Status Epilepticus

doi:10.
1093/brain/awr215 Brain 2011: 134; 2802–2818 | 2802
BRAIN
A JOURNAL OF NEUROLOGY
REVIEW ARTICLE
The treatment of super-refractory status
epilepticus: a critical review of available
therapies and a clinical treatment protocol
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Simon Shorvon and Monica Ferlisi
Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
Correspondence to: Professor Simon Shorvon,

Box 5, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery,
Queen Square,
London WC1N 3BG, UK
E-mail: s.shorvon@ion.ucl.ac.uk
Super-refractory status epilepticus is defined as status epilepticus that continues or recurs 24 h or more after the onset of
anaesthetic therapy, including those cases where status epilepticus recurs on the reduction or withdrawal of anaesthesia. It is an
uncommon but important clinical problem with high mortality and morbidity rates. This article reviews the treatment
approaches. There are no controlled or randomized studies, and so therapy has to be based on clinical reports and opinion.
The published world literature on the following treatments was critically evaluated: anaesthetic agents, anti-epileptic drugs,
magnesium infusion, pyridoxine, steroids and immunotherapy, ketogenic diet, hypothermia, emergency resective neurosurgery
and multiple subpial transection, transcranial magnetic stimulation, vagal nerve stimulation, deep brain stimulation, electrocon-
vulsive therapy, drainage of the cerebrospinal fluid and other older drug therapies. The importance of treating the identifying
cause is stressed. A protocol and flowchart for managing super-refractory status epilepticus is suggested. In view of the small
number of published reports, there is an urgent need for the establishment of a database of outcomes of individual therapies.
Keywords: status epilepticus; treatment; refractory; super-refractory

Abbreviations: GABA = -aminobutyric acid; PRIS = propofol infusion syndrome
Introduction treatment for up to 2 h, the patient is said to be in Stage 3 (re-

fractory status epilepticus) and general anaesthesia is usually rec-
Tonic–clonic status epilepticus is a medical emergency. Treatment ommended, at a dose that results in EEG burst suppression (a level
is aimed at stopping seizures largely in order to avoid cerebral of anaesthesia at which all seizure activity is usually controlled). It
damage and other morbidity. is interesting in passing to note that anaesthesia has been recom-
All contemporary protocols take a staged approach to treatment mended since the mid-19th century, and John Hughlings Jackson
(Fig. 1). Typically, in Stage 1 (early status epilepticus), therapy is (who is commemorated in this issue of Brain) for instance writes
with benzodiazepines. If seizures continue despite this therapy, the that ‘chloral is the best drug; and if the fits are very frequent,
patient is said to be in Stage 2 (established status epilepticus) and etherisation will help’ (Hughlings Jackson, 1888).
therapy is with intravenous anti-epileptic drugs such as phenytoin, A protocol such as this (albeit with variations) has been recom-
phenobarbital or valproate. If seizures continue despite this mended on numerous occasions in the past three decades
Received May 29, 2011. Revised July 3, 2011. Accepted July 19, 2011. Advance Access publication September 13, 2011
ß The Author (2011). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved.
For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com
Super-refractory status epilepticus Brain 2011: 134; 2802–2818 | 2803

Figure 1 The stages of treatment of status epilepticus. It is universal practice to stage therapy of status epilepticus. A typical protocol is
summarized above. If Stage 1 therapy is ineffective after 30 min, Stage 2 therapy is initiated, and if this is ineffective within 2 h, Stage 3
therapy with general anaesthesia is instituted. Status epilepticus that has either not responded or has recurred 24 h after the initiation of
anaesthetic therapy can be considered to have reached the stage of ‘super-refractory status epilepticus’. IV = intravenous.
(Delgado-Escueta et al., 1984; EFA Working Group, 1993; with the care of patients with super-refractory status epilepticus,
Shorvon, 1994; Appleton et al., 2000; SIGN, 2003; Meierkord or consulted by their intensivist colleagues about how best to
et al., 2006, 2010; Minicucci et al., 2006; Shorvon et al., 2008). proceed in this situation. The treatment of this issue is a terra
In most patients, this treatment regimen is sufficient to control incognita from the point of view of evidence-based medicine,
the seizures. In some though seizures continue or recur. Super- yet a landscape where action is required. This review outlines avail-
refractory status epilepticus is defined as status epilepticus that able approaches for treatment and medical management of patients
continues or recurs 24 h or more after the onset of anaesthetic in what can be a dire clinical predicament.
therapy, including those cases that recur on the reduction or
withdrawal of anaesthesia. It was a term used first in the Third Why does status epilepticus become
London-Innsbruck Colloquium on status epilepticus held in Oxford
on 7–9th April 2011 (Shorvon and Trinka, 2011).
super-refractory?
Super-refractory status epilepticus is not uncommonly encoun- This question is obviously crucial to successful management. It is a
tered in neurointensive care, but its exact frequency is not known. common clinical experience that the more severe the precipitating
In the only prospective study, 22% of all the cases with status insult (for instance, in status epilepticus after trauma infection or
epilepticus (29 of 108 cases) admitted to hospital failed to respond stroke), the more likely is the status epilepticus to become super-
to first and second lines of therapy, and of these, 41% (12 cases) refractory. However, super-refractory status epilepticus also occurs
required coma induction (however, it should be noted that only 47 frequently in previously healthy patients without obvious cause.
of the 108 patients had convulsive status epilepticus and presum- In all these cases, the processes that normally terminate seizures
ably it is mainly in these in whom coma induction was needed). have proved insufficient (for review, see Lado and Moshe, 2008).
Other retrospective studies have shown that 12–43% of the cases At a cellular level, one of the most interesting recent discoveries
with status epilepticus become refractory (Lowenstein and has been the recognition that receptors on the surface of axons
Aldredge, 1993; Mayer et al., 2002; Holtkamp et al., 2005; are in a highly dynamic state, moving onto (externalization), away
Rosetti et al., 2005). In the series of 35 patients of Holtkamp from (internalization) and along the axonal membrane. This ‘receptor
et al. (2005), seven (20%) recurred within 5 days of tapering trafficking’ intensifies during status epilepticus, and the overall effect
the anaesthetic drug and in all other studies at least 50% of is a reduction in the number of functional -aminobutyric acid
those requiring anaesthesia will become super-refractory. From (GABA) receptors in the cells affected in the seizure discharge
these published findings, it can be estimated that 15% of all (Arancibia and Kittler, 2009; Smith and Kittler, 2010). As GABA
the cases with status epilepticus admitted to hospital will is the principle inhibitory transmitter, this reduction in GABAergic
become super-refractory. All neurologists are likely to be involved activity may be an important reason for seizures to become
2804 | Brain 2011: 134; 2802–2818 S. Shorvon and M. Ferlisi
persistent. Furthermore, the number of glutaminergic receptors at usually initiated after a few hours of continuous seizure activity,
the cell surface increases, and the reduction in the density of the and it is because of this that the recommendation is made to
GABA receptors is itself triggered it seems by activation of the initiate anaesthesia after seizures have persisted for 41–2 h. The
glutaminergic receptor systems. Why this should happen is un- processes induced by this cascade, however, may occur rapidly
known, and from the epilepsy point of view is certainly maladap- over minutes or take weeks to take full effect, and these include
tive. This loss of GABAergic receptor density is also the likely mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, release of neurotro-
reason for the increasing ineffectiveness of GABAergic drugs phins and neurohormones, inflammatory reactions, dendritic
(such as benzodiazepines or barbiturates) in controlling seizures remodelling, neuromodulation, immunosuppression and the acti-
as the status epilepticus becomes prolonged (Macdonald and vation of several molecular signalling pathways that mediate pro-
Kapur, 1999). It has also been repeatedly shown that the extra- grammed death (Löscher and Brandt, 2010). In the longer term,
cellular ionic environment, which can change in status epilepticus, structure changes and histological changes include neurogenesis
may be an important factor in perpetuating seizures, and the and angiogenesis (Pitkanen and Lukasiuk, 2009, 2011).

normally inhibitory GABA(A)-mediated currents may become To prevent excitotoxicity, all electrographic activity should be
excitatory with changes in extracellular chloride concentrations suppressed and so anaesthesia is usually recommended to be ad-
(Lamsa and Taira, 2003). ministered at a dose that achieves the level of EEG burst suppres-
Other cellular events might also be important. Mitochondrial sion (a depth of anaesthesia that has usually been found sufficient
failure or insufficiency may be one reason for the failure of seizure to stop EEG epileptic activity; Amzica, 2011). A number of neu-
termination and cellular damage and mitochondrial processes are roprotective strategies have been suggested to prevent the con-
involved in cell necrosis and apoptosis (Cock et al., 2002). Another sequences of the excitotoxicity cascade, and some have been
category of disease triggering persistent status epilepticus is in- incorporated into therapy (for instance, hypothermia, barbiturate,
flammatory disease (Tan et al., 2010), and inflammatory processes steroids and ketamine), although how these influence outcome
may be important in the persistence of status epilepticus. The clinically is not known.
opening of the blood–brain barrier almost certainly plays a major
role in the perpetuation of seizures, due to a variety of possible
mechanisms (Friedman and Dingledine, 2011), and this may be Aims of treatment in super-
especially the case in status epilepticus due to inflammation
(Marchi et al., 2011). This may explain the benefits of steroids
refractory status epilepticus
in the therapy of status epilepticus. Leakage of the blood–brain The primary aim of treatment in the earlier phases of status epi-
barrier will also lead to higher potassium levels and excitation lepticus is to control seizures with the objective of preventing ini-
(David et al., 2009). No genetic mechanism has been identified tial excitotoxicity. In super-refractory status epilepticus, this also
to explain the failure of seizure termination although massive remains an objective but it should be recognized that, after 24 h of
changes in gene expression occur within minutes of the onset of continuous or recurring seizures, the excitotoxic processes causing
status epilepticus. cerebral damage are very likely already to have been initiated—and
At a systems level, it has been suggested rather fascinatingly and to what extent further control of seizures can prevent the damage
counter intuitively that status epilepticus results from a failure to caused by the direct processes of excitotoxicity is unknown.
synchronize seizure activity (Schindler et al., 2007a, b; Walker, A second aim is neuroprotection—an attempt to block the pro-
2011), and that the lack of synchrony somehow prevents seizure gression over time of the secondary processes triggered by initial
termination. excitotoxicity.
These mechanisms influence strategies for therapy. However, A third aim, as the episode of status epilepticus becomes pro-
often overriding is the importance of establishing cause of the longed, is the need to avoid or treat the systemic complications of
status epilepticus, for emergency therapy directed at the cause prolonged unconsciousness and of prolonged anaesthesia.
may be crucial in terminating the episode (for review of the influ- The mortality rate of status epilepticus increases the longer the
ence of aetiology on prognosis, see Neligan and Shorvon, 2011). episode continues (for review, see Neligan and Shorvon, 2011),
with death being due to a range of complications both of the
status epilepticus and also its treatment. These complications in-
Cerebral damage induced by status clude: hypotension, cardiorespiratory collapse and failure, hepatic
epilepticus failure, renal failure, acute hypersensitivity and allergic reactions,
disseminated intravascular coagulation and disorders of bleeding,
The cerebral damage of status epilepticus includes neuronal cell
infection, rhabdomyolysis, ileus and gastrointestinal disturbance
necrosis, gliosis and network reorganization. The classic work by
and intensive treatment unit neuropathy.
Meldrum and colleagues (1973a, b) suggested that the major
initiating process causing cell death was excitotoxicity (as opposed
to anoxia or hypoglycaemia for instance; for review see Meldrum,
1991). The process is driven by massive glutaminergic receptor
The evidence base of treatment
over-activity, which accompanies continuous seizures. This Super-refractory status epilepticus is uncommon but not rare and
causes calcium influx into the cells that triggers a cascade of harm- yet is ill-studied. We carried out a literature search of all papers
ful processes resulting in necrosis or apoptosis. This cascade is reporting therapy in refractory status epilepticus, and we also
searched the reference lists of relevant review articles and book whom an acute structural cause was evident in seven. In one
chapters and identified 159 papers that form the evidence base for case, no cause was discovered. The patients were treated with
therapy (some papers describing several therapies). These covered anaesthesia (usually midazolam or barbiturate) and anti-epileptic
all the therapeutic approaches discussed in this article, and we drugs. All developed complications and six patients died in hos-
have critically reviewed these reports. The articles identified for pital. The median duration of the intensive treatment unit stay was
each treatment are shown in the Supplementary material. 21 days (range 7–97 days). Among the survivors, all were in a
It is salutary to note that there is only one randomized or con- poor functional state on discharge (and some vegetative). Follow-
trolled study of any of these therapies (a trial comparing thiopental up data were sparse but some patients showed significant im-
and midazolam). However, the trial required 150 patients for ad- provement over time. It is against this rather dismal background
equate power and recruited only 24 patients (Rosetti et al., 2011). that treatment strategies should be tested.
Apart from this, the evidence base consists entirely of single case
reports or small series. None of the widely recommended drugs or

treatment approaches has been subjected to any sort of systematic
review (Table 1), despite their adoption worldwide. This is an un-
The treatment of super-
satisfactory state of affairs. refractory status epilepticus
Moreover, where outcome has been reported, it is usually of
seizure control and/or mortality and few have focused on other
aspects of outcome such as cognitive change or continuing epi-
Establishing the cause of the status
lepsy, or the prevention of complications or neuroprotection. epilepticus
The dangers of the condition though are clear from one pub- The greatest influence on the outcome of status epilepticus is the
lished series of outcome in patients with super-refractory status underlying cause (Tan et al., 2010; Nelligan and Shorvon, 2011).
epilepticus. This series was collected retrospectively from an inten- Where possible, the cause of the status epilepticus must therefore
sive treatment unit setting, and patients were included where be identified and treated appropriately. Failure to do so may result
status had continued for 7 days or more (Cooper et al., 2009). in the persistence of the status, worsening complications and a
Fourteen cases were identified, eight of whom had presented with worse overall outcome.
status de novo without a previous history of epilepsy, and in Super-refractory status epilepticus is usually due to a severe
brain insult (e.g. trauma, infection and stroke), and the cause is
Table 1 The evidence base for treatments used in readily apparent from the history and neuroimaging. However,
super-refractory status epilepticus there are also a range of less common causes and a literature
Therapy Published Published review of these identified 188 causes, which in the great majority
cases in cases in of cases could be assigned to one of five categories: immunologic-
controlled or open series al disorders; mitochondrial disorders; uncommon infectious dis-
randomized or as case eases; drugs or toxins; and uncommon genetic diseases (for lists
studies (n) reports
(reports, n)
of these causes, see Tan et al., 2010; Shorvon et al., 2011).
There is a further group of patients in whom no obvious cause is
Pentobarbital/thiopental 9a 377 (32)
found, and who develop status epilepticus de novo and whose
Midazolam 0 661 (29)
Propofol 14a 183 (34)
status epilepticus becomes super-refractory. It has been suggested
Ketamine 0 17 (8) that these cases constitute a ‘syndrome’ (and several different
Inhalational anaesthetics 0 32 (11) acronyms have been applied, such as NORSE (new-onset refrac-
Hypothermia 0 10c (5) tory status epilepticus) or DESC (devastating epileptic encephalop-
Magnesium 0 11 (3) athy in school-aged children). However, we feel that it is irrational
Pyridoxine 0 14 (5) to consider this category to be a ‘syndrome’ simply because the
Steroids/immunotherapy 0 50 (15) cause is unknown, and especially in this situation where causation
Ketogenic diet 0 20 (6)
is likely to be heterogeneous. Some of these cases have an
Transcranial magnetic stimulation 0 0
immunological basis and as knowledge of immunology advances,
Vagal nerve stimulation 0 4 (4)
cases are likely to be assigned to their aetiological categories (the
Deep brain stimulation 0 1b (1)
Resective neurosurgery 0 36 (15) discovery that many cases of what had been considered cryptogenic
CSF drainage 0 1 (1) status epilepticus are due to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibo-
Electroconvulsive therapy 0 8 (6) dies is an example). The NORSE and DESC categories also may have
included some cases now referred to as FIRES (febrile infection-
Published reports are included where the therapy is specifically mentioned,
related epilepsy syndrome), which is a more specific childhood
whether or not that therapy is the main focus of a paper.
a Randomized, single blind trial. Twenty-four patients recruited of the 150 needed, encephalopathy syndrome, likely to be immunologically mediated.
nine treated with barbiturate and 14 with propofol and one recovered before A similar clinical mistake is to assume that such patients have a
treatment (Rossetti et al., 2011).
‘presumed viral encephalitis’, a misattribution sometimes made on
b A case of focal motor status, not tonic–clonic status epilepticus.
c Includes one patient considered to be treated with hypothermia, but in whom the basis of CSF pleocytosis and oligoclonal bands even though no
the body temperature fell only to 36.5 C. viral cause is serologically demonstrated. It seems likely to us that
the status epilepticus in many such patients is in fact due to a Midazolam

non-viral immunologically mediated condition. Midazolam is given by infusion and rapidly enters brain tissue and
exerts a powerful short-duration action and as such is the only
benzodiazepine that has pharmacokinetic properties suitable for
Intensive treatment unit care prolonged infusion without accumulation. Its acts largely by bind-
and monitoring ing to and enhancing the action of the GABA(A) receptor. In 29
published reports, 661 patients have been identified. The main
The status epilepticus is conventionally treated with the full pan-
advantage of its use is its strong anti-epileptic action. Its disad-
oply of intensive treatment unit care, including assisted ventilation
vantages include a purported strong tendency for rapid and acute
and full cardiovascular monitoring. The benzodiazepine and bar-
tolerance to develop (sometimes after only 1 day of use) and thus
biturate anaesthetic drugs invariably cause hypotension and car-
the risk of seizure relapse. Such breakthrough seizures occurred in
diorespiratory depression, which is sometimes severe and limits
47–57% of patients in two studies (Singhi et al., 2002; Morrison

treatment, and pressor agents are usually necessary. Invasive
et al., 2006). There are also risks of hepatic and renal impairment.
blood pressure and haemodynamic monitoring, for instance with
Midazolam is a strong respiratory depressant, and has cardiode-
PiCCOÕ or pulmonary artery catheter has been recently proposed
pressant effects also, but these are generally less marked than
(Schmutzhard, 2011), and invasive EEG recording (Friedman et al.,
those of barbiturate anaesthesia.
2009). In some centres, such aggressive monitoring is performed
routinely, but the extent to which this improves outcome has not
been the subject of evaluation. Propofol
Propofol is a modern and versatile anaesthetic with remarkable
properties. It too probably exerts its main action via modulation
Anaesthetic drugs of the GABA(A) receptor (as do the barbiturates and midazolam).
Its pharmacokinetic properties include very rapid onset and recov-
There is universal agreement that general anaesthesia is required
ery even after prolonged infusion, and this responsiveness allows a
as the backbone of therapy for super-refractory status epilepticus,
much greater control of the level of anaesthesia than is possible
at least in the first weeks. However, there is no agreement about
with thiopental/pentobarbital or midazolam. It is safe to use in
the optimal choice of anaesthetic. The conventional choice is be-
porphyria and has no serious drug–drug interactions. Its pharma-
tween three anaesthetic drugs—thiopental (or pentobarbital,
cology also has been extensively studied, as it is a widely used
which is a main metabolite of thiopental), propofol and midazo-
anaesthetic drug. It can cause hypotension or cardiocirculatory
lam. Each has advantages and drawbacks and there are no con-
depression, although at a lower frequency and severity than that
trolled or randomized comparative data on which to base a choice.
with barbiturate or midazolam. Its main disadvantage in prolonged
anaesthesia is the risk of the propofol infusion syndrome (PRIS),
Thiopental and pentobarbital which is a rare but potentially lethal toxic effect on mitochondrial
Barbiturate anaesthesia, using either thiopental or pentobarbital, is and cellular metabolic function. The clinical features of PRIS in-
the traditional anaesthetic therapy for status epilepticus. The ad- clude metabolic acidosis, lactic acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, hyperka-
vantages are its strong anti-epileptic action, its relative safety and laemia, hyperlipidaemia, bradycardia and cardiac dysfunction, and
long experience of its use, its tendency to lower body temperature renal failure. There is a high morbidity and mortality rate. PRIS,
and its theoretical neuroprotective effects. The barbiturates exert originally reported in children, is more common in those co-
their action mainly by enhancing the action of the GABA(A) re- medicated with corticosteroids or catecholamines, and has a
ceptor, but they may also have added neuroprotective effects and higher frequency in prolonged high-dose infusions that are typic-
do lower core temperature, which may be beneficial in status ally required in status epilepticus. In a study of 31 patients receiv-
epilepticus. Thiopental and pentobarbital, however, have two ing prolonged propofol infusions for status epilepticus from the
main disadvantages. The first relates to their pharmacokinetics. Mayo clinic [medial infusion of 67 h (range 2–391 h) and median
They exhibit zero order kinetics and due to rapid redistribution cumulative dose of 12 850 mg (range 336–57 545 mg; note that
have a profound tendency to accumulation resulting in a long abstract cites different figures from these in the text)], there were
half-life in anaesthesia (Shorvon, 1994) and thus long recovery three sudden unexplained cardiorespiratory arrests, with two
time (Lowenstein et al., 1988). It is not uncommon for anaesthesia deaths and 11 further patients with less severe features of PRIS
to persist for days even after an infusion of only 12 h or so. The (Iyer et al., 2009). This led the authors to recommend removal of
barbiturates are metabolized in the liver, suffer from autoinduction propofol from their treatment protocols (Cooper et al., 2009). On
and also have many drug–drug interactions. The second main the other hand, Power et al. (2011) report a much more positive
disadvantage is the strong propensity of barbiturate anaesthesia experience with propofol infusions for generally shorter periods and
to cause hypotension and cardiorespiratory depression, which can at lower doses. There is one case report of PRIS when the keto-
seriously complicate high-dose infusions and usually requires the genic diet was initiated, and the two therapies should probably not
use of additional pressor agents. Other disadvantages are the ten- be co-administered. Other disadvantages of propofol include pain
dency for pharmacological tolerance to develop, and the risk of at the injection site and the risk of misinterpreting common
pancreatic and hepatic dysfunction and toxicity, especially in the drug-induced involuntary movements as seizures. These involun-
elderly. tary movements can have a myoclonic appearance, or mimic
convulsive seizures. Differentiation from epilepsy can be difficult Anti-epileptic drugs

and is not helped by the EEG, which is often obscured by the
movement artefact. It has been suggested that the propofol- In super-refractory status epilepticus, it is conventional practice to
induced movements are of peripheral origin or due to the lack administer anti-epileptic drugs in tandem with the general anaes-
of cortical inhibition, and a small dose of a non-depolarizing thesia. However, to what extent anti-epileptic drugs actually exert
muscle relaxant such as vecuronium, may help distinguish myo- any useful anti-epileptic influence at this stage is quite unclear,
clonus of peripheral and central origin. The situation is complicated and it seems likely that any such action will be insignificant com-
by the possibility that propofol possibly induces seizures in some pared with the suppressive effects of anaesthesia. However,
patients (Voss et al., 2008). anti-epileptics are important to have in place when the anaesthesia
is reversed to provide adequate anti-epileptic drug cover.
There are no studies at all of the most appropriate or most
Ketamine
effective anti-epileptic or regimen, nor of the general approach

Ketamine is an infusional anaesthetic frequently postulated as an
to therapy in this situation. This is in contrast to the larger number
alternative anaesthetic for status epilepticus in super-refractory
of studies of anti-epileptics in earlier phases of status epilepticus.
cases, although only 17 case reports of its use have in fact been
Almost any anti-epileptic may be used, either through a nasogas-
published, some with few details, some duplicate the same pa-
tric or percutaneous gastric tube or intravenously. Gastric absorp-
tients and others are in abstract only without data about dosage
tion is often erratic in the setting of intensive treatment unit care
or duration. It acts, not by binding to the GABA(A) receptor as do
or if ileus develops, and in this situation, long-term intravenous
the other anaesthetics, but by its antagonistic action at the
therapy has to be used but can cause problems such as phlebitis,
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. It has two major theoretical
infection or thrombosis at the injection site.
advantages over the conventional anaesthetics. First, it has no car-
The drugs most commonly reported include carbamazepine,
diac depressant properties and does not cause hypotension. In fact, it
lacosamide, levetiracetam, phenobarbital, phenytoin, topiramate
has a positive sympathomimetic action, and has the contrary risk of
and valproate, but there is no real evidence that any one of
drug-induced hypertension although in super-refractory status epi-
these is reliably more or less effective than any other. The assess-
lepticus this is rarely a consideration. Secondly, it is potentially
ment of any study is complicated by the large number of
neuroprotective, because of its strong N-methyl-D-aspartate an-
co-medications used, the tendency for the status to improve spon-
tagonist action, although as pointed out above, by the time it is
taneously, the lack of controlled data and the fact that drug
employed, glutaminergic damage may already have been incurred.
effects can be slow to become apparent. For example, in a
Its effectiveness experimentally was demonstrated by Borris et al.
study of topiramate used in six cases (Towne et al., 2003),
(2000). There are few published data on the theoretical risk of
improvement was attributed to the drug but occurred in some
neurotoxic effects when the drug is used for prolonged periods,
patients days after therapy was initiated. In practice, patients
and its safety in prolonged use is largely untested. One case report
often end up taking numerous drugs together (five anti-epileptics
has been published of the late development of cerebral atrophy,
would not be unusual) with frequent rapid switches, both of which
which was interpreted as possibly due to the excitotoxic damage
practices would be deprecated in conventional anti-epileptic drug
caused by the drug (Ubogu et al., 2003). Nevertheless, ketamine
therapy. Our recommendations for the use of anti-epileptic drugs
remains an important theoretical option in super-refractory status
in status epilepticus are outlined in the last section of this review.
epilepticus where other anaesthetics are not suppressing seizures
or are causing serious cardiac depression or circulatory
compromise. Magnesium infusion
Intravenous magnesium sulphate has a unique place in the treat-
Inhalational halogenated anaesthetics ment of seizures. In a large well-conducted randomized controlled
Isoflurane and desflurane are the subject of 11 reports. However, study, magnesium was shown to be the drug of choice in con-
long-term use of these drugs presents serious hazards and logis- trolling seizures in eclampsia (Anon, 1995) and superior to pheny-
tical difficulties in an intensive treatment unit setting, and is asso- toin in this role. It is lifesaving too in the very rare congenital
ciated with a high complication rate. In the largest case series, magnesium deficiencies, and in status due to acquired hypomag-
isoflurane and desflurane were used in seven patients, six of nesaemia. It was also frequently used to control status epilepticus
whom had not responded to previous therapy with midazolam, in porphyria (especially acute intermittent porphyria). There is a
propofol and pentobarbital. Anaesthesia was maintained for a body of experimental evidence demonstrating its anti-epileptic
mean (range) of 11 (2–26) days (Mirsattari et al., 2004). Four action (Nowak et al., 1984), and its effect in blockading the
patients had good outcomes but three patients died, one of acute N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor may be the basis of this action.
haemorrhagic leucoencephalitis, one of bowel infarction and one However, other work has not supported an anti-epileptic effect
remained in a persistent vegetative state until death 5.5 months (Link et al., 1991).
after the onset of seizures. Complications included hypotension The first report of its use in status epilepticus was in 1901
(7/7), atelectasis (7/7), infections (5/7), paralytic ileus (3/7) and (Shorvon, 1994) and since then the published literature (excluding
deep venous thrombosis (2/7) (Mirsattari et al., 2004). The com- eclampsia and hypomagnesaemia) comprises few case reports.
plications, risks and logistical difficulties are so great that the use Storcheim (1933) published eight cases of status epilepticus (as
of these drugs, in our opinion, should not generally be pursued. it was put ‘one of the gravest symptom pictures encountered by
physicians’) all of whom recovered. Fisher et al. (1988) reported against neural elements. The first antibodies identified were against
the first modern case, in which magnesium was infused to levels the voltage-gated potassium channels. Then antibodies against the
as high as 14.2 mEq/l in a case of severe myoclonic status epi- N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor were discovered, which were found
lepticus without seizure control, although the EEG patterns were to be a common finding in previously cryptogenic status epilepti-
changed. Recently, Visser et al. (2011) reported effect in POLG1 cus. The second development has been the increasing evidence
deficiency and suggested a particular benefit in mitochondrial that inflammation plays an important role in epileptogenesis, and
disease. In spite of this lack of evidence, and perhaps because especially the activation of specific inflammatory signalling path-
of its undoubted success in eclampsia, there has been in recent ways such as the interleukin-1 receptor/toll-like receptor (IL-1R/
times a fashion for infusing magnesium sulphate in cases of super- TLR) pathway, both experimentally and in human tissue (Vezzani
refractory status epilepticus. In the authors’ experience, magnesium et al., 2009; Maroso et al., 2010; Vezzani and Ruegg, 2011;
has never convincingly been shown to control adult super- Zurolo et al., 2011).
refractory status epilepticus, but the infusion is safe and without These discoveries have led to the widespread use of immuno-

significant side-effects. therapy with steroids, intravenous immunoglobulins or plasma ex-
change in patients with super-refractory status epilepticus, even in
the absence of any evident immunological cause for the status
Pyridoxine epilepticus. The rational is that many cryptogenic cases might be
Status epilepticus can be the presenting feature in patients with an due to occult immunological diseases with antibodies that have yet
inborn error of metabolism of pyridoxine (due to mutations in the to be identified, or that the persistence of the status epilepticus is
ALDH7A gene; Mills et al., 2006) and in these patients, intraven- in part at least due to immunological processes. Steroids may have
ous pyridoxine therapy is curative, and lifelong supplementation is additional non-immunological effects, including the reversal of
then required. However, pyridoxine-responsive super-refractory blood–brain barrier opening, which is a crucial influence on the
status epilepticus has also been described in 14 patients, in five persistence of seizure activity and which may reverse GABAergic
reports, who needed only the immediate replacement of pyridox- inhibition (see above), and also effects on intracranial pressure.
ine without long-term supplementation and in whom the genetic Fifty cases of the use of immunotherapy in the absence of any
test was either negative or not done. Although this therapy will be defined immunological disease have been published in 15 separate
effective in only a small number of cases, it is now commonly reports (excluding duplications), which include: 38 patients given
recommended that pyridoxine is given routinely in cases of steroids, 24 cases given intravenous immunglobulins and 7 with
super-refractory status epilepticus in young children, and this is plasma exchange.
reasonable as the infusion is without significant side-effects.
It is not known how often this will be beneficial, or whether it
is indicated, in adult patients although cases of acquired pyridox-
Ketogenic diet
ine deficiency have been reported, for instance, in status epilepti- The ketogenic diet was introduced in epilepsy in the 1920 s, and is
cus in pregnancy. Another resistant form of epilepsy has been still used principally in the severe childhood encephalopathies.
described recently, which did not respond to pyridoxine treatment, Emergency use of a ketogenic diet has also been reported in 20
but responded to pyridoxal phosphate. This has been labelled as cases of status epilepticus (some non-convulsive), most of whom
pyridoxal phosphate-dependent neonatal epileptic encephalopathy have been children. The first series of cases published was of six
(Bagci et al., 2008). children with super-refractory status epilepticus who responded to
the diet (François et al., 2003); Nabbout et al. (2010) also report
the successful use of the diet in nine cases of super-refractory
Steroids and immunotherapy status epilepticus in the context of FIRES. Four adults with pro-
Corticosteroids (and adrenocorticotropic hormone) have for many longed status epilepticus are reported (Bodenant et al., 2008;
years been given in super-refractory status epilepticus, although Wusthof et al., 2010; Cervenka et al., 2011), in one of whom
often without clear guidelines about dose or duration of therapy, the diet was administered on the 101st day of hospitalization with
and without any sort of evaluation of effectiveness. The rationale complete seizure resolution within a day of consistent ketosis. In
was weak, sometimes on the analogy of their use in severe child- one case (Cervenka et al., 2011), the status epilepticus, which had
hood epilepsy (Verhelst et al., 2005), sometimes on the assump- been refractory to intensive medical and resective surgical treat-
tion that there may be a cerebral oedema and in some cases a ment, ceased after induction of the diet which was then switched
vasculitic cause. Intravenous immunoglobulins were also occasion- after 29 days and continued as a modified Atkins diet. Kumada
ally used in refractory epilepsy—the first reports were by Péchadre et al. (2010) also report one case treated successfully with the
et al. (1977) and Arrizumi et al. (1983) and a double-blind clinical modified Atkins diet alone. It has been suggested that as well as
trial was carried out by van Rijckevorsel-Harmant et al. in 1994. having a well-established anti-epileptic effect, the effectiveness of
The rationale for the trial was that ‘immunological and immuno- the ketogenic diet in super-refractory status epilepticus may be
genetic abnormalities are found frequently in epilepsy’. due to a possible anti-inflammatory action, although conclusive
Two interesting developments in recent years have encouraged experimental evidence of any such action is absent. The cases
a re-awakening of interest in the potential for steroids and im- reported convincingly show an effect, and the diet should prob-
munotherapy. The first has been the recognition that super- ably be tried in all severe cases of super-refractory status
refractory status epilepticus may be due to antibodies directed epilepticus.
Hypothermia partialis continua, in which general anaesthesia was not required).

The most common surgical procedure was focal resection in cases
Hypothermia has been shown to exert anti-epileptic action and to of malformation of cortical development. Corpus callosotomy is
be neuroprotective in experimental status epilepticus (Liu et al., usually considered ‘palliative’ rather than curative, but one patient
1993; Lundgren et al., 1994; Takei et al., 2004; Schmitt et al., is described with no residual seizures after 2 years of follow-up
2006; Hrncic et al., 2007), and to reduce brain oedema in status (Ma et al., 2001). Multiple subpial transaction has been described
epilepticus and effects of status epilepticus on learning (Wang in five patients (D’Giano et al., 2001; Ng et al., 2006; Schrader
et al., 2010). In the pilocarpine model of status epilepticus in ju- et al., 2009) in combination with lesion resection in four.
venile rats, mild hypothermia reduced both seizure activity and the Investigations include EEG, MRI, PET and single-photon emission
number of apoptotic cells in the hippocampus (Yu et al., 2011). computed tomography, and many patients underwent intraopera-
In human refractory epilepsy, the first report was of 21 handi- tive electrocorticography in order to delineate the ictal-onset zone.
capped patients with severe epilepsy treated with extravascular Surgery has been carried out as early as 8 days after the onset of

hypothermia, local brain cooling at open operation and thio- status epilepticus (Ng et al., 2006) but generally considered only
penthal (Sourek and Trávnı́cek, 1970). The successful use of after weeks of status epilepticus. Whether surgical therapy should
hypothermia for status epilepticus, with thiopental anaesthesia, be carried out earlier is unclear, but some authors have suggested
was first reported in three children with generalized status epilep- that emergency surgery should be considered after a 2 week period
ticus (Orlowski et al., 1984). In this report, moderate hypothermia of failed medical treatment (Lhatoo and Alexopoulos, 2007).
(30–31 C) was induced by barbiturate anaesthesia and continued However, in status epilepticus, there are often widespread epilepto-
for 48–120 h resulting in the cessation of status epilepticus, genic areas and the outcome after emergency surgery can be poor.
although whether this was due to the barbiturate or hypothermia
is not clear. Initially, this therapy seemed not to be taken up, but
there has been a recent resurgence of interest in parallel with the
Electrical and magnetic stimulation
growing experience of the use of hypothermia in other intensive therapies
treatment unit situations. In some centres, a trial of hypothermia is There has been a long-standing interest in cerebral stimulation as
now routinely applied in super-refractory status epilepticus. There therapy. It is postulated that these can alter the synchronization of
are theoretical reasons for recommending hypothermia. It reduces epileptic discharges, increase the refractory period of neuronal dis-
the cerebral metabolic rate, oxygen utilization, ATP consumption, charge or alter membrane or neurotransmitter function. Several
glutaminergic drive, mitochondrial dysfunction, calcium overload, modalities have been discussed.
free radical production and oxidative stress, permeability of the
blood–brain barrier and pro-inflammatory reactions. Hypothermia Transcranial magnetic stimulation
is also now commonly used routinely in post-anoxic coma (for This form of brain stimulation has generally had dismal results in
instance after cardiac arrest), with or without any evidence of epilepsy, although recent promising reports of use in epilepsia part-
seizures. However, in post-anoxic coma, the presence of myoclonic ialis continua have been published (Misawa et al., 2005; Morales
status epilepticus is a very poor prognostic sign with few patients et al., 2005; Schrader et al., 2005; Rotenberg et al., 2009). It has
surviving (Rossetti et al., 2007; Fugate et al., 2010) and to what not been used in super-refractory status epilepticus, and because
extent, if any, aggressive therapy confers any benefit is not known. of the drug-induced cortical inexcitability, it is doubtful whether it
The evidence base in super-refractory status epilepticus amounts could have any significant effect.
to only 10 case reports. The most detailed study is by Corry et al.
(2008) who reported four patients with refractory tonic–clonic Vagal nerve stimulation
status epilepticus in whom hypothermia to 31–35 C was achieved There are four published cases reporting benefit from the implant-
for 20–61 h using endovascular cooling. Even mild hypothermia is ation of vagal nerve stimulation in the treatment of status epilep-
not without its risks, and these include acid–base and electrolyte ticus, in children (Winston et al., 2001; de Herdt et al., 2009 in a
disturbances, disseminated intravascular coagulation, coagulation non-convulsive case) and in adults (Patwardhan et al., 2008;
disorders, thrombosis, infection, cardiac arrhythmia, bowel ischae- O’Neil et al., 2011). In all these cases, there was extensive add-
mia and paralytic ileus (Corry et al., 2008). itional therapy complicating the assessment of the effect and
delayed response of the vagal nerve stimulation.
Emergency neurosurgery Deep brain stimulation

In selected situations, mainly where there is a clearly definable Deep brain stimulation in epilepsy has a history going back to at
radiological lesion and/or electrophysiological evidence of a focal least the 1940s. There is evidence that stimulation of anterior and
onset, emergency surgical resection has been used as a ‘last-resort’ centromedian nuclei of the thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, stri-
treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus. The published evi- atum, globus pallidus and cerebellum can influence seizures
dence base consists of 36 patients reported in 15 small series and (Chabardes et al., 2002). Furthermore, there is unequivocal evi-
case reports, and the operations carried out include focal cortical dence that stimulation of the anterior thalamic nucleus can inhibit
resection, lobar and multi-lobar resection, anatomic and functional experimental status epilepticus (in the pilocarpine rat model,
hemispherectomy, corpus callosotomy and multiple subpial trans- Hamani et al., 2008). Its use is frequently postulated in
action (excluding patients with status gelasticus and epilepsia super-refractory status epilepticus, but we are unable to find any
published cases describing its use in super-refractory tonic–clonic view. It is not clear why CSF drainage has any effect on seizure
status epilepticus, although there is one report of its successful use activity, but this could be due to the removal of inflammatory or
in focal motor status epilepticus in Rasmussen encephalitis other noxious substances, a reflex autonomic effect or an effect
(Franzini et al., 2008). on intracerebal pressure.
Electroconvulsive therapy
Other drugs used
This is the form of cerebral stimulation that has been most studied
in status epilepticus. Electroconvulsive therapy was first used in A number of older drugs are still occasionally used in status epi-
epilepsy in the 1930s (Allen, 1938; Caplan, 1945). Its anti-epileptic lepticus. In the earlier years of the century, chloral and bromide
effects were then well established due, it is suggested, to the were universally recommended, and are still rarely used.
increased presynaptic release of GABA and prolongation of the re- Paraldehyde given by continuous intravenous infusion was
fractory period after a seizure (Sackheim et al., 1983; Sanacora described by Whitty and Taylor (1940) in 26 adults from a military

et al., 2003). Case reports of its use in super-refractory status hospital in World War II, and was still being used routinely in
epilepticus in eight patients have been published in the past two Oxford for super-refractory status epilepticus when one of the
decades. Fink et al. (1999) recommend that electroconvulsive authors (S.D.S.) was training there in the 1970s, and could be
therapy is given in advance of general anaesthesia, although this highly effective (early case reports were by: Weschler, 1940;
suggestion has not been taken up. To cause a formed convulsion, McGreal, 1958; de Elio et al., 1949). In the 1980s and 1990s,
electroconvulsive therapy has to be given when the anaesthetic is there was interest in the use of etomidate as an anaesthetic in
reversed and the anti-convulsant drugs discontinued, as the an- status epilepticus, with nine patients reported (Opitz et al., 1983;
aesthetics and anti-epileptic drugs massively reduce cortical excit- Yeoman et al., 1989; Kofke et al., 1997) but this is now seldom
ability. An illustrative case is that described by Lisanby et al. considered. Lignocaine is mostly used in early status although
(2001). Prior to electroconvulsive therapy, the patient was on occasionally also as an anaesthetic in super-refractory cases by
phenobarbital, phenytoin, vigabatrin, midazolam and nitrazepam. continuous infusion. It should be noted also that phenobarbital
Flumanezil was given to reverse the benzodiazepine and electro- in high dosage has also been used in the past as an anaesthetic,
convulsive therapy given. No seizure was induced despite double especially in children, but thiopental and pentobarbital have largely
electroconvulsive therapy at high currents on the first 2 days, then replaced this. A range of other barbiturate and benzodiazepines
the phenobarbital and phenytoin were withdrawn and on the third such as bromethol, hexobarbital, methohexital, butallylonal,
session a seizure was induced and further seizures in the next two secobarbital, amylobarbital, diethylamine barbiturate, nitrazepam,
sessions, with further drug reduction. Some of the cases described clorazepate and clonazepam have all be used in prolonged
were in non-convulsive status epilepticus (Griesemer et al., 1997; infusion in status epilepticus (for review, see Shorvon, 1994).
Shin et al., 2011). Furthermore, it is well known that non-
convulsive status epilepticus is often spontaneously terminated
by a convulsion (Shorvon and Walker, 2005). A feature of all
Conclusion
these cases was the multiple drug therapy, the rapid weaning of Super-refractory status epilepticus is a serious condition. The mor-
some anti-epileptics and anaesthetic agents to prepare the patients tality rate is substantial, reported in various series between 30 and
for electroconvulsive therapy, the need for repeated sessions of 50%. Yet, despite the fact that it remains an important clinical
electroconvulsive therapy and the slow recovery with a time problem in all neurology centres worldwide, for many therapies,
course sometimes difficult to attribute to the electroconvulsive and treatment approaches, there is a remarkable lack of published
therapy per se. Furthermore, the functional outcome in the pub- data concerning effectiveness, safety or outcome. Treatment
lished cases has been often poor. It is recommended by several protocols, therefore, are needed and in Fig. 2, a general approach
authors that electroconvulsive therapy should be given daily for a to treatment is proposed, based on the clinical experience and the
5–8 day course. The current settings may need to be high. published literature. Doses and parameters of treatment are shown
in Tables 2 and 3.
Cerebrospinal fluid drainage
This therapy was first reported in the late 19th century and con- Recommended treatment
tinued to be used at least for the first half of the 20th century.
Repeated drainage was considered ‘serviceable’ by Kinnier Wilson protocol for super-refractory
in 1940, sometimes with the intrathecal instillation of bromide. A
single recent case has been published of CSF-air exchange in a
status epilepticus
patient with super-refractory status epilepticus, with immediate
resolution of the status epilepticus although this recurred a week In all cases of super-refractory
later and did not respond to a second drainage (Kohrmann et al., status epilepticus
2006). Whether this therapy should be considered today is un-
clear, but the response in this recent published case was impres- Identify and treat cause
sive, and the potential for the co-administration of intrathecal All efforts should be made to identify the cause and to treat this
anti-epileptic drugs is something worth reconsideration in our where possible. Successful therapy will often terminate the status

Figure 2 Flowchart for the treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus. The flowchart is proposed as the basis of a protocol for the
treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus (SE). The order and choice of therapy proposed will depend on the clinical context and the
local facilities. ECT = electroconvulsive therapy; ITU = intensive treatment unit; IV = intravenous; PEX = plasma exchange.
epilepticus. A detailed history should be obtained (including family suppression levels of anaesthesia will control seizures effectively,
history) and the investigations required depend on the context, there is a significant risk of hypotension and other complications.
and often will include MRI, EEG, CSF examination, metabolic As a compromise, it is now common practice to aim for burst sup-
and drug screen, toxicological and auto-immune screen. pression initially and then in prolonged episodes to lighter the level
of anaesthesia. Recommended doses are given in Table 3.
General anaesthesia
Cycling and duration of anaesthetic cycles
Choice of anaesthetic It is usual practice to reverse anaesthesia initially every 24–48 h,
One of the three conventional anaesthetic agents should be given and if seizures recur, then to re-establish it. Over time, the dur-
initially with choice depending on individual circumstance and ation of individual cycles is increased, and after a few weeks, an-
preference. However, propofol infusions should only be continued aesthesia is often continued for 5 days before attempts to reverse
for 448 h where the benefits exceed the risks of PRIS and where it are made.
careful monitoring to avoid this is in place. Ketamine should be
considered where other anaesthetics are failing or where Speed of weaning of anaesthetics
drug-induced hypotension becomes a crucial problem. The speed at which anaesthetic weaning should be done is also not
clear, but studies in which rapid weaning occurs show high rates of
Level of anaesthesia
recurrence and the possibility of rebound seizures. For this reason, it
It is usual to continue anaesthesia to a level of burst suppression.
seems reasonable to wean slowly over days (see Table 3 for rates).
At this level, all electrographic seizure activity is usually termi-
nated. Lighter anaesthesia may sometimes also suppress activity, Duration of anaesthesia
and whether burst suppression is needed in all cases is not clear, How long anaesthesia should be continued has not been the sub-
and what little evidence there is, is conflicting (Krishnamoorthy ject of study. It remains possible that in very prolonged status
et al., 1999; Rossetti et al., 2005; Amzica, 2011). While burst epilepticus, the risks of anaesthesia exceed those of the status
2812
Table 2 Anaesthetic therapies
Treatment Dose recommended Range of doses used (from the literature review) Main advantages Main
disadvantages
Children Adult Children Adult
Thiopental/ Bolus: 5 mg/kg Bolus: 2–3 mg/kg Bolus: 4–5 mg/kg Bolus: 1–19 mg/kg Strong anti-epileptic Zero order
pentobarbital Infusion: 5 mg/kg/h Infusion: 3–5 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.5–12 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.5–20 mg/kg/h action, potential pharmacokinetics,
neuroprotective action, strong tendency
reduces intracranial to accumulate
pressure, long and thus
experience of its use prolonged
recovery phase,
| Brain 2011: 134; 2802–2818
acute tolerance,
cardiorespiratory
depression,
hypotension,
drug inter-
actions, toxicity
Midazolam Bolus: 0.1–0.2 mg/kg Bolus: 0.2 mg/kg Bolus: 0.06–0.6 mg/kg Bolus: 0.03–0.5 mg/kg Strong anti-epileptic Tendency for
Infusion: 0.05–0.23 mg/kg/ha Infusion: 0.1–0.4 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.036–1.2 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.02–1.2 mg/kg/h action, less tendency acute tolerance
to accumulate than to develop
barbiturate or other resulting in
benzodiazepines breakthrough
seizures,
hypotension and
cardiorespiratory
depression,
hepatic
metabolism
Propofol Bolus: 1–2 mg/kg Bolus: 3–5 mg/kg Bolus: 1–3 mg/kg Bolus: 1–3 mg/kg Excellent pharmacokinetics, PRIS, pain at the
Infusion: 1–7 mg/kg/h Infusion: 5–10 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.6–26.94 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.1–24 mg/kg/h ease of use. responsive injection side,
anaesthetic agent, involuntary
pharmacology movements, no
extensively studied intrinsic
anti-epileptic
action
Ketamine NK Bolus: 0.5–4.5 mg/kg NK Bolus: 0.5–3 mg/kg Lack of cardiorespiratory Potential for
Infusion: up to 5 mg/kg/h Infusion: 0.3–7.5 mg/kg/h depression and drug- neurotoxicity,
induced hypotension. hypertension
N-methyl-D-aspartate
blockade and
therefore potential
neuroprotective action
a = the rate of 2 mg/kg/h (children) is recommended by Abend & Dlugos 2008.

NK = not known.
S. Shorvon and M. Ferlisi

Table 3 Non-anaesthetic therapies
Treatment Dose recommendeda/ Range of doses Major adverse effects Contraindications

physical parameter used (from the
literature review)
Magnesium Infusion to increase serum Bolus: 4 g High dose: hypotension, Kidney failure
level to 3.5 mmol/lb Infusion: 2–6 g/h arrhythmia, neuromuscular
block
Pyridoxine 30 mg/kg (children) 2–300 mg/day Bradycardia, hypothermia, Hypersensitivity
100–200 mg/day (adults) apnoea, sensory
neuropathy
Hypothermia 32–35 C (for 548 h) by 30–36 C Coagulation disorders, Coagulopathy. Caution in
endovascular cooling venous thrombosis, immunodepression.
hypotension, shivering,

acid–base and electrolyte
disturbances, infections,
cardiac arrhythmia, ileus,
bowel ischaemia
VNS Up to 1.25 mA 0.25–1.75 mA Bradycardia, asystole, History of previous neck
coughing, hoarseness, surgery or prior cervical
Horner’s syndrome vagotomy
Ketogenic diet 4:1 ketogenic ratio 1:1 to 4:1 ketogenic Constipation, acidosis, Pyruvate carboxylase and
(see text) ratio hypoglycaemia, b-oxidation deficiencies,
hypercholesterolaemia. propofol anaesthesia,
porphyria.
Electroconvulsive Daily sessions for 3–8 days 3 daily sessions—6 Intracranial pressure Brain space-occupying
therapy sessions over increases, cardiac lesions, recent history of
2 weeks arrhythmias, hypo/ myocardial infarction,
hypertension cerebral vascular disease.
Steroids Prednisolone 1 g/day Various Gastrointestinal ulceration, Infection, severe hyperten-
intravenous for 3 days Cushingoid syndrome, sion or diabetes mellitus
followed by 1 mg/kg/day fluid and sodium
(see text) retention, psychiatric
disturbance
Immunoglobulins Intravenous immunoglobulins Various Coagulation disorders, Coagulopathy, selective
0.4 g/kg/day for 5 days hypertension deficiency of IgA
(see text)
a Recommended on the basis of experience and/or the literature review.

b The regimen recommended by Visser et al., 2011.
VNS =vagal nerve stimulation; IgA = immunoglobulin A.
epilepticus and withdrawal of anaesthesia for longer periods may prolonged propofol infusions are undertaken, very careful moni-
be beneficial. Certainly, occasionally seizures that are reactivated toring for the signs of PRIS is required.
on anaesthetic withdrawal then subside spontaneously.
Nevertheless, it is conventional practice currently to continue an- Anti-epileptic drug therapy
aesthesia (with withdrawal and restitution cycles as above). High doses of two or three anti-epileptic drugs should be initiated
via a nasogastric or other feeding tube, and these should be
continued throughout the course of the status epilepticus. In the
Intensive treatment unit monitoring complete absence of any comparative study, advice about an ap-
Conventional intensive treatment unit care and careful monitoring propriate treatment strategy must be arbitrary and subjective.
should be employed in all patients. Meticulous attention must be However, a few general points seem appropriate to suggest:
paid to haemodynamic parameters, fluid balance, anti-thrombotic
Drug regimes
therapy and skin care. Also, particularly as the anaesthetics can be
Polytherapy with no more than two anti-epileptics in high doses
immunosuppressive, monitoring for and therapy of nosocomial in-
seems on general principles to be most appropriate. There is no
fection becomes increasingly important as the status epilepticus
evidence of overall benefit from more complex combinations, and
becomes more prolonged. The other complications of prolonged
morbidity will rise with more extensive drug regimens.
anaesthesia (listed above) need to be identified and treated
(Schmutzhard, 2011). EEG should be carried out at least once a Changing drug regimens
day. In very prolonged status epilepticus, intensive and sometimes Frequent changes in the anti-epileptic drug regimen should
invasive intensive treatment unit and EEG monitoring should be be avoided, as rapid withdrawal of anti-epileptics can lead to re-
considered (Friedman et al., 2009; Schmutzhard, 2011), but this bound seizures, exacerbate side-effects, risk allergic reactions and
will depend on the clinical context and the facilities available. If also cause pharmacokinetic changes. In very prolonged status
epilepticus, changing anti-epileptics may be tried, but the with- resolution within 2 days, either intravenous immunglobulins or
drawal process should be slow, carried out over weeks. (less commonly) plasma exchange can be added. There are no
data on optimal therapy, but it is important to have a protocol.
Choice of drug
In the author’s practice, this is usually initiated with high-dose
This will depend on the clinical context. In general, the most
prednisolone at a dose of 1 g of intravenous prednisolone per
powerful and effective drugs should be chosen but avoiding drugs
day for 3 days followed by 1 mg/kg/day in four divided doses.
with a primarily GABAergic mechanism of action, not least be-
This is followed by one or two courses of intravenous immuno-
cause there is evidence of loss of efficacy as status epilepticus
globulins at a dose of 0.4 g/kg over 5 days, or plasma exchange. If
becomes more prolonged and because the anaesthetic drugs
there is a response, treatment is continued with long-term ster-
themselves have much more powerful GABAergic effects. It
oids, intravenous immunoglobulins and later, other immunomodu-
would seem also sensible to use drugs that have low interaction
latory agents such as cyclophosphamide or rituximab. It seems
potential and predictable kinetics, and to avoid drugs with strong
reasonable to give such a regime to all patients in whom there

allergenic potential and potential renal or hepatic toxicity.
is no cause identified for the super-refractory status epilepticus,
unless there are specific contraindications (diabetes for instance).
Magnesium sulphate infusion
There is experimental evidence to suggest that steroids should be
Although little evidence of benefit is available, intravenous mag-
given early, practically speaking within the first week of
nesium has no significant toxicity or drawbacks and there is some
super-refractory status epilepticus.
evidence of experimental benefit. Therefore, it seems reasonable
to recommend its use in all cases of super-refractory status epi-
lepticus. The regime suggested by Visser et al. (2011) is with an
In cases where the status epilepticus
initial intravenous bolus and then infusion at a dose that increases continues despite the above measures
the serum level to 3.5 mmol/l.
If the status epilepticus continues despite the above measures,
there are a number of other approaches. First, consideration can
Pyridoxine infusion
be given to a trial of the ketogenic diet and/or of mild hypother-
In rare cases of status epilepticus in young children, pyridoxine
mia. Which measure should be tried first depends on the clinical
deficiency will be present and a pyridoxine infusion will be cura-
context and facilities available. Whether either therapy has specific
tive. It remains unclear whether pyridoxine is useful in cases where
indications is not clear. The ketogenic diet has been most investi-
there is no genetic (or acquired) deficiency, but the practice has
gated in the severe encephalopathies of childhood, but adults re-
grown up of giving pyridoxine in all cases of severe cryptogenic
sponding to the diet have been reported. Similarly, hypothermia
status epilepticus in young children. Pyridoxine has no toxicity or
has been studied most in the ischaemic–anoxic encephalopathies
drawbacks, and this therefore seems a reasonable practice. There
and in lesional epilepsy, and how effective it is, more generally, is
are reported a few cases of successful treatment of status epilep-
again, not known.
ticus in adults also, but how useful routine administration of pyri-
doxine would be is unclear. The doses recommended in the Ketogenic diet
literature have varied between 2 and 300 mg/day (Haenggeli The ketogenic diet is easy to administer through a gastrostomy
et al., 1991). tube or via parenteral feeding, because soluble preparations are
available (Ketocal). A 4:1 ketogenic diet is recommended, with the
In cases where a lesional cause of total avoidance of glucose initially. After 24 h fasting, the diet is
initiated, blood sugar should be measured every 3 h for the first 3
the status epilepticus is identified days and then every 6 h, and glucose given if blood sugar falls
Resective neurosurgery and/or multiple subpial below 52.5 mmol/l. Once ketosis is obtained, urinary ketosis
transection should be measured daily and serum b-hydroxybutyrate weekly.
Resective neurosurgery (or multiple subpial transection, with or Care is required on a number of fronts. The use of the diet is
absolutely contraindicated in those rare cases in which pyruvate
without resection) can be considered early where lesions are
carboxylase and b-oxidation deficiencies are the cause of the
found that are causing the status epilepticus. The outcome after
status epilepticus. The administration of glucose needs to be se-
surgery in some cases is poor, even where intensive investigation
verely restricted (for instance in intravenous fluids). Total fluid
has shown a focal onset to the seizures and where that focus has
intake should be closely monitored. It has been suggested that if
been resected, but good outcome has been reported sufficiently
a metabolic acidosis develops, treatment should be given to main-
often to consider this a treatment option.
tain serum bicarbonate levels 418–20 mEq/l (Wheless, 2010). It is
possible that concomitant steroid administration inhibits ketosis
In cases where the cause is not (Nabbout et al., 2010), and a case has been reported of fatal
identified PRIS associated with the initiation of a ketogenic diet in a
10-year old with refractory status epilepticus (Baumeister et al.,
Steroids and immunotherapy 2004). As propofol can impair fatty acid oxidation, the ketogenic
If no underlying cause for the status epilepticus can be identified, diet should probably not be used concomitantly with propofol
a trial of high-dose steroids can be given, and then if there is no anaesthesia.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is usually induced by endovascular cooling. Rossetti
Acknowledgements
(2010) has recommended that only mild hypothermia (32–35 C) is This article is partly based on a presentation by S.D.S. at the 3rd
given, that barbiturate anaesthetics should be avoided and that London-Innsbruck Colloquium on status epilepticus.
the hypothermia is carried on for 24–48 h only as a trial of ther-
apy. If there is a response, the hypothermia can be continued.
Cardiovascular and coagulation parameters, biochemistry and Funding
acid–base balance, serum lactate and physical examination
This work was undertaken at University College Hospitals London/
(to avoid venous thrombosis) must be monitored carefully.
University College London and received a proportion of funding
It is important to note too that the clearance of anaesthetics
from the Department of Health’s NIHR Biomedical Research
and anti-epileptics used in co-medication may be significantly Centres funding scheme.
reduced by hypothermia (Tortorici et al., 2007; Hostler et al.,

2010).
Supplementary material
Other measures Supplementary material is available at Brain online.
If the above measures fail in prolonged status epilepticus, it may
be worth attempting electroconvulsive therapy, other forms of
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doi:10.

1093/brain/awr215 Brain 2011: 134; 2802–2818 | 2802

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Correspondence to: Professor Simon Shorvon,

Keywords: status epilepticus; treatment; refractory; super-refractory

Introduction treatment for up to 2 h, the patient is said to be in Stage 3 (re-

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the status epilepticus in many such patients is in fact due to a Midazolam

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convulsive seizures. Differentiation from epilepsy can be difficult Anti-epileptic drugs

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Hypothermia partialis continua, in which general anaesthesia was not required).

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Emergency neurosurgery Deep brain stimulation

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Table 2 Anaesthetic therapies

a = the rate of 2 mg/kg/h (children) is recommended by Abend & Dlugos 2008.

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Table 3 Non-anaesthetic therapies

Treatment Dose recommendeda/ Range of doses Major adverse effects Contraindications

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a Recommended on the basis of experience and/or the literature review.

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