d)
polarizing filters

COLOR FILTERS – Are used to control the relative tone values in which colors are rendered by the photographic
process, to lighten or darkened particular colors or to obtain color separation records for color photography works.

A color filter maybe defined as an optically homogenous filter in which the absorption of light and transmission of light
varies with the wavelength.

 Blue Filters – A blue filter can be used effectively when photographing blood in black and white. When used outdoors
as blue filters will make the sky, or any blue object appears white in photograph.
 Green Filters – Are now used in place of blue filters for photographing blood.
 Yellow Filters – Yellow filters cut through haze to certain extent and can be used with good results to photograph an
accident on a hazy day.

VIEWING FILTER – Are designed to show by direct observation the relative values in which colors will be reproduced
by a particular type of sensitized without or with a given filter.

NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – Are used to reduce the light intensity to prevent over exposure.

POLARIZING FILTER – Are used primarily to control light reflected from highly polished surfaces, metallic objects and
others.
The Principle of Color Filters

Objects are distinguished from their surroundings by the contrast, which may be the result of a difference in brightness or
color. At times parts of a subject may differ slightly in brightness yet the contrast due to difference in color is very marked to the
eye. For example red and green colors show a striking difference to the eye yet when photograph on a panchromatic film the
brightness difference is very slight to be notice by the eye. To show the difference the use of a green filter will render the green
color lighter and the red color darker (in the print or positive).
To render a color lighter in effect than it would appear, a filter, which selectively transmits light of the same color, should be
used. To render a color darker a filter, which absorbs the color, should be used. To transmit means to allow or to pass through
while to absorb means to stop partially or wholly.

Filter Factor

A photographic material exposed to such filtered radiation will receive a small amount of light than one without any filter. To
compensate for the loss of radiation because of the absorption of the filter, the shutter speed should be increased or a longer
time in opening and closing or wider lens aperture, or an increase in the intensity of the light source is necessary. Filter factors
depend upon:
1. Absorption characteristics of the filter.
2. The subject
3. The spectral sensitivity of the emulsion
4. The processing conditions.

The general effects of filter may be given as below:

Color of Subject Rendered Lighter Rendered Darker

Red Filters F, A or G Filter B or C-5

Green G, X-1, X-2 Filter A or C-5
Blue Filter A A, F, G, or B
Magenta Filter F or A Filter B
Yellow Filter F or G Filter C-5
Orange Filter G or A Filter C-5

Filter Guide

G---- Deep Yellow

B---- Green
X-1, X-2 - - - Lighter Green
A or F - - - - Shades of Red

SENSITIZED PAPER (PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER)

The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The materials necessary to produce a photograph (POSITIVE
PRINT) are a sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque material like paper.

A. STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

After the process of producing the negative image is produced from the negative, which is a true presentation of the
relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called a print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is coated with light
sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is similar to the. Basic layers of printing paper are:
 1. Emulsion Layer – the layer containing minute silver suspended in gelatin; the layer of chemical needed to reproduce
the opposite tone of the negative print.
2. Baryta Layer – a gelatin layer containing Baryta crystals (barium oxide particles) to increase the reflectivity of the
paper.
3. Base – made of hardened white paper, which must be chemically pure to ensure that it will not interfere with the
chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in single or double weight paper.

In the preparation of photographic papers, there are three important factors to be considered, the:
1. Type of emulsion
2. Contrasting light rays and
3. Physical characteristics

Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the preparation of photographs. The types of emulsion use in
photo papers are:
1. Silver Chloride emulsion
2. Silver Bromide emulsion
3. Silver Chlorobromide emulsion

B. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

BASED ON EMULSION USED

1. SILVER CHLORIDE PAPER – contains silver chloride emulsion; grained and produce deep black images; used for
contact printing. Its sensitivity to light is low. Generally, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used and usually it will give blue-black tone if properly developed.
2. SILVER BROMIDE PAPER – contains silver bromide emulsion. Light sensitivity of this type is faster than the silver
chloride paper. This photographic paper is used for projection printing or enlarging process wherein the negative image
is projected or enlarged. If properly developed, the silver bromide paper will give a black tone.
3. SILVER CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER – contains a combination of silver chloride emulsion; its emulsion speed lies
between that of chloride and bromide papers; used both for contact and projection printing. The sensitivity of this paper
is either slow or fast. The slow emulsion is used for contract printing while the fast emulsion is used for projection
printing.
4. VARIABLE CONTRAST PAPER – combines the contrast ranges in one paper, it uses a special Chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light.

The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas classifies the contrast range of photographic paper. They
produce different photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the negatives to be printed. Generally, this contrast
range is classified into four: They are the following:
1. Low Contrast
2. Normal and Medium Contrast
3. Hard Contrast
4. Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast

The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very contrast negative to produce a normal print or photograph. On the
other hand, the high or hard contrast is suitable to a very low contrast paper is suitable to a very low contrast negative to
compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print or photographs.

Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish. The
texture maybe smooth, rough or linen, its finest maybe glossy with a very smooth surface texture. Other type of textures may
produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture.
 The paper base of the photographic paper maybe either white or tinted. Its weight or thickness maybe either
lightweight or single-weight or double-weight.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and
White object are usually printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs would give satisfactory results
if printed on glossy white photographic paper. For portrait photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is recommended
and for law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and
appreciated by the viewers.

ACCORDING TO CONTRAST
No. 1 ---- No. 2 ---- No. 3 ---- No. 4

Photographic papers are supplied in different grades. Numbers and or descriptive names, # 4 or hard, # 3 or medium,
# 2 or normal, # 1 or soft contrast designates them. The type of paper to be used is frequently the opposite in the name to the
type of negative. For instance, hard paper is used for thin, and normal paper is used for the so-called normal negative.

ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Photographic paper is made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish. Photographic
papers are supplied according to weight or thickness of the base, surface, color and contrast.

1. WEIGHT

A. Light Weight – are used when the thickness of the paper is not a consideration and high degree of
flexibility is necessary. Intended for purposes, which involve folding.
B. Single Weight – are paper used for small print or print which need to be mounted on solid and fine
details are necessary in the production. Used only for ordinary photographic purposes.
C. Double Weight – generally used for large prints because they stand up better under rough treatment.

2. SURFACE TEXTURE

A. Glossy Papers – are preferred where fine detail and brilliant images are required.
B. Semi – mate Papers – are with decided textures which obscure fine details
C. Rough Papers – used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.

3. COLOR

A. White – are preferred for cold effect

B. Cream – are preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
C. Buff Papers – are preferred for tone prints.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be made. Black and
White object are usually printed in a white-based photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs would give satisfactory
results if printed in glossy white-based photographic paper. For portrait photograph, a cream based photographic paper is
recommended. For law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the details of the image
appear and appreciated by the viewer.
GRADE OF PRINTING PAPERS

Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind of paper, and in order to permit printing for special
effects, photographic papers is made in several different grades of contrast and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak
offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.

VELOX No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negatives, the low contrast in the paper sensitizing
counteracts the high contrast in the negative to give a new print.
VELOX No. 1 – used for high contrast negative
VELOX No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives
VELOX No. 3 – used for negatives that have weak contrast
VELOX No. 4 – provides for sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful in printing
pictures which high contrast is desired
VELOX No. 5 – for flat negative that is unprintable