INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHAT ARE STEEL STRUCTURES?

which come under the realm of

Structures earmarks of our civilization. The various structures
are
roads and railway lines and to name a few.
civil engineering are buildings, bridges, dams, towers,
or industrial purposes. The bridges may
The buildings may be for residential, ofice, commercial
be for highways (roads) and railway 1lines. Dams and other hydraulic structures are to manage
water and its flow. Towers used for various purposes such as power transmission, radar and
are
towers for cell network. The various structures
TV broadcast, telephone relay towers and nodal
such as concrete, steel,
mentioned here and some more are constructed with variety of materials
a

masonry, timber, cast iron

and plastics and to name a few. This textbook mainly deals with the
structures constructed using structural steel
such as steel buildings, steel bridges and steel towers.
have been constructed using
In India, most of the residential and office/commercial buildings
reinforced concrete. Only industrial buildings, some commercial buildings like godowns
and
some public buildings like stadiums, transport terminals have been constructed with steel. Most
of the bridges for railway lines are made of steel. In addition, various towers are also constructed
using steel. Unlike in developed countries, fewer structures are constructed with steel in India,
probably due to the lack of skilled work force and machinery needed for steel construction.
Nowadays, pre-engineered steel buildings which are popular in other countries are also being
increasingly constructed in India. In a pre-engineered building, various components are manu-

factured in a factory anderected at the site of construction by which the buildings can be
are

completed very quickly. These buildings consist of built-up sections, hot-rolled sections and
cold-formed sections which provide the basic steel framework. Single skin sheeting with added

1
2 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

1his COncept provides

and walls.
used for roofing These ca
insulated sandwich panels may be in weight
and cost.
can
u S u i a t i o n or
efficient and optimum and offices.
system which
is energy
supermarkets
a complete building warehouses,
such as factories,
purposes
uScd
IOr various

CONSIST OF?
STRUCTURE
1.2 WHAT DOES A STEEL

shown in Figures 1.1(a)d) as

are constructed
planar frames
with
known as bay. The detailk
One-storey steel buildings between bents is
known as bents. The spacing steel buildings may
principal frame elements in Figure 1.2. Multi-storey
shown
of a typical one-storey steel building
are
1.3(a)-{b) in which the frames may be
frames shown in Figures the bending
be constructed with the plane transfer both the shear and
unbraced frame, the joints
unbraced or braced. In an Some steel structures
the joints transfer only the shear.
moment, whereas in a
braced frame,
circular shaped stadium in-plan.
three-dimensional frames, such as
may be really
Girder
Beam/Girder

Rigid joints- Rigid joints-

Beam-columns- Beam-columns

Column bases Column bases

77777,
7777077
(a) Single bay bent (b) Single bay bent

Tension/compression members

Tension/compression
member

Pinned joints
Columns

Column bases

777777
(c) Truss on columns
(d) Multiple bay bent
FiGURE 1.1 One-storey plane frames
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

Rafter bracing
Purlins
Single bay bent

Side wal
girts

Intermediate
bay
Columns ~ Longitudinal

of end wall bracing

End
Rafter of
bay
end wal End wall
girt

FIGURE 1.2 Typical one-storey steel building

in variety of ways using structural steel. They are plate

may be constructed
a
Steel bridges In
truss girder bridges, suspension bridges, cable stayed bridges etc. (Figure 1.4).
girder bridges, whereas in truss girder
the main load-carrying members are plate girders,
plate girder bridges, and cable-stayed bridges, the
the vertical truss girders. In suspension bridges
bridges, they are
are cables.
main load-carrying elements Such plane trusses are
trusses in three or four vertical planes.
Towers consist of usually plane
shown in Figure 1.5. consists ofstructural members
1.1 to 1.5, it is seen that a steel structure
Therefore, from Figures framework. The connections among
structural mem-
to form a rigid connections are made
connected together so as resistant. Nowadays, the
resistant or non-moment
structure may be classified
as:
bers may be moment elements in a steel
various structural
using welding/bolting. The

Tension members
Compression members/Columns

Beams/Girders

Beam-columns

Column bases and caps

Brackets
concrete slabs
Connections
may be reinforced
the floor systems
multi-storey building, connection between
the two so as
s t r u c t u r e is a shear
If the steel with a reinforced
steel beams/girders together with the
monolithically on beams/girders
supported action. The steel
of the composite
to take advantage beans.
c o n c r e t e slab act
as composite
 Beam Beam

Rigid joints Rigid joints

Beam Beam

Beam columns
Column bases

T
(a) Unbraced frame

Braces
Pinned joints (Tension/
Compression
members)

Beam
columns Braces

Column braces

71177
(b) Braced frame
FIGURE 1.3
Multi-storey plane frames
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

Rails

Plate girder
Piers
A
(a) Railway plate girder bridge

Compression member
Tension/Compression member

Rails

Tension member

(b) Railway truss girder bridge

Cable

Suspenders
Girder (Tension members)

(c) Suspension bridge

Cables

Girder

(d) Cable staged bridge

FIGURE 1.4 Types of steel bridges

 Tension/
Compression
members

fr
(a) For communication
(b) For power transmission

FIGURE 1.5 Types of steel towers

1.3 STRUCTURAL STEEL

Wrought iron had been produced from the middle

ages, if not
ore and charcoal in a bloomery. This method was before, through the firing of iron
Acentury later, the rolling mill was introduced for replaced by blast furnaces from 1490 onwards.
enhanced output. The melting of iron with
coke was discovered in 1709 which lead to the
method of rolling wrought iron into standard development of workable wrought iron. The
shapes was started in the 18th century. In 1855, Sir
Henry Bessemer of England invented the process of
small quantities of carbon during the making steel. Steel is obtained by adding
steels produced by adding appropriate
manufacturing process of iron. Today, there is a variety o
quantities of
silicon, chromium, nickel and molybdenum to suit alloying
elements such as carbon, manganese.
the needs of a wide
India, J. N. Tata set up the first steel range of applications. In
manufacturing
were set up at Bhillai, Rourkela, Bhadravti and
plant at
Jamshedpur. Later, major steel plant
plants in the private sector too. Visakhapatnam. Today, there are a number of steel
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
standardized structural steel to be used in steel
tures. The latest Indian Standard in this
regard is IS 2062:2006 Hot-rolled low, mediumstruc
an
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

high tensile structural steel. It covers the requirements of steel including micro-alloyed steel
plates, strips, shapes and sections (angles, tees, beams, and channels), fiats and bars for structural
work. The steels are suitable for welded, bolted and riveted structures and for general engineer-
ing purposes. Where welding is employed for fabrication and guaranteed weldability is required,
the welding procedure should be as specified in IS 9595:1996 Metal-arc welding of carbon and
manganese steels - recommendations.

IS 2062:2006 recommends 9 grades of steel designated as E165, E250(A), E250(B), E250(C),

E300, E350, E410, E450(D), E450(E) where the numerical value in the designations indicates the
yield strength in MPa. The chemical composition of these grades of steel is given in Table I.
The mechanical properties of these grades of steel are shown in Table 1.2.

TABLE 1.1 Chemical composition ofstructural steel

Grade Quality Ladle analysis, percent, max. Carbon

designation equivalent,
C Mn S P Si max.

E 165 0.25 1.25 0.045 0.045

E 250 A 0.23 1.50 0.045 0.045 0.40 0.42
E 250 B 0.22 1.50 0.045 0.045 .40 0.41
E 250 .20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.39
E 300 0.20 1.30 0.045 0.045 0.45 0.40
E 350 0.20 1.50 0.045 0.045 0.45 0.42
.20 1.60 0.045 0.045 .45 0.44
E 410
E 450 D 0.22 1.60 0.045 0.045 0.45 0.46
E 450 E 0.22 1.80 0.045 0.045 0.45 0.48

Note Steels of qualities A, B and C are generally suitable for welding processes.
Weldability increases from quality A to C.

TABLE 1.2 Mechanical properties of structural steel

Grade Quality Tensile Yield strength in MPa (min.) Percentage
strength of elongation
designation t 20 20< fe 40 f> 40
in MPa
(min.)

290 165 165 165 23

E 165
A 410 250 240 230 23
E 250
B 410 250 240 230 23
E 250
C 410 250 240 230 23
E 250
440 300 290 280 22
E 300
490 350 330 320 22
E 350
540 410 390 380 20
E 410
450 430 420 20
E 450 D 570
450 430 420 20
E 450 E 590

Note t= thickness of steel element

8DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTUREs

The stress-strain diagrams for these grades of steel may be as shoWT in Figure 1.6. F
sharp yielding structural steel. yield strength f, is the stress coresponding to portion AB ofth
stress-strain curve (Figure 1.6(a)). In continuously yielding structural steel. yield strength
e stress corresponding to 0.2% strain obtained by drawing a line parallel to OA of the stress.
strain curve (Figure 1.6/b)). The stress correspon ding to top-most point C on the stress-stra-
Curve is the ultimate strength f, of the steel. The ductility of the steel. i1.e.. the ability to defo
without fracture. is measured in terms of % ofelongation which is given by 5.65 S where S.
the original (initial) cross-sectional area of the test specimen. Irespective of the grades of
stee
the following mechanical properties of steel are
The modulus ofelasticity (Young's modulus), E =2x 10° MPa
assumed
Poisson's ratio. v = 0.3
The modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 10 MPa
Density of steel = 7,850 kg'm
Unit weight ofsteel =77 kN m

Stress
fu

Strain
(a) Sharp yielding structural steel

Stress

fu C
y

Strain
0.2% strain

(b) Continuously yielding structural steel

FIGURE 1.6 Stress-strain curves for structural steel
 1 INTRODUCTION 9

1.4 PRODUCTS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

A variety of structural steel manufactured by stecl plants for the construction of

products are
so as to enable the struc-
steel structures. The products are available in different shapes and sizes
tural engineer to select suitable sections to suit the requirements of the design. Depending
on

sections and cold-formed

the manufacturing process, these sections are classificd as hot-formed
sections.

1.4.1 Hot-Formed Sections

Hot-rolled sections are produced in steel plants from red hot steel billets by passing them through
and
various products made using this process are plates, strips, shapes
sec-
a series of rollers. The
hollow sections and tubes are
tions (angles, tees, beams, channels), flats and bars. Rectangular
manufactured by the process of extrusion. In this process, heated metal billets are forced to pass

through a die plate which has an opening of required size and shape.

1.4.1.1 Beams (as per IS 808:1989, Figure 1.7(a))

(a) Indian Standard Junior Beams (ISJB) abbreviated as JB
abbreviated as LB
(b) Indian Standard Light weight Beams (ISLB)
abbreviated as MB
(c) Indian Standard Medium weight Beams (ISMB)
abbreviated as WB
(d) Indian Standard Wide flange Beams (ISWB)
MB150, WB150 where 150 is the depth of
These are designated as, for example, JB150, LB150,
these sections are given in Appendix A.
the section in mm. The properties of

1.4.1.2 Columns/Heavy-Weight Beams (as per IS 808:1989, Figure 1.7(b))

SC
Indian Standard Column Sections (ISSC) abbreviated as
(a) Beam (ISHB) abbreviated as HB
(b) Indian Standard Heavy weight
SC 200, HB 200 where 200 is the depth of the section in
These are designated as, for example,
these sections are given in Appendix
A.
mm. The properties of

Beam and Column Sections (as per IS 12778:2004,

1.4.1.3 Parallel Flange
Figure 1.7(¢))
Beams (1SNPB) abbreviated as NPB
Indian Standard Narrow Parallel flange
(a) Beams (1SWPB) abbreviated as WPB
Indian Standard Wide Parallel flange
(b) beams/columns. They are desig-
NPBs are used for beams
whereas WPBs are used for
Generally, in mm. 100 is the nominal flange width
NPB 200 x 100 x 18.42 where 200 is the depth
nated as in mm.
or WPB 500 x 300
x 107.45 where 500 is the depth
in mm and 18.42 is the mass in kg/m
10 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

the mass in kg/m. The properties of theo.

se
and 107.45 1s
flange width in
mm
300 is the nominal
B.
sections are given in Appendix
Figure 1.7(d))
1.4.1.4 Channels (as per IS 808:1989,
abbreviated as JC
Channels (ISJC)
(a) Indian Standard Junior abbreviated as LCc
Channels (ISLC)
Indian Standard Light weight abbreviated as MC
(b)
(b) Channels (ISMC)
Indian Standard Medium weight MCp
(c)
(C) Channels (ISMCP) abbreviated as
Parallel
weight flange
(d) Indian Standard Medium
150 is the depth
LC150, MC150, MCPI50 where
These are designated as, for example, JC150,
of these sections are given in Appendix A.
of the section in mm. The properties

1.4.1.5 Angles (as per IS 808:1989, Figure 1.7(e))

abbreviated as 2
(a) Indian Standard equal/unequal angle (ISA)
where 200 and 100 are the lengths ofthe legs
These are designated as, for example, 2200 100 x 10
are given in Appendix A.
in mm and 10 is the thickness in mm. The properties of these sections

1.4.1.6 T-Sections (as per IS 1173:1978, Figure 1.7(f))

(a) Indian Standard rolled Normal Tee bars (ISNT) abbreviated as NT
(b) Indian Standard rolled Deep legged Tee bars (ISDT) abbreviated as DT
(c) Indian Standard slit Light weight Tee bars (ISLT) abbreviated as LT
(d) Indian Standard slit Medium weight Tee bars (ISMT) abbreviated as MT
(e)
(e) Indian Standard slit Tee bars from H sections (ISHT) abbreviated as HT
These are designated as, for example, NT50, DT100, LT200, MT100 and HT100 where the
numerical value indicates the depth ofthe section in mm. Sections (c) to (e) are slit from I sections.
The properties of these sections are given in Appendix C.

1.4.1.7 Tubular Sections (as per IS 1161:1998, Figure 1.7(g))

These are designated by their nominal bore and classified as
on the wall thickness.
light, medium and heavy depending
They are further graded as YSt 210, YSt 240 and YSt 310 depending on the
yield stress of the material. 210, 240 and 310 are yield strengths in MPa. The
sections are given in Appendix D. properties of these

1.4.1.8 Rectangular/Square Hollow Sections (as per IS 4923:1997, Figure 1.70h)

These are designated by their outside dimensions
and thickness. For
example, 60 x 40 x 2.9
RHS means 60 mm is the depth,
40 mm is the breadth and 2.9 mm is the thickness. HF Hr
for Hot Formed and RHS for
Rectangular Hollow Section. stand
means Hot Formed Square Hollow Section Similarly,
with a depth or a breadth
72 x 72 x 3.2 HF SHO
3.2mm.The material of hot-formed sections is graded as YSt of 72 mm and a thickness
ing on the yield stress. 210, 240 and 310 are 210, YSt 240 and YSt 310 depend
sections are given in Appendix E. yield strengths in MPa. The properties of thes
 Web
Flanges
Flanges Web

(b) Columns/ (c) flange beam/

Parallel
(a) Beamns Heavy-weight beams Column section

Flanges
Web

() T-section
(d) Channels (e) Equal/Unequal angles

(h) Hollow rectangular/

(g) Tubular section Square section

FIGURE 1.7 Hot rolled or formed sections

Flats (as per IS 1730:1989)

1.4.1.9 Plates, Sheets, Strips and
x thickness in mm
followed by figures denoting length x width
(a) Plates are designated as ISPL width x thickness
followed by figures denoting length X
(b) Sheets are designated as IISH
width x thickness in mm
designated as ISST followed by figures denoting
(c) Strips are
followed by letters ISF and the thickness
in mm
(d) Flats are designated by the width

The properties of flats are given in Appendix F.

12 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

IS 811:1987,
1.4.2 Cold-formed Light-gauge Sections (as per
IS 4923:1997)
hot-rolled sections become uneconomi.
sections are used where thicker
cal especially light-gauge
Cold-formed
in small buildings subjected to lighter loads. These are produced from steel strips
are produced by cold-rolling whercas
generally not thicker than 8 mm. For mass production, they
smaller number of special shapes are produced on press brakes. They are available in the form
of equal angles, unequal angles, channels, hat sections and Z sections. They are designated by

numbers denoting depth (mm) x width (mm) x thickness (mm).

available (IS 4923:1997). These are
Rectangular/Square hollow cold-formed sections are also
x 2.9 CF SHS, where CF stands
designated in the same way as hot-formed sections like 60 x 40
for cold formed.
The of cold formed sections are given in Appendix G.
properties

1.5 STANDARDS, CoDES AND SPECIFICATIONS

Unlike concrete structures which are generally casted at site to any required shape and size,
the construction of steel structures involves the assembly of various members which are readily
available or fabricated in a workshop. As various members, listed in Sec. 1.4, are manufactured
in steel plants, the material used and the shape/size of these members are standardized by the
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi. To assist structural engineers, BIS also standard-
ized loads, specifications, design procedures, testing and inspection. These standards are updated
periodically so as to incorporate the latest developments and current practices. For convenience,
these standards are designated by a number followed by the year of first publication or revision.
For example, IS 800:2007 Code of practice for general construction in steel is the basic code or
practice for design of steel structures. The various standards that are commonly used in the design
of steel structures and referred to in this book are given in REFERENCES.

1.6 LoADS

A structure is designed to carry certain loads s0 as to serve intended purpose. A steel struC
the
may have to be designed primarily to dead load, imposed (live) load, wind load, seismic (earu
quake) load, snow load, erection load, and effects such as the rise in temperature.

1.6.1 Dead Load

Dead load means the self weight of the structure or its unit
components. This depends
weight of materials used in the structure and the dimensions
on the
of the structure or its ents.

compo
This is obtained by nmultiplying the volume of structure or its component with the unit weight.
IS 875 (Part 1):1987 gives the unit weights of various materials used in construction.

1.6.2 Imposed Load

This is the load due to intended use or occupancy which may be stationary or moving. It includes
the load due to impact or vibration. In buildings. it includes the weight of the occupants, the various
things and materials kept
on the floors. In it ineludes vehicular loads on the road or rail.
bridges,
IS 875 (Part 2):1987 gives imposed loads on buildings. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) and the
Indian Railways specify the loads to be considered on road bridges and rail bridges. respectively.

1.6.3 Wind Load

Since a structure obstructs the flow of air, a load acts normal to the exposed surtace of the
struc-

ture which is known as wind load. This is an important load on light weight
structures, high rise
to be considered
buildings and towers and bridges. IS 875 (Part 3):1987 specifies the wind load
for buildings and structures.

1.6.4 Seismic (Earthquake) Load

horizontal direction act on structures.
When an earthquake occurs, inertia forces mainly in the
These are caleulated as per IS 1893:2002.

1.6.5 Snow Load

region where snow fall occurs. This is
considered in the Himalayan
In India, this load is to be
calculated as per 1S 875 (Part 4):1987.

1.6.6 Erection Load

be carried by the structure or its components during the positioning of the

All loads required to
all loads due to operation of such
erection equipment including
construction material and the
considered as erection loads.
equipment should be

1.7 FATIGUE

repetitive
or or cyclic
that occursin members subjected to pulsating
Fatigueis type of failure
a which are acted upon by
structures such as bridges and gantry girders
loads. Civil engineering of inherent flaws in
failure is due to the presence
to fatigue. Fatigue
moving loads are subjected
14 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Cracks

- Crack length

TTTTTTTT
FIGURE 1.8 Crack formation and growth

the material or due to holes, notches and sudden discontinuities

in a member (Figure 1.8). At the
is very high, which
location of inherent flaw or holes, notches and sudden discontinuities, stress
is known as stress concentration. This stress concentration is not so
serious when the member is
member is subjected to
subjected to static load if the material is suficiently ductile. But when the
and sud-
cyclic load, inherent flaws propagate and minute cracks are formed near holes, notches
cracks
den discontinuities and propagate as shown in Figure 1.8. Finally, the member fails as the
extend to the surrounding region since the static strength of the member gets reduced. This pro-
cess of the formation and the propagation of cracks in the materials of the structures under cyclic
stress is calledfatigue. The factors affecting fatigue failure may be summarized as:
(a) a large number of loading cycles,
(b) a wide range in stress variation,
(c) a high stress in the member with a small range of stress,
(d) local stress concentrations due to design and fabrication details.

Cyclic loads are of two types. In the first type, the direction of stresses is not reversed duringt
cycle (Figure 1.9) whereas in the second type, the direction stresses is reversed, i.e., tension
compression or vice-versa. If the maximum and minimum stresses of reversed loading are equ
For
in magnitude but opposite in direction, it is known as complete stress reversal (Smin=-Smax)r
a given stress range (Smaxmin), it is possible to determine the number of cycles at whichfalu
occurs in a member. The maximum stress which the material is able to resist for an extreme
large number of cycles is known as endurance limit or fatigue limit, whereas, fatigue streng
ted
is defined as the maximum stress which the member can sustain without fracture for a sta
number of cycles. To determine the fatigue strength of a material, an endurance test is usua
 1 |INTRODUCTION 1 5

Stress
(S)
One cycle

Stress
range

Max. stress
(Smax. Mean
stress
Min. stress (Smin.

Time

FIGURE 1.9 Fatigue terminology

conducted. A typical S-N for mild steel for complete stress

(Stress-Number of cycles) curve
reversal case is shown in Figure 1.10. To know exactly where the curve becomes flat, generally,

nax is plotted against Log N. rather than the

It is observed that most of the fatigue failures are due to improper detailing
to avoid any local structural
inadequate design of the member for strength. It is very important
effective means of increasing fatigue life.
discontinuities and notches by good design and is the
should be designed and detailed properly.
Where a structure is subjected to fatigue, welded joints connections.
the major reasons of failure of welded
Poor weld details and weld defects are

252

238

224
Smax.
(in MPa)
210 t

196
Endurance
limit 189 MPa
8
182
2
Number of cycles, N (in millions)

S-N curve for mild steel specimen

FiGURE 1.10
16 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

The fatigue performance of a welded joint can be enhanced by the use of techniques such as
geometry, improvenments in welding methods and better quality control using non-destrueweld
ve
testing methods. That is, the use of butt welds instead of fillet welds, double-sided fillet wl
instead of single-sided fillet welds and proper detailing which does not cause stress concenta
welds
ntta
tion are important considerations in the design of a structure with welding subjected to fatigue
Structures subjected to fatigue may be designed as per IS 800:2007 as is explained in Chapter
6.

1.8 BrrTTLE FRACTURE

Brittle fracture is characterised by the sudden failure of a material at a stress well below its yield
strength. Even though steel is ductile at room temperature, it becomes brittle at temperatures
below a certain temperature known as the transition temperature (Figure 1.11). The transition
temperature depends on material composition, strain rate, thickness, residual stresses, fabrication
flaws and high triaxial stresses which reduces the ductility locally. This type of failure may be
avoided by selecting structural steel such that the low service temperature of the structure is more
than the transition temperature of the steel.
A quantitative measure ofthe ability of steel to sustain adverse temperature is the Charphy
V-Notch test. In this test, a small simply supported
rectangular bar with a specified V-shaped
notch at the centre is fractured by a pendulum swung from a fixed
height. The amount of energy
required to fracture the specimen is calculated from the height to which the pendulum rises after
breaking the specimen. The amount of energy required to break the specimen for a range of
temperatures is determined and plotted. From this curve, the transition temperature of the steel is
obtained. IS 2062:2006 specifies the minimum
Charphy V-notch impact energy for the different
grades of steel used in steel structures. Though steel is selected for its good Charphy V-notch
impact energy rating, it is also important that the design details and the fabrication workmanship
do not produce notches which could start cracks.

Energy
absorbed

Empirically
determined
minimum
energy level

Transition
temperature
Test temperature

FIGURE 1.11 Transition temperature

 1 |INTRODUCTION 17

1.9 CORROSION PROTECTION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Corrosion is the deterioration or loss of material of steel due
chemical or electrochemical
to a
reaction with the environment. Chemical corrosion makes the
surface of the steel oxidize in dry
air resulting in thin layers of oxides. On the
other-hand, electrochemical corrosion is the dissolu-
tion of the steel material due to local
The effective means of
electrolysis when the surface is wet.
preventing corrosion is the alloying of steel with elements such as
chromium or the application of copper or the
zinc coatings, known as
application of aluminum or zinc coatings. Hot dip
galvanising, involves the dipping of the steel work into a bath of molten
zinc at a temperature of about 450°C. A metal
coating can also be applied using spraying. Nowa-
days, epoxy paints are also available which last for very long periods. The corrosion
guide for steel structures is available in IS 800:2007.
protection

1.10 DESIGN PHILOsOPHIES

1.10.1 Working Stress Method

Basically, there are two design philosophies in structural design. They are working stress method
and limit state method. The working stress method is the more conventional and age-old approach
which is based on allowable stress and elastic behaviour. The magnitude of allowable stress is
a fraction of the yield strength which is obtained by dividing the yield strength with a factor
of safety. This concept of safety is based on the assumption that the first yielding is the useful
limit of the structure. The maximum stress in a structural member is calculated due to the maxi
mum probable load and it is ensured that this stress is less than or equal to the allowable stress.
This method of design based on service loads, elastic behaviour and allowable stress is widely
accepted and has been in practice. The principal disadvantage of this method is that it fails to
provide a uniform overload capacity for all the parts and types of structures. It does not take into
account the non-linear relationship between stress and strain and the ability of structural mem-
bers to resist loads even after local yielding. It also does not consider the redistribution of fores
and moments in statically indeterminate structures.

1.10.2 Limit State Design

An improved design philosophy to overcome the drawbacks of the working stress method is
the limit state method. The limit states are the various requirements that a structure is expected
to fulfill so that the performance of the structure satisfies the intended purpose for
which it is
built. The two limit states that are commonly considered in the design of the steel structure are

explained below.
18 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Limit State)
1.10.2.1 Limit State of Strength/Collapse (Ultimate actionof the prohahi.
failure (or imminent failure) under the
This limit state is associated with may endanger the safet
loads on a structure which
and the most unfavourable combination of its componenie
ofa structure or
of life and property. This limit state includes the
loss of stability
considering their flexibility;
the failure by excessiva
rigid bodies as well as
considering them as fracture due to fatigue: and

deformation and rupture of the structure or any of its components;

brittle fracture. values for material

the design is based on characteristic
To achieve the design objectives, in the material
loads which take into account the probability of variations
strengths and applied characteristic values are based on statistical
structure. The
strengths and in the loads acting
on a
are based on experience.
The design values are derived from
data, available;
if otherwise, they
the of partial safety factors, both for material strengths and
the characteristic values through use
the requirement:
for loads. The reliability of design is ensured by satisfying
Design action Design strength

1.10.2.1. Design Actions

The design actions,

(1.)
K

where the
Qet characteristic actions that are expected to be exceeded with 5% probability during
not
wind
life of the structure which include self-weight, live load or imposed load, crane load,
load, earthquake load
loads k, given in Table 1.3, to account for the possibility of
Ya= partial safety factor for diffèrent of inac-
the unfavourable deviation of the load from the characteristic value; the possibility
curate assessment of the load; and the uncertainty in the assessment of
effects of the load
and the uncertainty in the assessment of the limit states being considered.

TABLE 1.3 Partial safety factors for loads for limit state of strength/collapse
Load combination Design action, Yr2 Yr3

DL+LL/CL Yn e l + Yrz c2 1.5 1.5

DL+LL/CL + WL/EL Yn t Yr2 c 2 + Yra 3 1.2 1.2 1.2
DL+WL/EL Yc+ Yrscs 1.5 (0.9) 1.5
DL+ER Yn c+Yr2 c2 1.2 (0.9) 1.2

Note DL: Dead load; LL: Live or imposed load: CL: Crane load: WL: Wind load: EL: Earthquake
load: ER: Erection load
Values in ) shoulcd be considered when the dead locid contribution to stability against
overturning is critical or the dead load causes the reduction in stress due to other loads
 1 |INTRODUCTION19

For three types of loads (k 1,2,3), viz., dead load, live load/crane load and wind load/earthquake
=

load, Q4 may be written as:

(1.2)
where
=
partial safety factor for dead load
2 partial safety tactor for live load/crane load/erection load
Y3 partial safety factor for wind load/earthquake load
Q characteristic action for dead load
O2 characteristic action live load/crane load/erection load
Qccharacteristic action for wind load/earthquake load

1.10.2.1.2 Design Strength

The design strength S; is given by
S=S/Y (1.3)
where
S=ultimate strength
m = partial safety factor for materials, given in Table 1.4, to account for the possible unfavourable

deviation of the material strength from the characteristic value; the possible unfavourable
variation of the member sizes; the possible unfavourable reduction of the member strength
due to fabrication and tolerances; and the uncertainty in the calculation of the strength of
the members.

1.10.2.2 Limit State of Serviceability

This limit state is associated with the functioning of structure or its components under
service or working loads. It causes discomfort to the occupants or affects the appearance of a
structure and, on the whole, may reduce the functional effectiveness of the structure. It includes

TABLE 1.4 Partial safetyfactors for materials/fasteners, ym

Type of failure of member Partial safety factor

Yielding 1.10
Buckling 1.10
Rupture at ultimate stress 1.25
Type of fastener
Bolts 1.25
Welds 1.25for shop welding
1.5 for site welding
 y y

fy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 1.13 Stress distribution in a cross section at the mid-span

Moment, M

Mp
My

Rotation ()
FIGURE 1.14 Moment-curvature
relationship

|W

FIGURE 1.15 Formation of plastic hinge

L/2 L/2

Real hinge
Real hinge
tPlastic
hinge
FIGURE 1.16 Plastic collapse mechanism
 B
d d
D d
D
-b- b b-
Rolled beams Rolled Rectangular Circular
and columns channels hollow sections hollow sections

(a) (b) C) d)

d
d
d

Double angles
Single angles Tees (back to back)

(e) () (g)

d d
d

b Built-up sections
(h) )

b b e b

d d d

Compound elements
(m)
(K ()
Internal element width b = External element width
b =

elements of sections
FIGURE 1.19 Width/depth/thickness of plate