TTW Book

T WO AND THREE
WHEELER
TECHNOLOGY
Dhruv U. Panchal
Two and Three Wheeler
Technology
DHRUV U. PANCHAL
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
L.D. College of Engineering
Navarangpura, Ahmedabad
Gujarat
Delhi-110092
2015
TWO AND THREE WHEELER TECHNOLOGY
Dhruv U. Panchal
© 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-5143-1
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
Contents
Preface xiii
1. Introduction 1–23
1.1 History of Mopeds 1
1.2 History of Scooters 2
1.3 History of Motorcycles 4
1.4 Classification of Two Wheelers 11
1.5 Mopeds 12
1.6 Scooters 12
1.7 Motorcycles 13
1.8 Layout of Moped 16
1.9 Layout of Scooter 17
1.10 Layout of Motorcycle 18
1.11 Basic Systems 19
1.11.1 The Frame 20
1.11.2 Wheels and Brakes 20
1.11.3 Suspensions 20
1.11.4 Engine 21
1.11.5 Drive Train 22
1.11.6 Fuel System 22
1.11.7 Ignition 22
1.11.8 Electrical System 23
Review Questions 23
2. Two Wheeler Engine 24–60

2.1 Classification of Engines 25
2.1.1 Number of Strokes 25
2.1.2 Speed and Torque Output 25
2.1.3 Power Output 26
2.1.4 Cylinder Angle 26
2.1.5 Number of Cylinder 26
2.1.6 Arrangement of Cylinders 27
2.1.7 Valve Operating Mechanism 27
iii
iv Contents
2.1.8 Cooling System 30

2.1.9 Fuel Supply System 30
2.2 Two-stroke Petrol Engine 30
2.3 Rotary Valve Type Two-stroke Engine 32
2.4 Port Timing Diagrams 33
2.5 Four-stroke Petrol Engine 35
2.6 Comparison of Two-stroke and Four-stroke Engines 38
2.7 Arrangement of Cylinders Used in Two Wheelers 38
2.7.1 V Twin Engines 39
2.7.2 Horizontally Opposed Twin Cylinder Engines 41
2.7.3 Side-by-side Twin Cylinder Engines 42
2.7.4 V Four Engines 43
2.7.5 Horizontally Opposed Four-cylinder Engines 44
2.7.6 Three-Cylinder In-line Engines 45
2.7.7 Four-Cylinder In-line Engines 46
2.7.8 V Five Engines 47
2.7.9 Six-cylinder In-line Engines 48
2.7.10 Horizontally Opposed Six-cylinder Engines 49
2.7.11 V Eight Engines 50
2.8 Selection Criteria for Engine 51
2.8.1 Type of Vehicle 51
2.8.2 Load Carrying Capacity of Vehicle 52
2.8.3 Required Power Output 52
2.8.4 Required Maximum Speed 52
2.8.5 Space Availability 52
2.8.6 Location of Engine 52
2.8.7 Characteristic Speed Power Curves for Engine 53
2.8.8 Torque Curve for Engine 53
2.8.9 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption of Engine 53
2.8.10 Number and Diameter of Cylinders 54
2.8.11 Power Per Litre 54
2.9 Design Considerations for Engine 54
2.9.1 Piston 55
2.9.2 Piston Rings 56
2.9.3 Gudgeon Pin 56
2.9.4 Connecting Rods 57
2.9.5 Crankshaft 57
2.9.6 Poppet Valve 58
2.9.7 Cylinder Head 58
2.9.8 Cylinder Block 58
2.9.9 Camshaft Drive 59
2.9.10 Rocker Arms 59
2.9.11 Crankcase 59
Review Questions 59
Contents v
3. Fuel Supply System 61–82

3.1 Carburetor System 61
3.2 Fuel Cock 63
3.3 Carburetor 64
3.4 Different Circuits in Carburetor 66
3.4.1 Starting Circuit 67
3.4.2 Idle Circuit 68
3.4.3 Mid-range Circuit 68
3.4.4 Acceleration Circuit 69
3.5 Types of Carburetor Used in Two Wheelers 69
3.5.1 Variable Venturi Carburetor 69
3.5.2 Vacuum Controlled Carburetor 70
3.5.3 Butterfly Valve Carburetor 70
3.6 Fuel Injection System 71
3.7 Layout of Throttle Body Injection System 72
3.8 Fuel Pump 74
3.9 Injector 77
3.10 Throttle Body 78
3.11 ECU 78
3.12 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor 80
3.13 Throttle Position (TP) Sensor 80
3.14 Oxygen Sensor 81
3.15 Crankshaft Position Sensor 81
3.16 Intake Air Temperature Sensor 82
Review Questions 82
4. Lubricating System 83–94

4.1 Function of Lubrication System 83
4.2 Properties of Lubricants 84
4.3 Additives for Lubricant 85
4.4 Grading of Lubricating Oils 86
4.5 Types of Lubricants 86
4.5.1 Two-stroke Engine Oils 87
4.5.2 Dry Lubricants 87
4.5.3 Grease Lubrication 88
4.5.4 Synthetic Oils 88
4.6 Two-stroke Pre-mix Lubrication 89
4.7 Port Injection Lubricating System 89
4.8 Direct Bearing Lubricating System 90
4.9 Splash Lubricating System 91
4.10 Wet Sump Lubricating System 91
4.11 Dry Sump Lubricating System 92
4.12 Common Sump Lubricating System 93
4.13 Separate Oil Sump Lubricating System 94
Review Questions 94
vi Contents
5. Cooling System 95—104

5.1 Factors Affecting the Temperature of Engine 96
5.2 Air Cooled Engine 97
5.3 Oil Cooled Engine 98
5.4 Water Cooled Engine 99
5.5 Radiators 100
5.6 Thermostat 102
5.7 Water Pump 103
Review Questions 104
6. Exhaust System 105–118

6.1 Exhaust System of Two Wheelers 107
6.2 Exhaust Pipe and Header 111
6.2.1 Two-into-Two 111
6.2.2 Two-into-One 112
6.2.3 Three-into-One 112
6.2.4 Four-into-Four 113
6.2.5 Four-into-Two 114
6.2.6 Four-into-One 114
6.3 Muffler 115
7. Scavenging System 119–127

7.1 Scavenging Process 119
7.1.1 Ideal Scavenging Process 120
7.1.2 Practical Scavenging Process 120
7.2 Scavenging Methods 122
7.2.1 Cross Scavenging System 122
7.2.2 Loop Scavenging System 123
7.2.3 Uniflow Scavenging System 125
7.3 Comparison of Scavenging Systems 125
7.4 Scavenging Pump 126
8. Cranking System 128–145

8.1 Basic Cranking Mechanism 129
8.1.1 Roller Type Ratchet 129
8.1.2 Lock Pawl Type Ratchet 130
8.1.3 Regular Ratchet Wheel 131
8.2 Push Starting 132
8.3 Moped Cranking Mechanism 133
8.3.1 Indirect Transmission 133
8.3.2 Direct Transmission 134
8.4 Kick Start Mechanism 135
Contents vii
8.5 Layout of Kick Start Mechanism 138

8.5.1 Transmission Kick Start Layout 138
8.5.2 Primary Kick Start Layout 139
8.6 Auto-Start Mechanism 139
8.7 Starter Motor 141
8.8 Starter Drive 143
9. Transmission System 146–185

9.1 Layout of Transmission System in Two Wheelers 147
9.2 Primary Reduction 149
9.2.1 Belt Drive 149
9.2.2 Chain Drive 150
9.2.3 Gear Drive 150
9.3 Clutch 152
9.4 Multiplate Clutch 154
9.5 Assist Slipper Clutch 158
9.6 Single Plate Clutch 159
9.7 Clutch Release Mechanism 160
9.8 Centrifugal Clutch 163
9.9 Gearbox 164
9.10 Constant-Mesh Gearbox 165
9.10.1 Ball Lock Type Gear Locking Mechanism 165
9.10.2 Trunnion Type Gear Locking Mechanism 166
9.11 Sequential Gearbox 170
9.12 Gear Shifting Mechanism 174
9.12.1 Hand Operated Shifting Mechanism 174
9.12.2 Foot Operated Shifting Mechanism 175
9.13 Continuous Variable Transmission–CVT 177
9.14 Final Drive 180
9.14.1 Belt Drive 180
9.14.2 Chain Drive 181
9.14.3 Shaft Drive 183
9.15 Cush Drive 184
10. Steering and Suspension System 186–225

10.1 Steering Geometry and Effects 187
10.1.1 Trail 187
10.1.2 Castor Angle or Rack Angle 190
10.1.3 Wheelbase 194
10.2 Steering Column Construction 195
10.3 Handlebar—Types and Construction 196
10.4 Suspension Requirements 199
10.4.1 Kinematic Requirements 199
10.4.2 Dynamic Requirements 201
viii Contents
10.5 Design Considerations for Suspension System 202

10.5.1 Suspension Frequency 202
10.5.2 Sprung and Unsprung Mass Ratio 203
10.5.3 Cornering Requirements 204
10.5.4 Spring Rate and Total Wheel Travel 205
10.5.5 Ride Height and Preload 205
10.5.6 Wheelbase 205
10.5.7 Braking and Acceleration 206
10.6 Spring and Shock Absorber Assembly 207
10.6.1 Spring 207
10.6.2 Shock Absorber 208
10.7 Springer Forks Suspension 210
10.8 Girder Forks Suspension 211
10.9 Trailing and Leading Link Suspension 212
10.10 Telescopic Suspension 213
10.11 Single Link Type Front Suspension 214
10.12 Double Link Type Front Suspension 216
10.13 Hardtail Type Rear Suspension 217
10.14 Swing Arm Type Rear Suspension 218
10.15 Dynamic Damping Control in Suspension System 221
11. Braking System 226–249

11.1 Theory of Brake Action 227
11.2 Fundamental Behind Wheel Skidding 228
11.3 Design Considerations for Brakes 229
11.4 Drum Brake 230
11.4.1 Single Leading Shoe 231
11.4.2 Double Leading Shoe 231
11.5 Disc Brake 233
11.6 Calipers 235
11.6.1 Single Acting Caliper–Front and Rear 235
11.6.2 Double Acting Caliper—Front and Rear 236
11.7 Mechanical Brake Control System 238
11.7.1 Hand Operated Mechanical Brake 238
11.7.2 Foot Operated Mechanical Brake 239
11.8 Hydraulic Brake Control System 239
11.8.1 Hand Operated Hydraulic Brake 240
11.8.2 Foot Operated Hydraulic Brake 240
11.9 Master Cylinder 241
11.10 Anti-Lock Braking System 244
11.10.1 Components of ABS 245
11.10.2 ABS Operation 247
Contents ix
12. Wheels and Tyres 250–261

12.1 Spoked Wheel 251
12.2 Pressed Steel Wheels 252
12.3 Alloy Wheels 253
12.4 Tyres 253
12.5 Requirements of Tyre 255
12.6 Designation of Tyres 256
12.7 Cross-Ply and Radial-Ply Tyres 257
12.8 Tyre With Tube 259
12.9 Tubeless Tyres 260
13. Frame and Body 262–286

13.1 Load on the Frame 263
13.2 Design Considerations 263
13.3 Components of Frame 265
13.4 Mounting Provisions on Frame 267
13.5 Tubular Frame 270
13.6 Engine-based Frame 273
13.7 Twin-spar Frame 273
13.8 Monocoque Frame 274
13.9 Vibration Dampers 275
13.10 Frame Material 278
13.11 Body Work 279
13.12 Ergonomic Considerations 280
13.13 Sidecars 285
14. Electrical Systems 287–324

14.1 Battery
288
14.1.1 Battery Principle 291
14.1.2 Battery Construction 292
14.1.3 Capacity Ratings 294
14.2 Charging System 295
14.2.1 Components of Charging System 295
14.2.2 Alternator/Dynamo/Generator/Magneto
297
14.2.3 Rectifier 298
14.2.4 Regulator 300
14.3 Ignition Systems 301
14.3.1 Components of Ignition System 302
14.3.2 Magneto Ignition System 304
14.3.3 Battery Ignition System 305
14.3.4 Electronic Ignition System 306
14.3.5 Spark Plug 307
x Contents
14.4 Lighting System 308

14.4.1 Lighting System Circuits 309
14.4.2 Bulb 313
14.4.3 Headlight Reflectors 314
14.4.4 LED Lighting 315
14.5 Electric Horn 315
14.6 Handlebar Controls 316
14.7 Side Stand/Ignition Interlock System 318
14.8 Stepping Motor 319
14.9 Instruments and Indicators 319
14.9.1 Functions of Instruments and Indicators 321
14.9.2 Construction 322
15. Two Wheeler Dynamics 325–339

15.1 Linear and Angular Motions 325
15.2 Handling Characteristics 326
15.2.1 Balance 327
15.2.2 Steering 328
15.3 Road Holding 329
15.4 Vehicle Stability 330
15.4.1 Factors Affecting Stability 331
15.4.2 Types of Instabilities 333
15.5 Aerodynamics 335
15.6 Squat and Dive 337
15.7 Performance Measurements 337
16. Racing Bike Requirements 340–343

17. Electric Two Wheeler 344–354

17.1 Drivetrain Layout of Electric Two-Wheeler 344
17.2 Batteries 346
17.3 Electric Motors 347
17.4 Motor Controller 349
17.5 Charger and Charging 350
17.6 Battery Balancer and Battery Management System 350
17.7 Merits and Demerits of Electric Two Wheelers 351
17.8 High Performance Electric Two Wheelers 351
Contents xi
18. Three Wheeler Vehicles 355–376

18.1 Classification of Three Wheelers 355
18.2 Layout of Passenger Rickshaw 356
18.3 Layout of Loading Auto Rickshaw 357
18.4 Types of Loading Auto Rickshaws 358
18.5 Engines For Three Wheelers 360
18.5.1 Four-stroke CNG Engine 360
18.5.2 Four-stroke Diesel Engine 361
18.6 Drive Train of Three Wheelers 363
18.6.1 Drive Train Layout for Passenger Auto Rickshaws 363
18.6.2 Drive Train Layout for Loading Auto Rickshaws 364
18.6.3 Propeller Shaft 365
18.6.4 Differential Gearbox 365
18.7 Suspensions and Brakes 367
18.7.1 Rear Suspension System of Passenger Auto Rickshaw 367
18.7.2 Rear Suspension System of Loading Auto Rickshaw 369
18.7.3 Braking System of Auto Rickshaw 370
18.7.4 Master Cylinder 370
18.7.5 Wheel Cylinder 372
18.7.6 Hand Brake 372
18.8 Frame and Body 374
18.8.1 Conventional Chassis and Frame Construction
(Composite Construction) 374
18.8.2 Integral Construction (Mono Construction) 374
References 377–378
Index 379–385
Preface
Two and Three Wheeler Technology explains the conventional as well as modern technology
used in two-wheeler vehicles. The purpose of writing this book is to impart thorough knowledge
and understanding of the two-wheeler systems to the students of Automobile Engineering
at degree and diploma level. The contents of the book are specially designed to fulfill the
requirement of undergraduate students of Automobile Engineering of Gujarat Technological
University (GTU), Indus University (IU), Anna University, Vellore Technical University (VIT),
SRM University, St. Peter’s University, West Bengal University of Technology (WBUT),
Hindustan University and other Indian universities where Automobile Engineering courses are
being offered.
The book comprising 18 chapters, covers different systems of two-wheeler vehicle
beginning from the engine, frame to wheels and tyres. Chapter 1 contains history and layouts
of various models of two-wheeler vehicles. Chapters 2 to 7 explain various systems related to
engine and exhaust. Chapter 8 is exclusively designed to explain the cranking mechanism used
in two-wheeler vehicles. Chapters 9 to 13 elucidate different systems related to transmission,
brakes, steering, suspensions and frame. Chapter 14 is all about electrical and electronic
systems used in modern two-wheeler vehicles. Chapter 15 reveals theoretical aspects of
two-wheeler dynamics. Chapters 16 and 17 are designed to impart knowledge of racing
motorcycles and electric two wheelers. Chapter 18 is entirely written to explicate various systems
of three-wheeler vehicles. Being a first of its kind for Two and Three Wheeler Technology
in India, the book provides thorough knowledge lucidly with diagrammatical representation.
The simple and self-explanatory images and diagrams ensure clear understanding of all the
essential concepts.
The author acknowledge, with a deep sense of gratitude, the enormous efforts of the staff
of the PHI Learning, towards publication of this book in a meticulous fashion.
DHRUV U. PANCHAL
xiii
1
Introduction
Contents
YY History
YY Classification and Layouts of Two Wheelers (Motorcycles, Scooters, Mopeds)
YY Basic Systems
The automobile plays a significant role in the personal transportation system. The advancement
of two wheelers in this field of personal transport is a major rebellion. The quantity of two
wheelers is about 70% of total vehicle sale. Two wheelers are fast, safe and easy way of
transportation as well as fuel efficient machines. It combines the exceptionally low operating
costs along with the comfort and style. They can be used for daily commuting, for long journeys
and racing also. They are also the means of economic transport for different purpose. That is
why there is a steep increase in the sales number of two wheelers during the last few years.
Basically, two wheelers exist in three categories: mopeds, scooters and motorcycles.
1.1 HISTORY OF MOPEDS

The name “moped” derived from the early motorcycles which were equipped with pedals.
Basically, mopeds were designed to provide low powered, economic and easily drivable
vehicles. Early mopeds were using pedalless starting system in which rider had to run the
vehicle for starting. These mopeds were known
as cyclemotors because engines were able to
produce very less power and only for few miles.
Engines were located at various locations on
frame and the drive was provided to front wheel
through various types of mechanisms. Figure 1.1
shows an early cyclemotor with engine located
at front.
The very first moped with pedaling system
was “Douglas” launched in 1912, shown in Figure 1.1 Cyclemotor.
1
2 Two and Three Wheeler Technology
Figure 1.2. Invention of pedaling system was a great enhancement in moped design; it helped
riders to use the vehicle as bicycle also. Motorcycles and mopeds both were equipped with
pedals till 1915. The capacity of engine, maximum speed and ease of operation were some
fundamental differences observed between motorcycles and mopeds. By 1918, advancement
in design of transmission, clutches and engine performance obligatory caused elimination of
pedals from motorcycles. But designers were intended to continue with the pedal system on
mopeds for their original functions. Subsequently, a rear wheel powered moped “Cyclemaster”
was designed by German engineers which changed the definition of mopeds then onwards. Day
by day, capacity of engine was increased to 98 cc, capacity of fuel storage was also improved.
Figure 1.2 Douglas.
A more innovative design was known in the UK as the Cyclemaster. This vehicle was
equipped with a powered rear wheel, which originated from a design by two DKW engineers in
Germany. Marginally bigger machines, commonly with a 98 cc (6.0 cu in) engine were known
as Autocycles. Moreover, some mopeds like the Czech-made Jawa, were plagiaristic from
motorcycles. Inopportunely, research and development in the area of mopeds decreased quickly
as scooter and motorcycle markets were booming. Almost all the manufacturers wanted to
concentrate on the motorcycle development to meet the market demand. So moped technology
always remained immature and still mopeds are available with basic technologies which were
adopted years ago.
1.2 HISTORY OF SCOOTERS

The very first generation of scooter was known as “Motoped” come into assembly in 1915.
Soon Motopeds were supplanted by the Autopeds. Figure 1.3 illustrates an Autoped. Only one
handlebar was provided to operate engagement on engine and brakes. Forward pushing action
of the handlebar column was required to engage engine and pulling back action was required to
operate brake. They were found very difficult to drive, although Autopeds were in production
from 1915 to 1922. Many new manufacturers debuted during 1919 to 1921. Each manufacturer
introduced inventive designs in their Autopeds. The Skootamota was known for its ease and
economical operation. The Kenilworth had first time introduced electric lights on the Autopeds.
The Reynolds Runabout came up with unconventional front suspension, an advanced two-speed
gearbox, leg guards, and a seat supported on springs.
3
Introduction
Figure 1.3 Autoped.
In 1936 in California, E. Foster Salsbury and Austin Elmore designed a new concept of
locating driver’s seat above a single unit of engine and transmission. The scooter was known
as “Salsbury Motor Glide”. After few years, Salsbury launched a scooter with higher capacity.
It was world’s first scooter with continuously variable transmission (CVT), which is shown in
Figure 1.4. Salsbury sustained its manufacturing of scooters until 1948.
Figure 1.4 Salsbury Motor Scooter.
The invention of third generation of scooters was first come into mark at the time of
Second World War. The Piaggio Aircraft Works, Pontedera, Italy was the pioneer manufacturer
and supplier of locomotives. The Piaggio had started manufacturing and supplying of bomber
aircrafts and war machineries during world war. Because of this reason, the Piaggio Aircraft
Works was prudishly targeted during the war and destroyed completely by allied bombing. The
redevelopment of the Piaggio Aircraft Works was acutely needed to settle down the demolished
economy of Italy. The Piaggio was facing problem of the staff movement from one end of
the huge factory to the other end as well as to different units of the Piaggio. So they decided
to develop a new inexpensive mode of transportation. The basic thought was to design and
develop a simple, tough and inexpensive vehicle. The vehicle was intended to be easily driven
by men and women, be able to carry a passenger as well as be able to carry ample amount of
baggage. Piaggio decided to construct a vehicle with tiny 98 cc two-stroke engine. This engine
was designed to be placed in conjunction with the rear driving wheel. This tiny vehicle was
constructed with a small amount of body work with an open frame. It was equipped with a
platform for the driver to put his feet as well as to accommodate small luggage. After the first
prototype, to improve the disturbed transport in a whole of Italy, the Piaggio works decided
to commercialize its invention with some useful modifications. The first modification was
made with the engine by increasing its capacity to 125 cc. The styling and comfort was also
improved. First marketable version of the Vespa was launched in 1946, shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 1946 Vespa.
After the month from launch of Vespa, Innocenti started competition with Piaggio and
introduced the Lambretta. The Lambretta ‘A’ was huge success and vended 9,000 scooters in
one year. The main reason of this success was being the most economical and efficient machine
at a time when petrol was strictly prorated for common people. Lambretta was equipped with
a 123 cc fan cooled engine and was able to touch the speed of 72 kmph.
1.3 HISTORY OF MOTORCYCLES

Basically, two wheelers are engineered and advanced form of the “safety” bicycle. In 1885,
John Kemp Starley was the first who had designed a safety bicycle with many advantages
like spoked wheels, high stability, enough braking and ease of driving. The high stability was
achieved through direct front wheel steering mechanism. The safety bicycles were then known
as “bicycles” after the successful launch of first of its kind vehicle by John Kemp Starley.
In 1885, Gottleib Daimler, had developed motorized version of bicycle, shown in Figure 1.6.
He had used an internal combustion engine to run the bicycle. Daimler’s motorized bicycle was
equipped with a single-cylinder engine. This engine was working on Otto cycle. The engine
was mounted vertically in the centre of the machine. A spring loaded framed wheel were used
on each side of the motorized bicycle to increase the stability. Its frame was constructed from
wood and wheels were equipped with wooden spokes. Such motorized bicycles were known
as “boneshakers” because of their vibrating ride. Then after, these motorized bicycles were
given a name as “Motorcycle”.
5
Introduction
Figure 1.6 Daimler’s Motorized Bicycle.
Alez Millet had introduced the next distinguished motorcycle in 1892. This unique design
was well engineered extension of a safety bicycle with pneumatic tyres. It was equipped with a
5-cylinder rotary engine. The engine was directly coupled and rotated with rear wheel. These all
machines were introduced on experimental basis and were used by very few riders. The very first
successful production motorcycles were introduced by the Hildebrand & Wolfmueller in 1894.
This motorcycle was equipped with parallel twin-cylinder water cooled engine (Figure 1.7).
These motorcycles were accepted and used by the people, however they needed many changes.
These machines were struggling with their heavy engines. Engines were producing less power
with high fuel consumption.
Figure 1.7 Hildebrand & Wolfmueller Motorcycle.
To eliminate the drawback of heavy engine, DeDion-Buton introduced a small and

light engine particularly for motorcycles in 1895. This engine was accepted by almost all
manufacturers because of its power output, fuel consumption, size and weight. It was also very
easy to produce these engines in mass which was helpful to match with the demand of market.
In 1900, Carl Oscar Hedstrom and George M. Hendee started a motorcycle manufacturing
company known as the Hendee Manufacturing Company. They came up with a tiny single
cylinder engine which was producing 1.75 hp. Figure 1.8 illustrates the first motorcycle from
the Hendee Manufacturing Company. This engine was sufficient to reach up to the speed of
40 kmph. Then after, Hendee Manufacturing Company rolled out the market until the World
War-I with a brand name “Indian”.
Figure 1.8 First Motorcycle from Hendee Manufacturing Company.
William S. Harley and Arthur Davidson originated the Harley–Davidson Motor Company
in 1902. Initially, they started with the elementary DeDion-Buton layouts and commonly adopted
chassis design as shown in Figure 1.9. Gradually, Harley–Davidson became famous for its
robust and durable designs, for its handcrafted machines and for its riding quality. Eventually,
the Harley–Davidson Motor Company was declared the biggest motorcycle manufacturer by
1920. Figure 1.10 shows 1920 Harley–Davidson motorcycle. When World War-I started in
1914, the motorcycles were not used normally on the roads. They were used as alternate reliable
vehicles. In the war, their effective nature was utilized to accomplish different noble tasks.
Armies used motorcycles expansively for exploration, for medical services, to convey posts and
in gunship also. Approximately one-third of all Harley–Davidson motorcycles manufactured
were vended to the US army during the war. Figures 1.11 to 1.14 show various generations
of Harley–Davidson motorcycles.
Figure 1.9 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1902.

7
Introduction

Figure 1.13 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle in World War-II.
In 1955, Genichi Kawakami established a company named Yamaha Motor Company

Limited in Japan. The company started the production of its first motorcycle, the YA-1, in
the same year. Figure 1.15 displays the Yamaha YA-1. YA-1 was a 125 cc single cylinder
two-stroke engine motorcycle which won the 3rd Mount Fuji Ascent Race in 125 cc class.
This was a great achievement for Yamaha because of which the company decided to continue
with research and development in the field of motorsports.
Figure 1.15 Yamaha YA-1.

9
Introduction
Yamaha also carries the legacy of debuting first of its kind, world’s first off-road motorcycle,
DT-1 in 1968 (Figure 1.16). The DT-1 made an enormous impression on motorcycling in the
world because of its off-roading capabilities. The DT-1 represented the original concepts of
Yamaha engineers and their future vision. Yamaha took rapid actions in accordance with the
customers’ requirements and ruled the market for several years. Because of huge response from
customers, Yamaha stuck to the production of two-stroke engines till 1969. In 1969, Yamaha
launched the XS-1 with its first 650 cc, two in-line cylinders, four-stroke engine. In 1998, Yamaha
promoted a groundbreaking 1000 cc, four in-line cylinders, four stroke motorcycle known as
the YZF ‘R1’. This model was equipped with innovative style of gearbox design which helped
Yamaha to contract the dimensions of the gearbox and constructed compact power generating
unit. This helped Yamaha to design a new concept of engine location in the frame far enough
forward. This innovative step in motorcycle design helped drivers to drive with good handling.
Figure 1.16 Yamaha DT-1.
Another pioneer, Michio Suzuki established the Suzuki Loom Company, Japan in 1909.
The Suzuki was established and grown as a manufacturer of looms. The Suzuki Loom company
was determined on producing advanced looms and on the growth of these extraordinarily
intricate machines. In 1945, loom producing plants were heavily damaged in world war and
were declared as closed. Again in 1950, company faced commercial emergency as a result of
labor unions. Moreover, the Japanese were looking forward for inexpensive and simple vehicles
for personal transport after the war. So Suzuki decided to produce a motorized bicycle and
launched a 36 cc vehicle named as “Power Free” in 1952. The Suzuki introduced “Diamond
Free” with the raised capacity of 60 cc in 1953. Because of huge response for “Diamond Free”,
the Suzuki Loom Company got subsidy from new democratic government to advance their
research in motorcycle engineering. In 1954, the company changed its name to Suzuki Motor
Company Limited. Within one year, in 1955, Suzuki marketed a 125 cc, 4-stroke, single cylinder
motorcycle “Colleda COX” (Figure 1.17) and a 125 cc, 2-stroke, single cylinder motorcycle
“Colleda ST”. This legacy moved ahead and ultimately the company became well known for
its high performance motorcycles like Hayabusa and GSX-R series.
Eventually, after 1960, the motorcycle became an asset of a lifestyle, status was judged
by owing a motorcycle. Motorcycle was the first choice of youth as it became representation of
independence. Day by day, more and more funds were expended on research and development
Figure 1.17 Suzuki Colleda COX.
of the motorcycle for making it an entertaining machine in sports and relaxation. This need of
society was quickly documented by the Japanese manufacturers. Within short duration of time,
they quickly erected many facilities to produce modern motorcycles. Their motorcycles were
more modish, inexpensive, more consistent and of better riding quality.
Honda was established in Japan which announced a new motorcycle “CB750” with
Single Over Head Cam shaft, inline four-cylinder engine in 1969. Figure 1.18 shows Honda
CB750. It was equipped with innovatively cross mounted four-cylinder engine configured to
develop huge power and performance. CB750 was economical and fast because of which it
was instantly accepted in the market. The advantage of multi cylinder four-stroke engine in
motorcycle sports was proven by Kawasaki with the launch of the KZ900. Thus, the indubitable
quality of Japanese motorcycles caused sagged sales of many Italian motorcycle manufacturers
in western markets. Many of them either stopped manufacturing or somehow succeeded to
persist their economy. The same Japanese competition was encountered by 1920’s biggest
motorcycle manufacturer, Harley–Davidson, in the US. Harley–Davidson survived because of
their exclusively manufactured motorcycle range and American tariff laws.
Figure 1.18 Honda CB750.
Meanwhile, BMW was working on a first of its kind motorcycle which was equipped
with full fairing as shown in Figure 1.19. The R100RS was launched by BMW in 1977 which
11
Introduction
was the first motorcycle with company fitted fairing manufactured in mass quantity. Without
making any further delay, in 1980, BMW enthused the R80G/S, a new category of motorcycle
by combining designs of its sport model with commuter model. The R80G/S was known as the
“adventure touring”. BMW was the first motorcycle manufacturer to present Anti-lock braking
system (ABS) in motorcycles, K100RS-SE and K1, in 1988.
Figure 1.19 BMW K100RS.
Currently the Japanese companies like Suzuki, Honda, Yamaha and Kawasaki lead in the
huge motorcycle market. Manufacturer of cruiser motorcycle, Harley-Davidson still continues
its admiration in particular class of drivers. Sales figures of recent years indicates growth in
the acceptance of the many other brands which include Ducati, BMW and Triumph.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TWO WHEELERS

A large number of two wheelers are being used and manufactured in different countries of
the world. Depending upon their capacity and use, they are named as scooterette, mopeds,
scooters, motorcycle etc.
Different types of two wheelers on the basis of cubic capacity, weight and use are
classified in the following ways:
1.
With respect to use
(a) Auto cycle, Mopeds and Moppets
(b) Scooters
(c) Motor cycles
2.
With respect to cubic capacity
(a) 50 cc (d) 150 cc
(b) 100 cc (e) 200 cc
(c) 125 cc (f) 250 cc
3.
With respect to make
(a) Auto cycle: Luna, TVS 50, Hero Majestic, Bajaj-M 50, Hitodi
(b) Scooters: Bajaj Vespa, Priya, Chetak, Super, Lambretta, Pushpak, LML Vespa,
Kinetic Honda
(c) Motorcycle: Hero Honda, Bajaj, Yamaha, Suzuki, Royal Enfield, Honda
4.
With respect to fuel used
(a) Petrol vehicle (b) Diesel vehicle
(c) Electric vehicle
1.5 MOPEDS
Mopeds are also known as Auto cycles or Moppets. Mopeds are used for short distance travel
with just the driver or with a pillion passenger like daily travel to and from nearby place.
A moped is a light in weight and a low powered vehicle. Mopeds are equipped with pedals
which can be used for starting as well as driving purpose. Its construction is very simple and
operating cost is also low. The capacity of fuel storage is very less as mopeds are designed
for short journeys. It is important to note that mopeds should not be used frequently for long
distance travel with heavy baggage otherwise they would be subjected to wear and tear beyond
limit. Figure 1.20 displays moped.
Figure 1.20 Moped.
1.6 SCOOTERS
Scooters are fast in speed than mopeds. Scooters are equipped with one single unit consisting
the engine and transmission. In early designs, leg shield was provided in order to defend the
driver from gunship in war. The same leg shield is now used to create storage space and to
13
Introduction
avoid mud and road water. Foot board is an integrated part of leg shield and used to support
extra luggage.
Figure 1.21 illustrates a modern scooter. Scooters are generally mounted with four-stroke
single cylinder engine which can produce medium power. Engine is located at rear under
because of which handling and controlling of scooter at high speed is difficult. Scooters can
be used for comparatively longer distance travel with baggage and a pillion passenger. The
main attraction of a scooter is low fuel consumption in comparison to mopeds. Operating cost
for scooters is also very less. Scooters generally have a less road tax license in comparison
to motorcycles.
Figure 1.21 Scooter.
Scooters can be classified in two ways: Manual transmission and CVT. Most vintage
scooters and some newer retro models have engines with a manual transmission. The gear shift
mechanism and clutch controls are fitted into the left handlebar. Nowadays, all scooters make
use of continuously variable transmission (CVT). CVT provides easy riding and fast control
of vehicle in traffic conditions.
1.7 MOTORCYCLES
A motorcycle is also called a motorbike, or simply bike. Motorcycles vary significantly
depending on the task for which they are designed, such as traversing congested urban traffic,
travelling, sport and racing, or cross-country conditions.
Motorcycles are fitted out with the medium to high powered engines and mainly designed
for long journeys on any kind of roads with luggage and a pillion passenger. As engine is located
in middle of vehicle, controlling and handling the motorcycle is easy. Mainly, motorcycles can
be classified in following ways:
STREET COMMUTER BIKE: The street bikes come with all the legal lights and turn signals,
low fenders, extra instrumentation, soft seats and pegs, hand rails and small cylinders, medium
capacity engine. Capacity of engine ranges from under 100 cc to over 1200 cc. Extra equipment
such as wind screens and fairing, luggage bags, and the side car are optional detachable parts.
Fundamentally, steering geometry of commuter bike differs from other types of bike which
makes it easy to drive in dense traffic and narrow streets. Figure 1.22 shows a commuter bike.
Figure 1.22 Street Commuter Bike.
ENDURE BIKE: Endure motorcycles are specially designed for off road use and also
known as dirt bikes. For off road usage, they characteristically need following alterations
when compared to street commuter motorcycles.
Light weight: It helps easy handling of bike during off road manoeuvers.
Long suspension travel: It improves riding quality and easy landing on curled paths.
High ground clearance: It protects engine and transmission by avoiding crash between
frame and ground.
Tough construction with little bodywork: It absorbs shocks and gives comfort during
off road driving.
Large wheels: Large diameter of wheels helps to generate sufficient torque on uneven
surface.
Knobby tyres: Tyres with definite tread pattern helps to improve grip on slippery
surface.
Wide gear ratios: It helps to generate sufficient torque as and when required.
Narrower handle bars: It reduces the overall width of the bike and improves steering
efforts needed.
Raised exhaust: It avoids water to come inside the exhaust and avoids inflowing
water into the cylinder.
Dirt bikes are required to have an engine protection in the form of double down tube
frame and plate construction. Engines are kept smaller and compact for easy handling. Fender
clearance is as much as 5 to 6 inches to compensate the travel of long suspension and to avoid
mud padding between the tyre and fender. Figure 1.23 illustrates an endure bike.
15
Introduction
Figure 1.23 Endure Bike.
CRUISER BIKE: Cruisers are specially designed for cruising. To compete long journeys,
the riding position on a cruiser bikes are designed for maximum comfort. The feet have to be
placed forward to operate the gear shifting lever and brake pedal. A connecting links are used
to operate the gear shifting lever and brake pedal. Handle bar is bent in a definite pattern and
pulled back up to the reach of rider. Seating of rider slightly remains in lean back; this is
found more comfortable for long-distance riding.
Figure 1.24 demonstrates a cruiser bike. Cruiser bikes come with high capacity engine
and five to six speed gearbox. Due to long wheelbase, many cruising motorcycles are having
large turning radius. On the other hand, long wheelbase helps to improve longitudinal stability
of bike at high speed. Nowadays, many riders make their own customized cruisers to suit their
postures, urge, pride and triumph. That is why cruisers are sometimes entitled as custom even
without any of aftermarket alterations.
Figure 1.24 Cruiser Bike.

SPORT BIKES: The importance is given on speed, acceleration, braking, and manoeuverability
while designing a sport bike. Sport bikes are equipped with relatively high speed high
performance engines. A lightweight frame is used to mount the powerful multi cylinder
engine. The combination of these helps to maintain structural uprightness and chassis rigidity.
Braking system includes higher performance brake pads and multi-piston calipers. Discs are
kept oversized and vented properly for better heat dissipation. Generally, suspension systems
consist inverted telescopic suspension at front and Mono-sock suspension at rear. Both the
suspension systems are unconventional in terms of functioning and construction to increase
overall stability and durability at high speed. Tyres used on the sport bikes are larger and
wider than other types of motorcycles. This allows high speed cornering along with larger lean
angles. Fairings are molded to decrease aerodynamic drag and to provide wind protection for
the rider at high speeds.
Figure 1.25 shows a high performance sport bike. Sport bikes are not meant for street use
like other motorcycles. Riding posture and ergonomics are compromised in favour of weight
distribution, dynamic stability and improved aerodynamics. However, on production sport bikes,
there are few extra features or comforts offered like those available on touring motorcycles
such as centre stands, large windshields, or huge front fairings to provide protection.
Figure 1.25 Sport Bike.
1.8 LAYOUT OF MOPED

Mopeds are tiny and elegant vehicle with a tough frame and a small capacity engine. The
frame itself works as a vehicle body and fuel tank is remain integral part of this frame
in the front side of vehicle. All components are mounted on the same body. Generally, moped
uses two-stroke, single cylinder air cooled engine. Capacity of engine falls between 50 cc
to 80 cc. engine is located in middle, under the fuel tank. From engine to rear wheel, the
power transmission takes place by means of centrifugal automatic clutch and trapezoidal-
17
Introduction
shaped belt, belt pulley and reduction gear unit. It is also provided with auxiliary transmission
comprises of pedals, sprockets with crank, roller chain. A unique characteristic of moped is its
pedal starting. The engine is equipped with pedal for cranking purpose. A declutching lever
is provided under the rear brake lever to engage and disengage the engine from transmission
during pedal start. Generally moped uses a mixture of petrol and 2T motor oil at 2%, i.e.
about 20 ml of oil for each litre of petrol. It comes with bench type seat for passenger
as well as pillion. Suspensions are not too effective as compare with scooter or motorcycle.
All mopeds use the mechanical type brake both for front and rear. Mopeds are equipped with
necessary instrumentation like speedometer, odometer and fuel gauge. Figure 1.26 shows general
layout of moped.
Figure 1.26 Layout of Moped.
1.9 LAYOUT OF SCOOTER

Figure 1.27 shows a basic layout of scooter. It consists of streamlined backbone type integrated
chassis. Chassis is fabricated with steel tubes, pressed steel sections which are electrically
welded. A detachable pressed steel dome-shaped tool box and engine bonnet are used as rear
body panels. A FRP maid front dome is used as leg shield and also serves the purpose of
storage compartment. Integrated with front dome, the foot board is also made up of FRP in new
scooters. The four-stroke single cylinder engine is located at rear below the seat. In scooters
with manual transmission, drive is provided to the rear wheel through clutch, Cush drive and
four speed gear box. Modern scooters make use of CVT in which trapezoidal belt and pulley
along with the centrifugal clutch is used for transmission. Generally, the engine is started by
means of electric start but a kick start is also provided on the right hand side of the scooter
through a retched sector and a gear. Earlier, scooters were equipped with split seat for driver
and pillion passenger. Nowadays, all scooters come with bench type seat which makes ride
comfortable for driver. Some modern scooters are fitted out with disc brake at front while drum
brake is almost universal on all models. Leading link or trailing link type suspension system
is used at front and a mono-shock suspension is used at rear. Comparatively, suspensions have
less travel and are not so effective if compared with motorcycle.
Figure 1.27 Layout of Scooter.
1.10 LAYOUT OF MOTORCYCLE

It consists of Tubular, Pressed steel or Engine-based chassis. The motorcycle frame provides a
strong, rigid structure upon which to attach the components necessary to make up the machine.
The bike’s characteristics are derived from frame geometry. The engine is located at middle
of the bike. This engine working on petrol is secured to the chassis through the crankcase
mounting provided on the engine casing. This engine is more powerful with higher capacity
than scooters and mopeds. Transmission is provided by driving the rear wheel through clutch,
and gear box, and chain drive. It uses four, five or six speed gear box with sequential gear box
19
Introduction
in oil baths. The engine is started by means of a kick start or electric start provided. Generally
the front suspensions are telescopic type. Rear suspension makes use of swing arm with twin
shock or mono shock arrangement. Disc brakes at both the ends are now universal design
adopted by all manufacturers though some small capacity motorcycle still use drum brake at
rear. Fuel storage capacity is far higher than mopeds and scooters to compete long journeys.
Figure 1.28 illustrates layout of motorcycle.
Figure 1.28 Layout of Motorcycle.
1.11 BASIC SYSTEMS

The basic systems used to build a two wheeler are:
The Frame
Wheels and Brakes
Suspensions
Engine
Drive Line
Fuel System
Ignition System
Electrical System
1.11.1 The Frame

Two wheeler frames are usually steel tubing or stamping welded into a rigid unit. Some
bikes have aluminium or other light alloy frame for special purpose riding as shown in
Figure 1.29. The most common system is the tubular frame with swing arm type. Backbone
type tubular frame is commonly used for scooters. The stamped box frame is limited for
light, small engine bikes. The frame also includes the mounting brackets for attaching other
components such as seats, suspensions, foot pegs etc. Usually, arc and MIG welding is used
to fabricate the frame.
Figure 1.29 Aluminium Alloy Frame.
1.11.2 Wheels and Brakes

Earlier, most motorcycle wheels were spoked for light
weight, low cost and reasonable rigidity. Cast alloy wheels
are now being used on every bike, but they are expensive.
Stamped or pressed steel wheels are found on some mini
bikes and on all scooters. As stated earlier, except few,
all scooters use drum brakes on both the ends while some
use disc brake at front. Disc brakes at both the ends are
now universal design adopted by all manufacturers though
some small capacity motorcycle still use drum brake at
rear as shown in Figure 1.30.
1.11.3 Suspensions Figure 1.30 Disc Brake at Rear.
In motorcycle, the most common front suspension system is the telescopic forks that use a
combination of sliding tubes, internal springs, and hydraulic damping to provide a smooth ride.
The rear suspension consists of swing arm that attach the frame to the rear wheels. Coil spring
shock absorber combination are attached near the axle on the swing arm and fixed to a solid
21
Introduction
frame point. Nowadays, higher capacity motorcycles make use of either double-sided or single
sided swing arm with mono shock suspension as shown in Figure 1.31.
Figure 1.31 Mono Shock Suspension of Motorcycle Used at Rear End.
Scooters are equipped with trailing or leading link type suspension at front. In almost all
scooters, a single compact unit containing engine and transmission forms a single sided swing
arm at rear and uses mono shock suspension system.
1.11.4 Engine
Most of the bikes use four-stroke engine nowadays, just because of fuel efficiency and better
balancing. The number of cylinders depends on the capacity required for bike. Generally the
numbers of cylinders vary from one to six. Making an engine with multi cylinders rather than
one does more than just increase the power output. The single cylinder has the advantages of
being narrower and having fewer parts to break. The next chapter describes about two wheeler
engine in details. Figure 1.32 illustrates an engine used in sport bike.
Figure 1.32 Four-stroke, Horizontally Opposed Twin Cylinder Engine.

1.11.5 Drive Train

In all two wheelers, the engine’s power is used to turn the rear wheel. The mechanical parts
that connect the engine and the rear wheel are called the Drive line. On most bikes the first
part of the drive line is a gear or chain reduction between the engine crankshaft and the clutch.
This reduces clutch speed, but increases torque. Next in the power train is the clutch. Most
bikes use wet multi plate type clutch. The hand lever and cable is used to control the clutch
on most bikes. In scooters with CVT, clutches are operated automatically by centrifugal action.
Driving power flows from the clutch to gear box. A transmission usually has four, five
or six different gear ratio. Figure 1.33 shows a 6 speed gearbox used in bike. Behind the
transmission there is a linkage to the rear wheel. Most bikes have chain drive arrangement
with small sprocket on the output shaft of the gearbox, a larger sprocket on the rear wheel.
A few powerful bikes use a shaft drive to transmit power from the transmission to the wheel.
Figure 1.33 Manual Gearbox of Motorcycle.
1.11.6 Fuel System

The fuel system includes all those parts that store or regulate fuel supply in the two wheeler.
Major parts of the fuel supply system are fuel tank, shut-off valve, fuel lines, filters, carburetor,
and intake manifold. Modern bikes use the fuel injection system instead of carburetor. This
consists tank, ECU, injectors etc.
1.11.7 Ignition
Currently there are three types of ignition system in use. First is the magneto system that
is often found on small bikes and competition bikes. The second type, the battery and coil
23
Introduction
ignition system, uses current from the battery to power the coil and produce the high voltage
spark. The third type is the electronic ignition system. Nowadays, all two wheelers make use
of battery ignition, electronic ignition or combination of these two systems.
1.11.8 Electrical System

Besides the electrical parts needed to operate the ignition system, the modern two wheeler
has many electrical components to increase a rider’s safety, ease and pleasure. These include
head and tail lights, brake lights, warning lights, turn lights, buzzers and horns, radios, engine
malfunction, gear indicators etc.
All the indicators are generally mounted on the single console above the headlight. Many
brands relocate some of the indicators on fuel tank. Figure 1.34 illustrates a console of high
performance sport bike.
Figure 1.34 Indicators of High Performance Sport Bike.
Review Questions
1. Classify two wheelers.
2. Briefly explain various types of motorcycles with their characteristics.
3. Explain the layout of a moped.
4. Why scooters are not preferred for long journeys? Also explain layout of scooter.
5. Describe layout of motorcycle with neat sketch.
6. Briefly explain basic system used to build a two wheeler.
2
Two Wheeler Engine
Contents
YY Classification
YY Two-stroke and Four-stroke Engines
YY Selection Criteria
YY Design Considerations
All the two wheelers use internal combustion engine for producing required amount of power
which is to be finally transmitted to rear driving wheels. Depending upon type and use, power
output range of two-wheeler engines diverge significantly. Orientation of engine on the vehicle
also differs according to vehicle type. Although, modern two wheelers use well engineered
engines as shown in Figure 2.1, lot of research and development activities are going on to
improve the performance of two-wheeler engines.
Figure 2.1 Engine of Modern Motorcycle.
24
Two Wheeler Engine 25
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINES

Two-wheeler engines are classified in the following ways.
1. With respect to number of strokes
2. With respect to speed and torque output
3. With respect to power output
4. With respect to cylinder angle
5. With respect to number of cylinder
6. With respect to arrangement of cylinders
7. With respect to valve operating mechanism
8. With respect to cooling system
9. With respect to fuel supply system
2.1.1 Number of Strokes

It decides the number in which the Otto cycle is completed for required power generation.
Mainly, IC engines are classified as two-stroke and four-stroke engines. As discussed in
previous chapter, early two wheelers were using two stroke engines for power generation but
now they are almost absolute. Many old two wheelers are still there on road with two-stroke
engine as they are in demand for their high power producing capacity. The entire category of
two-wheeler vehicles is now using four-stroke engines because of its beneficial characteristics
like low fuel consumption, better balancing, low emissions etc.
2.1.2 Speed and Torque Output

Fundamentally, this is a subjective classification in the case of two wheelers where engines
are classified as
(a)
High Speed Engine
(b)
Medium Speed Engine
(c)
Low Speed Engine
In the case of two-wheeler vehicles, engine is considered as high speed engine when
its normal operating range crosses 8000 RPM and can reach up to 15000 RPM. Engines
which normally operate below 3000 RPM are considered as low speed engines. Generally,
manufacturers recommend the medium range of 3000 RPM to 8000 RPM for best fuel economy.
Moreover, engines can also be classified as low torque engine, medium torque engine
and high torque engine. Generally, low speed engines produce high torque and high speed
engine produce low to medium range of torque. Low speed engines with high torque range
are used on endure bikes as these bikes are specially designed for off road manoeuverability.
Street commuter makes use of medium speed medium torque engine. Cruisers are equipped
with low speed engines which can produce medium torque range as cruisers are mostly used
on wide vacant roads and highways. Sport bikes are required to incorporate high speed engine
with high torque range to generate instant acceleration. Scooters use low speed engine which
can generate low range of torque.
2.1.3 Power Output

It is also a subjective classification in which engines are classified as low power, medium
power and high power engine. Engines which can produce up to 30 bhp are considered as
low power engines, 30 bhp to 50 bhp as medium power engines and above 50 bhp, engines
are considered as high power engines. Generally, engines are specified with respect to the
maximum power it can develop. All the engines can develop a particular amount of power at
particular range of RPM. Let us say for example, one engine has working range up to 12000
RPM. It is producing maximum 30 BHP power at 7500 RPM. So it cannot produce 30 BHP
at any other range of RPM.
Sometimes, maximum power generating RPM range is also used to classify the engines
as: end-range power, mid-range power and low-range power engines. The engine stated in the
example falls under the category of mid-range power engine as it is producing its maximum
power at mid-range of RPM. It can fall under the category of end-range power engines if it
can produce its maximum power above 8000 RPM. Likewise, it can be denoted as low-range
power engine if it can produce maximum power in initial range up to 4000 RPM. Sport bikes
use low-range power engine as they required spontaneous acceleration while cruisers use end-
range power engines as they are required to generate more power after particular range of
RPM. Scooters use diversified range of low to mid power engines.
2.1.4 Cylinder Angle

All the engines can be classified basically into three categories based on cylinder axis angle as
vertical engines, inclined engines and horizontal engines. Single cylinder with high capacity,
low speed and high torque range are kept vertical for longitudinal stability. Single cylinder
with low capacity, low speed engines are retained horizontal because of less weight. All the
multi cylinder engines are kept inclined for better balancing. Figures 2.2 a, 2.2 b and 2.2 c
show vertical, inclined and horizontal engines respectively.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.2 Vertical, Inclined and Horizontal Engines.
2.1.5 Number of Cylinder

An engine may use single cylinder when designed to produce low power generation with lower
cubic capacity like scooters, street commuter bikes etc. On the other hand, sport bikes and
cruisers need engines with high power and consequently with high cubic capacity. It is not
possible to generate that much of power with single cylinder engine in limited space available.
So designers go for multicylinder engine to generate higher power. Multicylinder engine uses
more than one cylinder, i.e. twin cylinders, four cylinders, six cylinders etc.
2.1.6 Arrangement of Cylinders

As stated above, many two wheelers use multicylinder engines to produce high power. According
to their arrangement, multicylinder engines mainly classified as below.
(a)
V twin engines
(b)
Horizontally opposed twin cylinder engines
(c)
Side-by-side twin cylinder engines
(d)
V four engines
(e)
Horizontally opposed four cylinder engines
(f)
Three cylinder in-line engines
(g)
Four cylinder in-line engines
(h)
V five engines
(i)
Six cylinder in-line engines
(j)
Horizontally opposed six cylinder engines
(k)
V eight engines
2.1.7 Valve Operating Mechanism

Engines may be classified with respect to the mechanism used to operate the valves. Nowadays,
following three types of configurations are used to operate valves.
(a) Pushrod overhead valve
Figure 2.3 Pushrod Valve Operating Mechanism.
As shown in Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4, a single camshaft located in crankcase is driven
by crankshaft through gear drive. This camshaft contains two different cams generated on its
periphery. These cams push the pushrods of inlet as well as exhaust valves when required.
Rocker arms are pivoted in cylinder head and operated by pushrods. Rocker arms then push
the valves for appropriate action.
Figure 2.4 Pushrod Overhead Valve Engine.
Opening and closing time of valves are totally controlled by cam shaft adjustment.
Balancing of this engine is not good as pushrods are just additional weight into total reciprocating
masses. Mainly, this type of engine is used on cruiser bikes because of their better balancing
characteristics in longitudinal direction.
(b) Single overhead camshaft

The pushrods are eliminated in this system and a single camshaft is mounted above the valves
in cylinder head. Cams are generated on a single cam shaft to operate inlet and exhaust valves.
This camshaft is run by crankshaft through a chain drive shown in Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6.
Rocker arms are operated by respective cams and consequently it operates valves. Balancing
of single overhead cam engine is much better because of elimination of pushrods.
Figure 2.5 Single Overhead Camshaft Mechanism.

Figure 2.6 Single Overhead Camshaft Engine.
(c) Double overhead camshaft

Very few two wheelers make use of
double overhead camshaft engines
because of the extra cost and weight.
Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8 show the
double overhead camshaft mechanism
and engine. The cylinder head contains
two exclusive camshafts, one for inlet
valve and second is for exhaust valve.
Both the camshafts are run by chain
drive. Performance of this engine is little
higher than single overhead camshaft Figure 2.7 Double Overhead Camshaft Mechanism.
engine.
Figure 2.8 Cylinder Head of Double Overhead Camshafts.

2.1.8 Cooling System

Every engine needs some kind of cooling system to avoid seizing of piston and damage to other
components. With respect to the cooling system, engine may be classified in three different
categories.
(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Oil cooled engine
(c) Water cooled engine
2.1.9 Fuel Supply System

Mainly, fuel is supplied to the cylinder either with the help of carburetor or directly injected
into the cylinder. So engine can be classified as:
(a) Carbureted engine
(b) Fuel injected engine
2.2 TWO-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Figure 2.9 shows in simple diagram of two-stroke engine. The exhaust port is opened by the
piston movement after completion of about 80% of its stroke. The transfer port opens a little
later than the exhaust port. The fresh charge is pumped through the transfer post into the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.9 Two-stroke Engine. Figure 2.10 Intake Stroke.
The transfer port is first closed by the upward movement of piston slightly before the
exhaust port. Fresh charge along with some burnt gases is gradually compressed by the piston
after closing the exhaust port. This compression stroke is shown in Figure 2.11. At the same
instant, vacuum is generated in the crankcase because of upward movement of the piston. This
results as a supply of fresh charge from the carburetor into the crankcase.

Figure 2.11 Compression Stroke. Figure 2.12 Power Stroke.
Figure 2.12 illustrates power stroke successive to compression stroke. The compressed
charge is ignited by spark plug. Sudden combustion produces thrust on the piston and generates
downward movement. During downward stroke of piston, exhaust port is opened first to provide
a passage for burnt gases for coming out. Gradually, piston move downward and opens transfer
port from which fresh charge is supplied into the cylinder. The process of removing exhaust
gases with the help of fresh charge is known as scavenging as shown in Figure 2.13.
Figure 2.13 Scavenging in Two-stroke Engine.
Thus all the strokes are completed within the two-stroke cycle, it first combines power
and exhaust stroke as the piston moves downward, and then intake and compression as piston
moves upward. One of the major attractions of a two-stroke engine of this layout is its extreme
simplicity, and therefore low cost. It also has other advantages like less unbalanced masses,
smooth torque curve, small flywheel and less weight. However, on the other hand, it has many
disadvantages like, greater noise due to the sudden opening of the ports by the pistons, high
specific fuel consumption, excessive hydrocarbon content of the exhaust gas, and some more,
including difficulty of starting and irregular firing at idling and light load. Two-stroke engine
needs to be fed with fuel and lubricating oil mixture. This lubricating oil is also burnt with the
fuel in power stroke. This leads to higher exhaust emission and smoke generation.
The two-stroke engines were very popular in two wheelers and universally adopted during
the 19th–20th century. Currently, two-stroke engines have been substituted by four-stroke
engines due to their higher emissions. Still two-stroke engines are used in low power mopeds
and some small capacity scooters.
2.3 ROTARY VALVE TYPE TWO-STROKE ENGINE

The two-stroke engine discussed in the last section uses open inlet port for supplying air-
fuel-oil mixture into the crankcase. Open inlet port causes partly loss of fresh charge during
transfer stroke. It also affects the lubrication as size of crankcase has to be larger. To avoid
this condition, some two-stroke engines make use of rotary valve for inlet port. Figure 2.14
illustrates a schematic diagram of rotary valve engine.
Figure 2.14 Rotary Valve Engine.

A rotary valve controls the opening and

closing of inlet port by using a partially cutaway
rotating disc. This disc is directly mounted on the
crankshaft and rotates with it. Opening and closing
of the inlet port takes place at definite times. The
carburetor is conventionally mounted on the side
of the engine. Rotary valve slot allows the air-fuel-
oil mixture to enter into the vacuumed chamber of
crankcase. The total duration of supplying fresh
charge is either for entire upward stroke of the Figure 2.15 Rotary Valve Disc.
piston or for definite portion of upward stroke of the piston. The length of slot on rotary
valve is accordingly designed. Figure 2.15 shows the disc used in rotary valve engine. Size
of crankcase is considerably reduced because of this arrangement. The fresh charge is then
transferred to the combustion chamber during downward stroke of the piston. Lubrication of
components is improved as the size of crankcase is small.
2.4 PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

The port timing diagram shows the opening and closing of various ports with respect to
the crank position. As discussed in previous section, opening and closing of ports takes
place due to reciprocating movement of the piston. One of the ways to set the opening and
closing of ports is with respect to piston position but it is very difficult as the linear speed of
piston is very high. The easiest method is to calculate the opening and closing of ports with
respect to crank rotation. Crank is considered at 0 degrees when piston reaches at TDC. Crank
is considered at 180 degrees when piston reaches BDC. Thus, crank rotates by 360 degrees
when piston completes two strokes, i.e. piston moves from TDC to BDC and again from
BDC to TDC. So it becomes easy to interconnect the opening and closing of ports with rotation
of crank.
Fundamentally, two-stroke engines can run either with symmetric port timing diagram
or with asymmetric port timing diagram. Figure 2.16 illustrates a symmetric port timing
diagram.
Inlet port of a two-stroke engine opens in the crankcase so generally it is not mentioned
on the port timing diagram. Piston starts moving downward from TDC to BDC and cranks
starts its rotation from 0 degrees. Exhaust port opens first during downward movement of
piston. Opening of exhaust port provides open passage and burnt gases come out of the cylinder
because of huge pressure difference between cylinder and atmosphere. This flow of burnt gases
stops when pressure difference decreases. Some amount of exhaust gas always remains present
inside the cylinder. Further movement of piston allows the transfer port to open from where
fresh charge comes inside the cylinder. Opening of transfer port takes place 45 degrees before
to BDC, i.e. transfer port opens 45 degrees before piston reaches to BDC. The fresh charge
coming inside the cylinder is used to push the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. The
process by which exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder with the help of fresh charge
is known as a scavenging process.
Figure 2.16 Symmetric Port Timing Diagram.
After opening the transfer port, piston reaches to BDC and crank completes its 180
degrees rotation. During downward motion of piston, fresh charge is completely transferred to
the cylinder from crankcase. Now, piston starts moving upward because of inertia of flywheel.
Piston closes transfer port first and stops the supply of fresh charge. Closing of the exhaust
port takes place 65 degrees after the BDC. Further upward motion of piston compresses
the fresh charge. Theoretically, for maximum power output, spark should be introduced when
piston reaches to TDC and crank completes its 360 degrees rotation. However, there is always
a time lag between the spark and start of ignition. The ignition starts some times after introducing
spark, therefore it becomes necessary to introduce the spark before piston reaches to TDC.
Spark is introduced 20 degrees before TDC. This allows proper burning of fresh charge and
helps to improve power output. It can be observed from Figure 2.13 that power stroke takes
place between points S to EOP. Exhaust stroke happens between points EOP to EPC and
compression occurs between EPC to S. Thus, the cycle is completed within single rotation
of crank form 0 to 360 degrees and within two strokes of piston. If the port timing diagram
is observed with a centre line, the opening and closing of ports are almost symmetrical on
both the sides. The engine which uses symmetric port timing diagram always suffers with low
thermal efficiency.
As stated earlier, from point TPO to point EPC, scavenging process takes place. During
the upward motion of piston, exhaust port remains open for 20 degrees even after closing
of transfer port. The upward motion of piston and availability of open exhaust port causes
loss of fresh charge through the exhaust port. Some amount of fresh charge is also pushed
out of the cylinder with burnt gases. To avoid loss of fresh charge, many two-stroke engines
use asymmetric port timing diagram. Figure 2.17 shows asymmetric port timing diagram of
two-stroke engine.
The only difference observed between these two port timing diagrams is closing of
transfer port. Piston first closes the exhaust port while moving upward. Closing of transfer
port takes place 65 degrees after BDC. This can be accomplished by using rotary valve
disc as explained in previous section. Closing of exhaust port takes place with the help of
rotary valve and closing of transfer port is done conventionally with upward movement of
piston. Slot on the rotary valve disc is designed precisely to match with the movement of
piston. Opening of exhaust port is done simultaneously by disc and piston while closing is
done only by the disc. Thus length of the arc on rotary disc plays vital role in operation of
two-stroke engine which uses asymmetric port timing diagram. This arrangement avoids loss
of fresh charge during scavenging process. Other particulars on the asymmetric port timing
diagrams are self-explanatory.
Figure 2.17 Asymmetric Port Timing Diagram.
2.5 FOUR-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Nowadays, most two wheelers’ engines use the four-stroke cycle for engine. The process
begins by the starter motor or kick start gear rotating the engine until combustion takes place.
Figure 2.18 shows layout of four-stroke engine. The piston is assembled with a crankshaft
through a connecting rod. This arrangement allows the piston to reciprocate in the cylinder
as the crankshaft rotates. A piston stroke is a movement of piston either from TDC to BDC
or BDC to TDC of the cylinder. The number of piston strokes required to complete the cycle
helps to decide the engine cycles.
As shown in Figure 2.19, in the intake stroke, inlet valve opens and the piston inside the
cylinder moves downward. This movement generates suction inside the cylinder and a mixture
of air and fuel comes into the cylinder. The crankshaft rotates through 180 degrees from top
dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC). As the engine continues to rotate, the intake
valve closes and the piston starts moving upward in the cylinder. This as a result, compresses
the air-fuel mixture. The crankshaft rotates through 180 degrees from bottom dead centre (BDC)
to top dead centre (TDC) as shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.18 Four-stroke Petrol Engine. Figure 2.19 Suction Stroke.
When the piston reaches to the top dead of the cylinder, the spark at the spark plug ignites
the compressed charge, which forces the piston downward. Figure 2.21 shows power stroke.
The crankshaft again rotates through 180 degrees from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead
centre (BDC). The engine continues to rotate, and the piston again starts moving upward in the
cylinder. The exhaust valve is opened due to cam movement. The piston forces the remaining
burned gases out of the cylinder. The crankshaft rotates through 180 degrees from bottom dead
centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC) as shown in Figure 2.22.

Figure 2.20 Compression Stroke. Figure 2.21 Power Stroke. Figure 2.22 Exhaust Stroke.
Figure 2.23 shows valve timing diagram for high speed petrol engine. The valve timing
diagram shows the opening and closing time of valve with respect to crank position. Since
the valve requires definite period of time to open and close, a slight lead time is necessary
for proper operation of engine.
Figure 2.23 Valve Timing Diagram for Four-stroke Engine.
The inlet valve opens as the piston reaches to TDC. The valve will be fully opened and
fresh charge starts filling into the cylinder as soon as the piston starts downward movement. If
the inlet valve is allowed to close at BDC, the cylinder would receive less amount of charge than
its capacity. The pressure of the charge at the end of suction stroke will be below atmospheric
pressure. To evade this, the inlet valve is retained open for 40 to 50 degrees rotation of crank
after the BDC. The kinetic energy of the fresh charge produces a ram effect which packs more
charge into the cylinder during this additional valve opening.
Complete removal of the burnt gases from the cylinder is necessary to take in more
charge. Earlier opening of the exhaust valve before reaching to BDC allows the removal of the
exhaust gases by advantage of the pressure difference. The kinetic energy of incoming fresh
charge also helps in removing the burnt gases. To achieve this, the inlet and exhaust valves
overlap for 10 degrees of crank rotation as shown in Figure 2.23. This overlap must not be
excessive enough to allow the burned gases to be sucked into the intake manifold or fresh
charge to escape through the exhaust manifold.
Theoretically, it would be appropriate to produce spark just at the end of compression
stroke. However, there is always a time lag between the spark and start of ignition. The
compressed charge requires chemical and physical reactions for complete combustion. The
ignition starts some times after introducing spark, therefore it becomes necessary to introduce
the spark before piston reaches to TDC. Spark is introduced 20 degrees before TDC. This
allows proper burning of fresh charge and helps to improve power output. The angle through
which the spark is introduced earlier is known as Ignition Advance or Angle of Advance.
2.6 COMPARISON OF TWO-STROKE AND

FOUR-STROKE ENGINES
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of two-stroke engine over four-stroke engine.
Advantages
1.
The actual power developed by the two-stroke engine is 1.7 to 1.8 times the power
developed by the four-stroke engine of the same capacity and speed.
2.
For the same power output, two-stroke engine is much light weight and bulky than
a four-stroke engine.
3.
Two-stroke engine is much simpler in construction due to absence of valves, rocker
arms, push rods, cam and cam shaft etc.
4.
Friction loss in two-stroke engine is less than a four-stroke engine due to less number
of components.
5.
Mechanical efficiency of two-stroke engine is higher than a four-stroke engine.
6.
The weight to power ratio is considerably less in two-stroke engine.
7.
The two-stroke engine is much easier to start.
8.
The initial cost of two-stroke engine is very less.
Disadvantages
1.
The effective compression ratio of two-stroke engine is less than the four-stroke
engine for the same stroke length and clearance volume. So thermal efficiency of
two-stroke engine is less than the four-stroke engine.
2.
The specific fuel consumption of two-stroke engine is much higher than four-stroke
engine because some amount of fresh charge always pushed out form the cylinder
during scavenging process.
3.
Exhaust emissions form two-stroke engine is higher than the four-stroke engine
because of reduced scavenging process at higher speed.
4.
The turning moment of two-stroke engine is more non-uniform compared to
four-stroke engine, so it requires heavier flywheel.
5.
Two-stroke engine is noisier than four-stroke engine.
6.
Two-stroke engine produces more vibration so it requires strong foundation or
mounting.
7.
The consumption of lubricating oil is also higher in case of two-stroke engine.
2.7 ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS USED IN TWO WHEELERS

As discussed earlier, many two wheelers use multi cylinder engine for power generation
because an engine with more cylinders is smoother operating. The power pulses produced by
the power strokes are more closely spaced. Following are different types of multi cylinder
engine configurations used in two wheelers.
2.7.1 V Twin Engines

A V twin engine is also known as V2 engine. It is a two cylinder engine in which the cylinders
are organized in a configuration of letter ‘V’. Figure 2.24 illustrates a layout of V twin cylinder.
In most V twin engines, both the connecting rods share a single crankpin. The connecting rods
may fit side-by-side with offset cylinders or in the same plane as shown in Figure 2.25. Mainly,
two arrangements are adopted in V twin engine: 90° V twin (Figure 2.26) and less than 90° V
twin (Figure 2.27). A 90° V twin, also known as L twin, produces perfect primary balance if
adopted with correct counterweight. A V twin with an angle of less than 90° has considerably
lesser mechanical balance but it is more compact then 90° V twin. V twin engines can be
mounted on vehicle by two different methods as described below.

Figure 2.24 Layout of V Twin Engine. Figure 2.25 Arrangement of Connecting
Rod while Cylinder Placed on Same Axis.
Figure 2.26 90° V Twin Engine.

Figure 2.27 Less than 90° V Twin Engine.
Transverse crankshaft mounting: The V twin engine can be placed in transverse crankshaft
position as shown in Figure 2.28. This arrangement helps to restrict the overall width of the
vehicle. A slimmer side of engine can be utilized to mount the engine near to the ground in
the frame. Lower mounted engine improves longitudinal direction stability as well as increase
easy handling. When using air cooling system, heat transfer rate of the rear cylinder tends to
be less due to restricted flow of air. It is a major drawback of this arrangement. Moreover,
the cooling problem increases further when a single carburetor is used to provide air fuel
mixture to both cylinders because the exhaust port of the rear cylinder originates at the back
of that cylinder. Examples of bikes with transverse crankshaft position are Harley Davidson
bikes, Ducati Panigale, KTM 1190 RC8, Honda VTR250 Interceptor, Aprilia RXV, Hyosung
GT650, Suzuki V-Strom etc.
Figure 2.28 Ducati with Transverse Crankshaft Mounted V Twin Engine.

Longitudinal crankshaft mounting: The longitudinal crankshaft orientation of V twin is

suitable when shaft drive is to be used as final drive. The problem of cooling and exhaust
location is eliminated by exposing both the cylinders to the fresh air. One drawback of
longitudinal crankshaft mounting is that it generates an opposite torque reaction at the time
of sudden acceleration on turning. As a result, vehicle is twisted to one side and becomes
unstable at high speed. Currently few manufacturers like Moto Guzzi, Honda etc. are using this
arrangement. Figure 2.29 illustrates a longitudinal crankshaft mounted V twin engine.
Figure 2.29 Moto Guzzi Stelvio with Longitudinal Crankshaft Orientated V Twin Engine.
2.7.2 Horizontally Opposed Twin Cylinder Engines

As shown in Figure 2.30, two pistons are mounted exactly opposite to each other and connected
to a single crankpin. It is also known as flat twin engine. Balancing of opposed piston engine
is better than V twin cylinder engine because the pistons are moving in opposite directions and
the inertia forces oppose and balance each other. Figure 2.31 shows on of the high performance
bike with horizontally opposed twin cylinder engine. Some manufacturers like BMW, Ural and
Dnepr use opposed twin cylinder engines.
Figure 2.30 Horizontally Opposed Twin Cylinder Engine.

Figure 2.31 BMW R1200R with Horizontally Opposed Twin Cylinder Engine.
2.7.3 Side-by-side Twin Cylinder Engines

Another widely used arrangement with two cylinders is
side-by-side layout as shown in Figure 2.32. It is also
known as a parallel twin cylinder engine. A parallel twin
cylinder engine has better cooling as its front, back and
sides are exposed to airflow. This arrangement is not
as good as the opposed twin because the unbalanced
forces due to the short length of the connecting is
difficult to balance. Some scooters like Yamaha Tmax
and Honda Silver Wing use parallel twin engine. Many
bike manufacturers like Kawasaki, Honda, Suzuki uses
parallel twin in their small capacity bikes. Figure 2.33 Figure 2.32 Layout of Parallel Twin
shows Kawasaki ER with parallel twin cylinder engine. Cylinder Engine.
Figure 2.33 Kawasaki ER with Parallel Twin Cylinder Engine.

2.7.4 V Four Engines

This arrangement is a combination of V twin with and parallel twin cylinder. Two V twin
cylinder engines are arranged parallel side-by-side so total number of cylinder becomes four
and that is why it is also known as V four engine. Figure 2.34 shows layout of V four engine.
All four pistons are connected to single crank. This arrangement is used when there is no scope
for four cylinder in-line engine. Vehicle with side-by-side V four engine is much slimmer than
a vehicle with in-line four cylinder engine. Just like V twin engine, V four engine can also
be mounted in two ways—transverse crankshaft mounting used by Yamaha Vmax, Suzuki
GSV-R, Aprillia RSV4 etc. as shown in Figure 2.35 and longitudinal crankshaft mounting used
by Honda ST1100, St1300 and Mouts MST as shown in Figure 2.36.
Figure 2.34 Layout of V Four Engine.
Figure 2.35 Yamaha Vmax with Transverse Crankshaft Mounted V Four Engine.
Figure 2.36 Motus MST with Longitudinal Crankshaft Mounted V Four Engine.
2.7.5 Horizontally Opposed Four-cylinder Engines

This arrangement is a combination of opposed twin cylinder engine with parallel twin cylinder.
An opposed twin cylinder is arranged parallel side-by-side so total number of cylinder becomes
four and that is why it is also known as opposed four-cylinder engine. Figure 2.37 shows layout
of opposed four-cylinder engine. It can be mounted only with one orientation, longitudinal
crankshaft mounting. It is worthless to mention that the cooling of engine drastically decreases
when mounted with transverse crankshaft. This arrangement is adopted to eliminate the balancing
difficulties of V four engine. Figure 2.38 illustrates a bike with opposed four-cylinder engine.
Figure 2.37 Layout of Opposed Four-cylinder Engine.

Figure 2.38 Honda GL 1000 with Opposed Four-cylinder Engine.
2.7.6 Three-cylinder In-line Engines

It is also known as in-line triple engine as three cylinders are arranged side-by-side in a
straight line or plane. Figure 2.39 illustrates the layout of three cylinder in-line engine. This
arrangement produces less vibration than a parallel twin. It occupies less space than in-line
four-cylinder. It can be mounted with transverse crankshaft mounting as shown in Figure 2.40
or with longitudinal crankshaft mounting as shown in Figure 2.41.
Figure 2.39 Layout of Three-cylinder In-line Engine.

Figure 2.40 Yamaha SZ 09 with Transverse Crankshaft Mounted Three-cylinder In-line Engine.
Figure 2.41 Triumph Rocket with Longitudinal Crankshaft Mounted Three-cylinder In-line Engine.
2.7.7 Four-cylinder In-line Engines

It is an extension of parallel twin cylinder engine. Two parallel twin are arranged side-by-
side to generate four-cylinder in-line engine. Figure 2.42 shows a four-cylinder in-line engine.
Four cylinders are arranged alongside in the same plane and driving the same crankshaft. Thus
four-cylinder in-line engine is perfectly balanced for primary forces. That’s the main reason
for being the first choice of designers while used in sport bikes. Majority of high capacity
bikes make use of this arrangement. The only disadvantage of four-cylinder in-line engine
is a pulsating power output. Figure 2.43 shows a bike with transverse crankshaft mounted
four-cylinder in-line engine.

Figure 2.42 Layout of Four-cylinder In-line Figure 2.43 Honda CB1000 with Transverse
Engine. Crankshaft Mounted Four-cylinder
In-line Engine.
2.7.8 V Five Engines

It is a refined form of V six-cylinder engines. Figure 2.44 shows layout of V five engines.
Three in-line cylinders are located on one side and two in-line cylinders are located on other
side. Thus total five cylinders together form a V five engine. Mostly, Honda is using V five
engine on RC211V racing bikes. Figure 2.45 shows Honda RC211V with V five engine.
Figure 2.44 Layout of V Five Engine.

Figure 2.45 Honda RC211V with V Five Engine.
2.7.9 Six-cylinder In-line Engines

It is an extension of four-cylinder in-line engine. Another pair of parallel twin is attached on
one side of four in-line to generate six-cylinder in-line engine. Figure 2.46 shows layout of
six-cylinder in-line engine. The six-cylinder layout is easy to balance in both primary and
secondary forces, ensuing in much reduced vibration. It is but obvious that this type of
arrangement is complex and used for very high capacity engines. As it is much bigger than
any other type of engines, it can be mounted with transverse crankshaft orientation only. Overall
width of vehicle increases considerably which can be utilized to generate more comfort for
driver and passengers. Figure 2.47 shows BMW K1600 GTL with six-cylinder in-line engine.
Figure 2.46 Layout of Six-cylinder in-line Engine.

Figure 2.47 BMW K1600 GTL with Six-cylinder In-line Engine.
2.7.10 Horizontally Opposed Six-cylinder Engines

It is also known as flat six engine with two sets of three cylinders on each side of a single
central crankcase. These six cylinders are mounted horizontally. Figure 2.48 shows layout of
opposed six-cylinder engine. The pistons are mounted to the crankshaft such that one set of
pistons completes the same stroke at the same time, i.e. both the opposing pistons complete
their suction stroke at the same time. This arrangement results in fundamentally better balancing
of the reciprocating parts. Cooling of engine also increases with this arrangement. Currently,
Honda Goldwing and Valkyrie use flat six-cylinder engine as shown in Figure 2.49.
Figure 2.48 Layout of Flat Six-cylinder Engine.

Figure 2.49 Honda Valkyrie with Flat Six-cylinder Engine.
2.7.11 V Eight Engines

A V8 engine is a V engine with four pair of V twin cylinder engines mounted side-by-side
with all eight pistons driving a single crankshaft. In another way, it is basically two sets of
four-cylinder in-line engines sharing a common crankshaft. Figure 2.50 illustrates layout of
V eight engine. However, this arrangement also has secondary dynamic imbalance problems.
Figure 2.50 Layout of V Eight Engine.
Figure 2.51 shows Drysdale 1000 V8 with transverse crankshaft mounted V eight engine
and Figure 2.52 shows Morbidelli with longitudinal crankshaft mounted V eight engine.
Figure 2.51 Drysdale 1000 V8 with Transverse Crankshaft Mounted V Eight Engine.
Figure 2.52 Morbidelli with Longitudinal Crankshaft Mounted V Eight Engine.
2.8 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR ENGINE

As discussed in previous sections, a two-wheeler engine itself is a huge area of research and
development. Many configurations and classifications of engines are available for use but
performance of vehicle mainly depends on selection of appropriate engine. Following are some
selection criteria which can be taken into account while selecting an engine.
2.8.1 Type of Vehicle

Selection of engine primarily depends upon the type of vehicle for which the engine is been
selected. It is clear from the previous discussion that each type of two wheeler is equipped
with a particular kind of engine exclusively selected for it. Each category of two wheeler is
particularly designed to serve a unique purpose. Likewise, each category of two wheeler also
needs particular kind of engine. Mopeds are used for small day-to-day travel with or without
pillion passenger or small baggage because of which they need small capacity engine. Sport
bikes are designed for high acceleration, manoeuverability and racing purpose which can go
above the speed of 300 KMPH. So sport bike needs a high capacity engine which can operate
up to 15000 RPM.
2.8.2 Load Carrying Capacity of Vehicle

A next selection criterion is a load carrying capacity of vehicle. The total load on vehicle is
a combination of aerodynamic forces, gradient resistance and rolling resistance. The weight of
passengers is also taken into account for deriving total load on vehicle. The amount of total
load acting on vehicle helps designer to calculate the tractive effort needed to move the vehicle.
Consequently, designer can calculate various reduction ratios required for that particular vehicle.
This in turns generates some results as amount of power and torque required to be produced by
the engine. Practically, cruiser bikes need most powerful engine in terms of torque generation
because cruisers are widely used for long touring with huge amount of baggage.
2.8.3 Required Power Output

The calculated required power output helps designer to decide the various parameters of engine.
These parameters include mean effective pressure, volumetric efficiency, combustion efficiency,
thermal efficiency etc. The required power output significantly affects the engine design. All
the successive design calculations depend on the amount of required power output. So it is
very important to conclude about required power with optimum parameters.
2.8.4 Required Maximum Speed

The maximum speed of any vehicle largely depends on its type, weight, engine power and
transmission efficiency. In fact, designer can design the transmission system according to
the speed requirements of the vehicle. Primarily, characteristics of vehicle help to decide the
maximum speed range of vehicle, e.g. endure bikes are designed for extreme manoeuverability
on off road conditions. So endure bikes do not need the speed beyond 150 KMPH. Likewise,
sport bikes are meant for high speed because of which they are equipped with high performance
engines and can be run above the speed of 300 KMPH.
2.8.5 Space Availability

Space availability mainly depends upon the overall dimensions of vehicle. Overall width of
vehicle helps to decide the number of cylinders and configuration of cylinders. Overall length
helps to elect between transverse mounted crankshaft and longitudinal mounted crankshaft.
2.8.6 Location of Engine

As discussed earlier, engine is located at the middle in mopeds and motorcycles whereas, in
scooters, it is located at rear. Location of engine affects overall dynamics and handling of
vehicle. Vertical engine at rear introduces extra unbalanced masses at rear which generates
adverse effects at the time of braking. That is why almost all scooters are fitted out with inclined
engine at rear. As we know, in mopeds, frame itself works as a vehicle body and contains
fuel tank above the engine. Engine is assembled under the lowest portion of frame. The design
of this frame is done in such a way that vertical or inclined engine cannot be accommodated
within the space. So mopeds are having horizontal engine.
2.8.7 Characteristic Speed Power Curves for Engine

Theoretically, the engine can develop the horsepower without any limit, as it is possible to
achieve any required amount by comparative increase in engine speed. In actual practice,
a mandatory limit is obvious because of high stresses and bearing loads generated by the
reciprocating parts which causes failure of various components. Besides this mechanical failure,
many other factors also cause the characteristic curves to differ from the ideal curve. This causes
a limit for maximum brake horsepower that can be generated at a certain particular speed. At
low speeds, the indicated mean effective pressure remains less than its maximum value. This
happens because of improper mixing of fresh charge and valve timing. The mean effective
pressure then reaches to its maximum value. Subsequently it decreases more and more quickly
as the speed increases. This decrease in mean effective pressure at high speeds is due to the
lower volumetric efficiency or partly filling of the cylinder with fresh charge. So, designers
have to acutely study the speed power curves for the engine before putting it to the practice.
Limiting speed is necessary to mention in engine specification which helps rider to judge the
power output from the engine. This limiting value of speed also decides the engine category
as end power, mid power or early power engine.
2.8.8 Torque Curve for Engine

A torque curve for the engine characterizes the value of the mean torque developed at different
speeds. Engine torque can be measured accurately by means of the various dynamometers.
The torque curve developed through experiments can be used to recognize a suitable engine
as per the requirements. Engines characteristics could be predicted with the help of torque
curve. As stated earlier, engines can also be classified as low torque engine, medium torque
engine and high torque engine. Low speed engines with high torque range are used on
endure bikes as these bikes are specially designed for off road manoeuverability. Street
commuter makes use of medium speed medium torque engine. Cruisers are equipped with low
speed engines which can produce medium torque range as cruisers are mostly used on wide
vacant roads and highways. Sport bikes are required to incorporate high speed engine with
high torque range to generate instant acceleration. Scooters use low speed engine which can
generate low range of torque. Thus, selection of engine with respect to torque can be easily
possible with torque curve.
2.8.9 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption of Engine

Brake specific fuel consumption is defined as the heat energy consumed by the engine to
generate unit brake horsepower. It is important to derive BSFC because operating costs does
not depend only on specific fuel consumption but also on market rates of fuel. In the case
of the petrol engine, the lowest specific fuel consumption is obtained at roughly the speed at
which maximum torque is developed. So it is advisable to run the engine between this speed
ranges to keep its fuel consumption as low as possible. The transmission design also helps to
maintain low fuel consumption with different gear ratios. So with the help of BSFC, designer
can select an optimum engine with lowest operating cost.
2.8.10 Number and Diameter of Cylinders

The power developed by an engine is directly proportional to the square of the cylinder diameter
and the numbers of cylinders. However, the weight is proportional to the cube of the dimensions
of the engine. Thus with increase in dimensions, the weight increases more quickly than the
power. This puts huge limitation to increase the cylinder size for having more power. A most
favourable solution for this problem is to increase the number of cylinders. As a result, both the
power and weight increase in the same proportion, and there is no increase of weight per unit
power. This is one major reason for selection of multicylinder engines where weight is having
more important. Likewise, diameter of cylinder and number of cylinder should be prudently
selected with optimum parameters.
2.8.11 Power Per Litre

This basis of selection is sometimes used in connection with the essential improvement in
performance of engines, but such improvement arises from increase in compression ratio,
the use of improved materials with high quality, or by accepting lesser factors of safety or
endurance. For engines, the power per litre may be increased just by making the cylinder
smaller in dimensions or by increasing the number of the cylinders. The power per litre of
the small, single cylinder engines is double than that of the large multicylinder engines, not
because they are more efficient engines but because the smaller volume is swept through more
frequent strokes of piston. This criterion helps designers in developing light weight engine with
sufficient power output.
Figure 2.53 illustrates a graphical representation of selection criteria for two-wheeler
engine. As discussed, these all criteria are unified to select appropriate engine. Certainly,
designers have to compromise between these criteria to pick perfect engine for particular
vehicle.
2.9 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR ENGINE

Various design considerations come into picture after selecting a suitable engine for particular
vehicle. These design considerations are decided individually and differ component to
component as each component has different task to perform. Following are some common
design considerations taken into account for various components of an engine.
Figure 2.53 Engine Selection Criteria.
2.9.1 Piston
Piston is a heart of engine and performs following tasks.
1.
It reciprocates and forms a gas tight chamber to restrict the charge in the cylinder
2.
It transmits the forces to the connecting rod
3.
It forms a guide and a bearing for the small end of the connecting rod
4.
It takes the lateral thrust
Following are some design criteria for piston.
A piston should be designed for the vast variation in operating temperatures.
The weight of the piston must be reduced to reduce vibration and the inertia loading
on bearings, and to avoid friction and other losses involved in accelerating the pistons
in both directions.
Sections of piston walls should be kept thicker than necessary for carrying the
mechanical loads and to obtain a good rate of cooling by heat transfer.
Large clearances for piston rings cause piston clout when the engine is cold. Hot
piston clout, on the other hand, can shorten fatigue life, damage the sealing of the
piston rings and produces noise.
Too small clearances for piston rings cause thermal expansion and excessive contact
pressures at the rubbing surfaces between piston and cylinder bore.
The thermal flow in a piston is from the crown, out to the ring belt, the heat is then
transferred through the rings to the cylinder walls and thereafter to the coolant. A
small proportion is transferred down to the skirt and then across the bearing surfaces.
So sections at skirt should be optimized as per the heat flow rate.
Almost all modern engines have aluminium alloy pistons because of its higher
coefficient of thermal expansion. The thermal conductivity of aluminium is about
three times that of cast iron. This, together with the greater thicknesses of the sections
used, enables aluminium pistons to run at temperatures about 200°C lower than cast
iron ones. Consequently, there is little or no tendency for carbon deposit because of
thermal breakdown of lubricant.
2.9.2 Piston Rings

The main functions of piston rings are:
1.
To generate a pressure seal to prevent leakage of fresh charge and combustion
products at high temperatures.
2.
To generate heat transfer path between the piston and the cylinder walls.
3.
To control the flow of oil in adequate quantity to the skirt and to the rings themselves.
4.
To prevent excessive flow of oil entering in the combustion chamber.
Following are some design criteria for piston rings.
Piston ring materials require excellent heat and wear resistance.
Cross sectional depth of piston ring is determined by the radial stiffness required.
It is necessary to ensure that the bearing areas between the ring and the sides of its
groove are adequate.
Thickness of the piston ring is primarily determined by the bearing pressures required
between the outer face of the ring and the cylinder wall.
Simple rectangular section rings are mostly used.
The top compression ring is generally chromium-plated for wear and corrosion
resistance.
The distance between two rings must be large enough to avoid their breaking up under
the dynamic loading applied by the rings.
2.9.3 Gudgeon Pin

The main functions of gudgeon pin are:
1.
To connect the piston with small end of connecting rod.
2.
It takes the bending stress, shearing stress and crushing stress.
Following are some design criteria for gudgeon pin.

Diameter of gudgeon pin is decided with reference to bending stress.
In view of the very heavy alternate loading of the gudgeon pins, special care is taken
to avoid risk of fatigue cracks originating at the surface of the bore.
The external bearing surface is finished to a very high degree of accuracy to ensure
correct fit in the piston and connecting rod.
2.9.4 Connecting Rods

The main functions of connecting rod are:
1.
To provide link between piston and crank.
2.
To transfer the reciprocating movement of piston to the crank.
3.
To generate oscillating motion to rotate the crank.
4.
To supply oil in splash lubricating system.
Following are some design criteria for gudgeon pin.
The material should be carefully selected while designing a connecting rod to make
it as light as possible. Connecting rod is only the part in engine which oscillates and
cannot be balanced completely. Less mass helps to improve overall balancing.
“I” section gives the best inertia distribution and better balancing performance in
connecting rod design.
The length of the connecting rod plays vital role. A short connecting rod generates
greater angular swing, resulting in greater side trust on the piston.
The dimensions of cross section of connecting rod are derived by applying Rankine’s
formula for buckling of the connecting rod in the plane of rotation of crank.
2.9.5 Crankshaft
The main functions of crankshaft are:
1.
To convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion through
connecting rod.
2.
To provide power at the end of shaft to run the various auxiliary devices through
belt drive.
Following are some design criteria for the crankshaft.
A crankshaft should have sufficient strength to withstand the bending and twisting
moments.
It should have sufficient rigidity to keep the lateral and angular deflections within
permissible limits.
The crankshaft is subjected to fluctuating stresses, so it should have sufficient
endurance limit stress.
For any given length of crankshaft, both the bending and torsional stiffness depend
on the diameter of shaft.
2.9.6 Poppet Valve

Valves are used to provide opening passage during suction and exhaust strokes. Valves are also
used to generate gas tight closed chamber during compression and power strokes. Following
are some design criteria for poppet valves.
The material used for making valves should have high heat resistance, good thermal
conductivity and corrosion resistant.
Valves are subject to both thermal and mechanical loads, which requires shock
resisting and wear resisting material.
Modes of failure of valves include tensile elongation or fracture, either hot or cold
corrosion, wear, burning, and flow of metal from the seating area, cold corrosion
being caused by condensation containing acid products of combustion.
For protection against corrosion, a wide variety of coatings has been applied. They
include alloys containing materials such as nickel, manganese, cobalt, chromium,
silicon, and, less commonly, molybdenum, tungsten, and titanium.
Sufficient cooling must be provided nearer to valves to avoid local burning and
channeling.
2.9.7 Cylinder Head

The main functions of cylinder head are:
1. To accommodate inlet and exhaust valves, OHCS, rocker arms, sparkplugs, injectors,
and ports.
2. To provide a gas tight top end for the cylinder
3. To form a combustion chamber.
Following are some design criteria for the cylinder head.
Material should have light weight and high thermal conductivity.
Material should be highly corrosive resistant.
Sufficient cooling should be provided in cylinder head.
2.9.8 Cylinder Block

Basic functions of cylinder block are:
1. To form a cylinder and combustion chamber.
2. To provide guide ways in which the piston reciprocates.
3. To provide adequate amount of cooling.
4. To withstand high compressive forces generated due to combustion.
5. To provide high rate of heat transfer.
Following are some design criteria for the cylinder block.

The material should be strong enough to withstand high pressure and high thermal
stresses.
The cylinder bores and valve seats should be relatively free from distortion.
It should be hard enough to resist wear due to piston movement.
It should be corrosive resistant.
It should have good surface finish to reduce friction and wear.
Well-designed fin arrangement should be provided in air-cooled engine.
Water jackets are properly distributed throughout the cylinder in water-cooled
engine.
2.9.9 Camshaft Drive

Whatever the type of valve used it is necessary in the four-stroke engine to drive it from a
camshaft which runs at half the speed of the crankshaft, as each valve is required to function
only once in two revolutions of the crankshaft. The camshaft or camshafts may be driven by
gears, chains or toothed belts. The design of cam largely depends upon the maximum valve
lift required during the suction stroke and exhaust stroke.
2.9.10 Rocker Arms

The basic function of rocker arm is to open or close the inlet or exhaust valve with
respect to the motion of the cam and follower. Rocker arms are design with respect to
the bending stress generated because of gas pressure on valve, the inertia forces of valve,
and spring force to hold the valve. In order to reduce weight and inertia force, the cross
section of rocker arm is “I” section. The arms of the rocker arm are made of uniform strength
by tapering the width and depth dimensions. The thickness of the web and flanges is kept
uniform.
2.9.11 Crankcase
Crankcase is a lower dead end of engine which is mainly used to store the lubricating oil. Light
weight alloys with good thermal conductivity are used to manufacture the crankcase. It also
contains small components like oil strainer, filter and sometimes oil pump. Adequate strength
is also required in crankcase while it is used for mounting purpose.
Review Questions
1. Explain various valve operating mechanisms adopted in two-wheeler engines.
2. Give brief classification of engines.
3. Describe working of two-stroke engine with neat sketch.
4. Explain symmetric and asymmetric port timing diagrams for two-stroke engine.
5. Compare two-stroke engine with four-stroke engine.

6. Compare V twin and Horizontally opposed twin cylinder engines.
7. Explain four-cylinder in-line engine layout.
8. Compare transverse crankshaft mounted engine and longitudinal crankshaft
mounted engine. List down the various multi cylinder engines which can be
mounted by both the methods.
9. Explain importance of speed-power curve, torque curve and BSFC in engine
selection.
10. Describe various design considerations for piston, connecting rod and poppet
valve.
3
Fuel Supply System
Contents
YY Carburetor System
YY Fuel Cock
YY Carburetor
YY Different Circuits in Carburetor
YY Types of Carburetor
YY Fuel Injection System
YY Layout of FI System
YY Components of FI System
Basic function of fuel supply system is to mix air and fuel in the correct proportions and
supply it to the cylinder at correct time to operate the engine efficiently from idle to red line
rpm range. The correct proportion of air-fuel mixture in the case of IC engines is equal to
a stoichiometric air to fuel ratio of 14:1. In two wheelers, this task of preparing correct A:F
ratio is being completed either by carburetor system or with the help of injection system. Both
the system has some common components like fuel tank, fuel filter, throttle and throttle body.
Carbureted system and injection system differ with each other at working principle and method
of supply. Carbureted system is conventionally used in small capacity two wheelers because
of its simplicity while injection system contains high precision and accuracy. Both the systems
have their own advantages and disadvantages.
3.1 CARBURETOR SYSTEM

As stated earlier, carburetor system is orthodoxly used on small capacity two wheelers because
of its constructional simplicity and ease of maintenance. The carburetor plays vital role in
this system where preparation of air and fuel mixture takes place. Figure 3.1 shows various
components of carbureted fuel supply system.
It contains components like fuel storage tank, fuel lines, fuel cock and carburetor. Storage
tank stores sufficient amount of fuel and made up of steel sheet or plastic. The shape of fuel tank
61
Figure 3.1 Layout of Carbureted Fuel Supply System.
plays vital role in aesthetic design of any two wheeler and because of this; manufacturers now
prefer double skin construction for fuel tank, i.e. outer skin is used only for aesthetic design.
Fuel tank is equipped with level indicator as well as fuel filter. New vehicles also come with
evaporative emission control system in which the evaporative losses from the fuel tank are
avoided with the help of charcoal canister. The vapor of lost fuel is collected through charcoal
canister and burned in the cylinder.
Fuel cock is used to shut off the fuel supply as and when needed. It also facilitates the rider
by indicating a reserve (low) level of fuel in the tank. Carburetor is used to supply correct amount
and correct proportion of air fuel mixture to the cylinder. While using multicylinder engine, it
is difficult to supply sufficient amount of fuel from tank to carburetor with the help of engine
suction and gravity of fuel, so all high performance two wheelers make use of fuel pump to supply
sufficient amount of fuel from tank to carburetor. Figure 3.2 illustrates layout of such fuel system.
Figure 3.2 Carbureted Fuel Supply System with Fuel Pump.

Fuel Supply System 63
3.2 FUEL COCK

Fuel cock is a double disc valve fixed under the fuel tank. It has three different positions:
ON, OFF and RESERVE. As stated earlier, it is used to shut down the fuel supply line as
and when needed, generally in parked condition to avoid overflow of fuel. It also facilitates
the rider by indicating a reserve (low) level of fuel in the tank. Figure 3.3 illustrates simple
construction of fuel cock.
Figure 3.3 (a) Construction of Fuel Cock.
Figure 3.3 (b) Construction of Fuel Cock.

It contains various parts as shown in Figure 3.3. Two different connections are used to
supply fuel from the tank. Elevation of these two connections is kept at different level. Both
these connections are assembled to a single body which contains two slotted disc. A rigid
disc with two inlet passage is mounted in the middle and cannot rotate within the cock body.
Another slotted disc is assembled just ahead of fixed disc. The slot generated on this disc is
in definite pattern and is used to ON and OFF the fuel supply. Fuel is supplied when one of
the passage of fixed disc and slot of the rotating disc coincides, i.e. either in ON position or
in RESERVE position as shown in Figure 3.4(a) and 3.4(c) respectively. Fuel supply can be
shut off using OFF position as shown in Figure 3.4(b).
Figure 3.4 (a) ON Position (b) OFF Position (c) RESERVE Position.
Difference in elevation of inlet connections helps to indicate the amount of fuel left in
the tank. Initially, with filled fuel tank, both the connections remain immersed in the fuel. The
main connection supplies the fuel up to definite level as shown in Figure 3.5 after which, main
connection stops the supply of fuel. To continue this supply, rider has to switch the cock from
ON position to RESERVE position.
Figure 3.5 Arrangement of Fuel Cock in Tank.
3.3 CARBURETOR
Carburetor works on the principle of venturi effect produced due to high velocity flow of air.
This flow of air is drawn into the cylinder because of suction stroke. As the piston moves
downward during suction stroke, the air-fuel mixture flows through the filter, venturi, inlet port
and comes into the cylinder as shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Induction of Air Into the Cylinder.
Figure 3.7 shows various components of carburetor. Fuel from the reservoir tank comes
into the float chamber where sufficient amount of fuel is being maintained with the help of
needle valve and float assembly. Float is hinged with the float chamber and moves up or down
according to the rising or falling level of fuel. With the float, one needle valve is attached for
opening and closing of incoming fuel passage. One fuel supply nozzle is provided to deliver
the fuel from float chamber to venture. Opening of this nozzle is located at throat section where
maximum air velocity is achieved. One atmospheric vent is provided in the float chamber
to exert atmospheric pressure on fuel. This helps to create necessary pressure difference to
deliver fuel from chamber to throat. A butterfly type valve known as choke helps to maintain
the amount of flowing air. On the other side, one more butterfly valve known as throttle is
attached which helps to control the amount of air-fuel mixture.
Figure 3.7 Components of Carburetor.

Venturi is used to increase the velocity of flowing air by providing a restriction to the
flow of air. Essentially, it is a precisely designed tube passage with varying section. Air velocity
remains constant if the cross section remains same throughout the length of tube. Any restriction
in the tube causes an increase in air velocity through the restricted area. This restriction is
generated by constricting the cross section area of the tube which is known as a throat. As
shown in Figure 3.8, the opening of fuel supply nozzle is located exactly at the point where
maximum air velocity can be achieved in the throat.
Figure 3.8 Venturi in Carburetor.
The pressure of flowing air decreases as velocity of air increases. So, air stream flows
with minimum pressure and maximum velocity in the passage of throat. On the other side,
atmospheric pressure is exerted in the float chamber through atmospheric vent. This pressure
difference between throat section and float chamber results as a raised level of fuel in the fuel
supply nozzle and delivers the fuel into the flowing air. Because of this, level of fuel in the
float chamber falls and float comes down with decreasing fuel level. Downward movement of
float opens the needle valve and so as the passage of fuel supply line. As a result, fuel comes
inside the float chamber from the reservoir tank. Again level of fuel in the float chamber
increases and needle valve is closed due to upward motion of float. This shuts the fuel supply
line and uniform level of fuel is maintained in the float chamber.
3.4 DIFFERENT CIRCUITS IN CARBURETOR

The carburetor which has been discussed in previous section falls under the category of simple
carburetor. Actually, engine needs continuous change in A:F ratio according to load and speed.
Rich mixture should be provided at the time of starting and sudden acceleration. As simple
carburetor works with only one fuel supply nozzle, it has following limitations.
The pressure difference which causes the fuel supply in the flowing air is very small
at the time of starting. Simple carburetor cannot supply rich mixture required for
starting the engine.
Pressure difference in the throat section doesn’t increase suddenly with acceleration
because of which simple carburetor cannot supply rich mixture required at the time
of sudden acceleration.
It is not possible to reduce quantity of air during starting in cold weather conditions.
As it works with only one nozzle, it is not possible to control the air and fuel instantly
as per the loading conditions of engine.
Simple carburetor gradually delivers rich mixture with increasing speed of flowing air.
Sudden deceleration causes vacuum lock in the nozzle and results as a wastage of fuel.
To overcome these limitations, modern carburetors are provided with various sub-circuits which
help to improve the quality and quantity of air fuel mixture as and when required. These circuits
include starting circuit, idle circuit, mid-range circuit and acceleration circuit.
3.4.1 Starting Circuit

As stated earlier, engine requires rich mixture at the time of starting. The pressure difference
which causes the fuel supply in the flowing air is very small at the time of starting. Moreover,
exhaust left in the cylinder also reduces effective air fuel ratio. To overcome this trouble, a
separate circuit is used to supply rich mixture for starting purpose known as starting circuit.
Figure 3.9 illustrates starting circuit used in modern carburetor.
Figure 3.9 Starting Circuit.
An auxiliary fuel line is taken from the main nozzle to supply sufficient amount of
fuel required at the time of starting. This auxiliary line, known as a starting nozzle, is opened
near the engine side of the throttle valve. The throttle valve remains closed at the time of
starting. This induces a high velocity air near the throttle valve because of small opening
area. This low pressure of flowing air stream is transferred to the float chamber through
the starting nozzle. As float chamber is kept at atmospheric pressure, the fuel is drained to
through the starting nozzle and injected on the low pressure side of throttle valve. Air adjustment
screw is provided to control the amount of air. This air is used as a carrier to carry the injected
fuel to the cylinder. It also helps to maintain sufficient air–fuel ratio required at the time of
starting.
During the starting, very less amount of fuel is supplied by the main nozzle as sufficient
pressure difference is not available at throat section. Gradually, air velocity at throttle valve
decreases and air velocity increases at throat section. This happens because throttle valve is
now remains open after starting and vacuum in the cylinder also increases with speed. This,
together, generates high velocity air stream at throat section, as a result, more fuel is injected
from main nozzle. The pressure difference at throttle valve decreases, consequently supply of
fuel from starting nozzle also decreases and stops at higher speed of engine.
3.4.2 Idle Circuit

Once started, engine then requires very less fuel to run on idle speed. This is accomplished
by another auxiliary circuit known as idle circuit. Just like starting circuit, idle circuit also
makes use of auxiliary nozzle known as idle nozzle. Figure 3.10 shows arrangement for idle
circuit. Operational principle for both the circuits is same; the only difference is the opening
location of nozzle. Opposite to starting nozzle, idle nozzle is opened near the venture side
of the throttle valve. A throttle valve adjusting screw provides positive stop and holds the
throttle valve open to ensure that a proper idle RPM is maintained. This opening of throttle
valve is sufficient enough to create pressure difference at idle nozzle to draw fuel from the
float chamber.
Figure 3.10 Idle Circuit.
3.4.3 Mid-range Circuit

The mid-range circuit plays vital role in carburetor design and construction as carburetor works
mostly in mid-range. The fuel is been supplied through main nozzle for all positions of throttle
valve, i.e. between idle position to wide open positions of throttle valve. The amount of fuel
air supplied to the cylinder varies according to throttle positions operated by rider. This circuit
provides 14:1 air-fuel mixture under all operating conditions. Working of carburetor takes place
as explained in Section 3.3.
3.4.4 Acceleration Circuit

Increased engine vacuum is used to supply rich mixture during sudden acceleration. Figure
3.11 shows arrangement for acceleration circuit. A carburetor without acceleration circuit does
not provide quick response to the sudden acceleration because pressure difference at venturi
takes some time to rise. So engine vacuum is used to generate rich mixture in early stage
before it reaches to venturi. It is very well known that engine vacuum increases with increased
engine speed during acceleration. This increased engine vacuum is drawn to a power cylinder
arrangement through a connection port. Engine vacuum is exerted on diaphragm which is
connected with a power plunger. Power cylinder is already filled with sufficient amount of
fuel required to match with sudden acceleration. As diaphragm moves upward, power plunger
also moves upward and delivers fuel into the flowing air stream through acceleration nozzle.
Simultaneously, main nozzle also delivers fuel according to the pressure difference at throat
section. Thus quantity of fuel increased and rich mixture is supplied to the cylinder.
Figure 3.11 Acceleration Circuit.
3.5 TYPES OF CARBURETOR USED IN TWO WHEELERS

There are mainly three types of carburetors used in two wheelers: Variable venturi carburetor,
Vacuum controlled carburetor and Butterfly valve carburetor.
3.5.1 Variable Venturi Carburetor

Figure 3.12 illustrates a variable venturi carburetor. It makes use of cylindrical slide which
moves up and down to vary the cross-sectional area of venturi. Cylindrical slide contains
needle which also raised and lowered with slide. This needle controls the quantity of fuel
drawn to the venturi through main nozzle. A throttle stop screw controls the upward motion
of cylindrical slide. Raising the slide is done by means of cable connected with throttle on the
steering handle. Lowering the slide is accomplished by retaining spring which keeps the slide
and needle at idle position. Area of venturi varies with upward motion of slide and so as the
amount of air fuel supplied to the cylinder.
Figure 3.12 Variable Venturi Carburetor.
3.5.2 Vacuum Controlled Carburetor

Figure 3.13 illustrates a vacuum controlled carburetor which uses engine vacuum to raise the
cylindrical slide. Closed chamber, which contains cylindrical slide, is connected to inlet port of
engine through a vacuum passage. One throttle valve is also provided which can be used by
the rider for acceleration. Operation of throttle valve does not affect the raising of cylindrical
slide, i.e. needle and slide assembly is operated by engine vacuum only. This arrangement is
useful to supply the correct quantity of fuel and avoids high fuel consumption. It also helps
to avoid stalling of engine during sudden acceleration.
3.5.3 Butterfly Valve Carburetor

Many modern carburetors make use of butterfly valve instead of cylindrical slide and needle
assembly. This valve is connected to the throttle through flexible cable and rotating disc. Just
like cylindrical slide, butterfly valve controls the amount of air fuel mixture supplied to the
cylinder. However, fuel quantity is governed by various circuits provided within the carburetor
body and operated on different engine speed. Figure 3.14 shows a carburetor with butterfly valve.
Figure 3.13 Vacuum Controlled Carburetor.
Figure 3.14 Butterfly Valve Carburetor.
3.6 FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Use of a catalytic convertor is one of the easiest way to control the exhaust emissions. It
has very limited operating temperature range and requires high precision in preparation of air
fuel mixture. To accomplish the minimum emission requirements, a system called closed loop
control was developed and adopted for motorcycles from 1980. Basically, it is an electronically
controlled fuel injection system in which engine control unit (ECU) works as a heart of the
system. Moreover, in this system, oxygen sensor measures the amount of oxygen coming out
in the exhaust. Engine speed is also measured by speed sensor. All these information is sent to
the ECU and it uses this information to control the air fuel ratio within short period of time. It
is not practicable to incorporate these controls with carburetors. Actually, many manufacturers
worked upon electric carburetors and there was a momentary period of electrically controlled
carburetors. These electrically controlled carburetors were eventually replaced by fuel injection
systems because of their complex construction.
Basically, fuel can be injected either directly into the cylinder or in the induction system.
Direct injection into the cylinder is rather difficult to achieve because of three reasons.
1.
Fuel has to be injected progressively to allow it to atomize and to be distributed
within the air mass before the spark occurs.
2.
A complete evaporation and preparation of homogeneous mixture is not possible due
to less injection time. This would result as smoke in exhaust.
3.
The injectors are exposed to the high temperature combustion process which damages
the nozzle tip and increases carbon deposit.
To avoid these difficulties, injection in induction system is preferred over direct injection.
Mainly two types of indirect injection systems are used: throttle body injection system and
multi-point injection system. In two wheelers, throttle body injection (TBI) system is attractive
on account of its simplicity, and therefore low cost, as compared with multi-point injection
into the individual valve ports. TBI is also known as single point injection (SPI) system or
central fuel injection (CFI) system.
3.7 LAYOUT OF THROTTLE BODY INJECTION SYSTEM

As said earlier, a TBI system delivers fuel from a nozzle(s) into the air above the throttle plate.
In order to match the correct fuel delivery, ECU requires a method for measuring the amount of
air the engine is breathing in during suction stroke. TBI system uses the speed-density method
for these calculations. Major components of TBI system are Fuel pump, ECU, injector(s), throttle
body, throttle position sensor, intake air temperature sensor, intake air pressure sensor, oxygen
sensor and crankshaft position sensor. Figure 3.15 shows a block diagram for TBI system.
Figure 3.15 Block Diagram of TBI System.

ECU contains two different input modules to determine the final injection time that
actually required at some instant. The factors to determine the final injection time include the
basic fuel injection time and various compensations required with respect to engine running
conditions. The basic fuel injection time is calculated on the basis of intake air pressure, engine
speed and throttle opening angle while various other sensors provide information to modify the
fuel requirements. Following are the information provided by various sensors.
MAP Sensor: It measures intake manifold pressure required to calculate amount of
fuel.
Throttle Position Sensor: The position of the throttle plate and its rate of change are
used as part of the equation to calculate the proper amount of fuel to inject.
Oxygen Sensor: When amount of O2 is more in exhaust, injection time is reduced.
Atmospheric Air Pressure Sensor Signal: When atmospheric pressure is low, the
sensor sends the signal to the ECU and reduces the injection time (volume).
Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor Signal: When engine coolant temperature is
low, injection time (volume) is increased.
Intake Air Temperature Sensor Signal: When intake air temperature is low, injection
time (volume) is increased.
Battery Voltage Signal: ECU operates on the battery voltage and at the same time,
it monitors the voltage signal for compensation of the fuel injection time (volume). A
longer injection time is needed to adjust injection volume in the case of low voltage.
Engine RPM Signal: At high speed, the injection time (volume) is increased.
Starting Signal: When starting engine, additional fuel is injected during cranking
engine.
Acceleration Signal/Deceleration Signal: During acceleration, the fuel injection time
(volume) is increased in accordance with the throttle opening speed and engine rpm.
During deceleration, the fuel injection time (volume) is decreased.
With speed-density method, ECU calculates the amount of air breathed in each cylinder by
using manifold pressure and engine RPM. The amount of air in each cylinder is the major
factor in determining the amount of fuel needed. The formula used to determine the injector
pulse width in milliseconds (ms) is:
 Manifold Pressure 

Injector Pulse Width   (RPM/maximum RPM)
 Atmospheric Pressure 
ECU then sends this information to the injector and solenoid remains open for required
amount of fuel. A fuel injector delivers atomized fuel into the flowing airstream where it is
instantly mixed with air and vaporized. Figure 3.16 illustrates a schematic diagram for TBI
system.
Generally, ECU is located under the driver’s seat to avoid thermal and mechanical
damages. Intake air temperature and pressure sensors are located just after the air filter box
and before the butterfly valve(s) of throttle body. Butterfly valve is operated with the help of
throttle disc on which the throttle position sensor is attached. Injector(s) is located just after
Figure 3.16 Layout of TBI System.
the butterfly valve. Crankshaft positions sensor is located in the crankcase and measures the
speed of engine. An oxygen sensor also known as lambda sensor is attached in the exhaust to
measure the amount of oxygen coming out with burnt gases. Signals from all the sensors go
to ECU as input, pertaining to which, it sends the signal to the injector solenoid to control the
amount of fuel to be injected.
3.8 FUEL PUMP

The electric fuel pump is a supplier unit which provides sufficient accelerative force to the
fuel and supplies fuel from tank to the injector. When the pump is mounted in the tank, the
entire fuel supply line to the engine can be pressurized and better vaporization of fuel can be
achieved. All electrical pumps are driven by a small electric motor as shown in Figure 3.17.
The pumping element draws fuel into the pump, and then pushes it out through the fuel line
to the injection system.
Figure 3.17 Fuel Pump.

All designs of pumps use a variable sized chamber to draw in fuel. When the maximum
volume has been reached, the supply port closes and the discharge opens. Fuel is then forced
out the discharge as this volume decreases. This type of pump does not use any valves to
move the fuel, the fuel flows steadily through the entire pump housing, including the electrical
portion which keeps the pump cool. Usually, only when a vehicle runs out of fuel is there a
risk of pump damage. Most electric fuel pumps are equipped with a fuel outlet check valve that
closes to maintain fuel pressure when the pump shuts off. Residual or rest pressure prevents
vapor lock and hot-start problems on these systems.
Generally, three types of pumping elements are used in fuel pump of two wheelers.
Depending upon the element used, pumps are known as vane pump, roller pump and lobe pump.
All these pumps fall under the same category known as positive displacement pump. A positive
displacement pump is a design that forces everything that enters the pump to leave the pump.
Figure 3.18 shows the pumping action of vane pump. It consists of a impeller, several
vanes that can be adjusted in length and housing that is offset from the impeller centre line.
The impeller is mounted on the end of the motor armature and spins whenever the motor is
running. The vanes are free to change its length in the impeller to form a closed chamber. Fuel
comes from one side of the impeller and trapped between housing and vanes. The length of
vanes decreased because of offset and as a result, volume of closed chamber decreases. This
pressurized fuel is then delivered to the fuel line from opposite direction of impeller.
Figure 3.18 Vane Pump.
Figure 3.19 shows the pumping action of a roller pump. The pump consists of a central
impeller disk, several rollers that ride in notches in the impeller, and a pump housing that
is offset from the impeller centre line. The impeller is mounted on the end of the motor
armature and spins whenever the motor is running. The rollers are free to slide in and out
within the notches in the impeller to maintain sealing contact. Unpressurized fuel enters the
pump, fills the spaces between the rollers, and is trapped between the impeller, the housing,
and two rollers.
Figure 3.19 Roller Pump.
Figure 3.20 illustrates a lobe pump. Working principle of lobe pump is same as vane and
roller type pumps. The offset pump shaft is connected to lobe which rotates inside the outer
rotor. Compression chamber is formed between fin of lobe and outer rotor. Fuel comes inside
the chamber from one side and delivered from other side due to rotation of lobe.
Figure 3.20 Lobe Pump.
Some high performance motorcycles make use of turbine pump as shown in Figure 3.21.
These pumps use an impeller that accelerates the fuel particles before actually discharging them
Figure 3.21 Turbine Pump.

into a zone where fuel gets pressurized. The turbine impeller has a staggered blade design to
minimize pump harmonic noise and to separate vapor from the liquid fuel. The pressure relief
valve is located at inlet side. The check valve is usually located at the discharge side. After
fuel passes the strainer, it is drawn into the pump housing inlet port by the impellers. It is
pressurized and delivered to the fuel tube for transfer through a check valve into the fuel feed
pipe. Some pumps are also equipped with multi stage impellers.
3.9 INJECTOR
Injectors are electromagnetic device contain an armature and a spring-loaded needle valve or
ball valve assembly. When the ECU energizes the solenoid, voltage is applied to the solenoid
coil until the current reaches a specified value. This allows a quick pull-in of the armature during
turn-on condition. The armature is pulled off of its seat against spring force, allowing fuel to
flow through the inlet. Almost all injectors are equipped with in-built filter screen. Fuel then
goes to the spray nozzle, where it is sprayed in a definite pattern that varies with application.
Usually the nose is designed to provide a push fit in the boss throttle body and sealing being
effected by the elastomeric O-ring shown in Figure 3.22. The O-ring at the upper end seals
the injector with a connector. Connector is an integral part of the fuel rail that supplies fuel
to all the injectors of multi cylinder engine. These rings are large enough to avoid damages to
the injector from vibrations and heat. Any leakage in the injector causes bubbles to form in
the fuel and thus adversely affects metering. Hexagons for receiving a spanner are machined
near the upper ends of the injector bodies so that, if a screw-type end fitting is used, rotation
of the injector can be prevented when it is being tightened.
Figure 3.22 Fuel Injector.

3.10 THROTTLE BODY

The throttle body is casted component that houses choke, the injector(s), throttle valve, and
throttle position sensor. Figure 3.23 illustrates a sectional view of throttle body. Choke controls
the amount of flowing air and operated through mechanical linkages with throttle valve. Throttle
valve is butterfly type valve which creates venturi in the path of flowing air. A connector rod
connects the throttle valve with throttle disc. Throttle position sensor is used to measure the
opening of throttle valve.
Figure 3.23 Throttle Body.
Fuel comes inside the fuel rail because of pumping action of fuel pump. Fuel is equally
distributed to each injector through fuel rail only. Injector is connected just after the throttle
valve. Some high performance two wheelers also use water jacket heating. The water jacket
supplies enough heat to ensure complete vaporization of the fuel under cruising conditions
when the engine is warm. A screw on the end of the throttle valve actuation lever serves as
an adjustable throttle stop. Idle adjusting screw is also attached on the same lever which helps
to keep the throttle valve sufficiently open in idling condition. Figure 3.24 shows exploded
view of throttle body used in multicylinder engines.
3.11 ECU
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) is also known as the Electronic Control Module (ECM). The
ECU coordinates for various engine processes, maintains communications, and makes the
control decisions needed to keep the vehicle operating. The operation of every ECU can be
divided into four basic functions.
Input: Receives voltage signals from various sensors
Processing: Performs mathematical calculations
Figure 3.24 Throttle body of Multicylinder Engine.
Storage: Includes short-term and long-term memory

Output: Controls an output device by either turning it on or off
First, the ECU receives a voltage signal
(input) from an input device. Input is a signal
from a device that can be as simple as a button
or a switch on an instrument panel, or a sensor.
These input voltage signals received by ECU
are handled through a series of electronic
logic circuits maintained in its programmed
instructions. These logic circuits change the
input voltage signals, or data, into output voltage
signals or commands. Storage is the place where
the program instructions for ECU are stored in
electronic memory. After the ECU has processed
the input signals, it sends voltage signals or
commands to other devices in the system, such as
system actuators. An actuator is an electrical or
mechanical output device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical actions. Figure 3.25
shows an ECU used on modern two wheelers. Figure 3.25 Electronic Control Unit.
3.12 MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE PRESSURE (MAP) SENSOR

Pressure in the intake manifold varies with different opening positions of throttle. At idle or in
deceleration, manifold pressure drops and reaches a value below the atmospheric pressure. At
higher speed, manifold pressure increases and almost becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
Moreover, atmospheric pressure and amount of oxygen also varies with altitude. Quantity of fuel
supplied to the engine should be changed accordingly to avoid wastage of fuel. To accomplish
this, fuel injection system makes use of MAP sensors to measure the value of manifold pressure.
This sensor uses vacuum as a reference and diaphragm as a sensing device. A thin ceramic
diaphragm is kept inside a vacuum-packed chamber. The other side of this diaphragm is vented
in the manifold. Sensor housing is equipped with the electric circuit to generate input and
output. There are four resistors attached to the diaphragm, which changes in resistance when
strain is applied to the diaphragm. The resistors are electrically connected to a Wheatstone
bridge circuit and then to a differential amplifier, which creates a voltage in proportion to the
vacuum applied. Any pressure change in the manifold causes the diaphragm to deflect, varying
its digital return signal to the ECU. As the air pressure increases, the MAP sensor generates
a higher frequency return signal to the ECU. The MAP sensor may be a ceramic capacitor
diaphragm, an aneroid bellows, or a piezoelectric crystal.
3.13 THROTTLE POSITION (TP) SENSOR

A throttle position (TP) sensor is used to send a signal about position of the throttle to the
ECU. As shown in Figure 3.26, it consists of a variable resistor known as a potentiometer.
Potentiometer is formed with the help of three terminals. One terminal receives input voltage.
Second terminal is grounded. The third terminal slides across the resistor to change its resistance.
This third terminal is attached with throttle operating rod and moves across the resistor. The
output voltage increases if the movable terminal is kept at supply side. Reverse to that, output
voltage decreases if movable terminal is kept at grounded end. The ECU uses this varying
voltage as an input to determine the amount of throttle opening. The ECU senses any change
in throttle position and changes the fuel mixture.
Figure 3.26 Throttle Position Sensor.

3.14 OXYGEN SENSOR

It is also known as lambda sensor. The main function of this sensor is to sense deviation of
the air ratio from required standard ratio, by determining the oxygen content coming out in the
exhaust gas. As shown in Figure 3.27, the oxygen searching element is a thimble shaped piece
of zirconium oxide, with its inner and outer surfaces coated with a thin layer of platinum in
a manner such that it is penetrable by gas. To protect the outer surface of the thimble, which
is exposed to the hot exhaust gas, a layer of porous ceramic is applied over it. The thimble
behaves like an electric cell. When the concentration of oxygen inside differs from that outside,
an electric potential develops between the inner and outer platinum coatings. Thus, the voltage
between the outer coating, which is earthed, and the inner one, from which a connection is
taken, is a measure of the difference between the two oxygen concentrations.
Figure 3.27 Oxygen Sensor.
Because of its high sensitivity, the voltage changes can be used as signals and passed
directly to the ECU. This means that if the injectors are not delivering the enough amount of
fuel required to form the correct air: fuel ratio, the lambda sensor in the exhaust sends the
signal back to the ECU, which instantly changes the duration of injection suitably needed to
correct the mixture strength.
3.15 CRANKSHAFT POSITION SENSOR

Magnetic crankshaft position (CP) sensors use the changing strength of the magnetic field
surrounding a coil of wire to generate input signals for ECU. This signal is used by the ECU
to determine piston position and engine speed (RPM). The crankshaft position sensor uses the
strength of the magnetic field surrounding a coil of wire. The rotating crankshaft has teeth on
the periphery that trigger the magnetic position sensor. A change in the strength of the magnetic
field occurs as the teeth pass by the position sensor, creating an AC analog signal. The AC
signal generated by sensor is sent to ECU and used to calculate the required injection timing.
3.16 INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

The purpose and function of the intake air temperature sensor is to provide the temperature
of the air entering the engine to the ECU. Basically, it is a negative temperature coefficient
thermistor that decreases in resistance as the temperature of the sensor increases. The IAT sensor
information is used to control the quantity of fuel depending on the temperature of incoming
air. If the air temperature is low, the ECU modifies the amount of fuel delivery and adds fuel.
If the air temperature is high, the ECU subtracts the calculated amount of fuel. Moreover, cold
air is denser and contains more oxygen, therefore it requires a richer mixture to achieve the
proper air–fuel mixture. Hot air is less dense and contains less oxygen, therefore it requires
less fuel to achieve the proper air–fuel mixture.
Review Questions
1. Explain construction and working of fuel cock.
2. Describe the working of simple carburetor.
3. State the limitations of a simple carburetor. Also explain various circuits used
in modern carburetors.
4. Explain various types of carburetors used in two wheelers.
5. Explain the layout of TBI system used in two wheelers.
6. Describe various pumping elements used in fuel pump.
7. Explain construction of throttle body.
8. Briefly explain function of following sensors.
(a) CP sensor
(b) MAP sensor
(c) TP sensor
(d) IAT sensor
(e) Lambda sensor
9. Explain construction of oxygen sensor used in FI system.
10. Briefly explain importance of ECU.
4
Lubricating System
Contents
YY Functions of Lubrication
YY Properties of Lubricants
YY Types of Lubricants
YY Two Stroke Pre-mix Lubrication
YY Port Injection Lubricating System
YY Direct Bearing Lubricating System
YY Wet Sump Lubricating System
YY Dry Sump Lubricating System
YY Common Sump Lubricating System
YY Separate Oil Sump Lubricating System
The power available at crankshaft always remains less than the theoretical power calculated for
any engine. This is because, some amount of power is lost to overcome the friction generated
between various components having relative motion against each other. These components
include bearings, piston and cylinder, gears, valves and rocker arm, cams, etc. Almost all
components of engine have relative motion and rub against each other. Moreover, tremendous
amount of heat is also generated due to this friction between various components. Cooling
system cannot absorb heat from internal components. So it becomes necessary to provide
some means of cooling to internal components. This has been achieved with the help of
lubrication system. Lubricant reduces friction between rubbing parts and provides partial cooling
to components. Life of various components and efficiency of engine highly depends on the
lubrication system as it reduces friction and heat generation.
4.1 FUNCTION OF LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The following are the main functions of the lubricating system.
LUBRICATION: As mentioned earlier, the main function of lubrication system is to
reduce the friction between two parts having relative motion between them. This has
83
been accomplished by providing smooth thin layer of viscous lubricant between two
surfaces.
COOLING: Lubricant which comes in contact with two surfaces also carries the heat and
provides cooling. This cooling takes place simultaneously with lubrication. Generally, lubrication
system absorbs 5% to 10% of the total heat generated in the cylinder. So lubricating oil also
requires some means of cooling if it is circulated again in the system.
CLEANING: Various components like piston, piston rings, piston pin bearing are exposed to
combustion chamber and directly endure the combustion of fuel. This results as a high carbon
deposition on surface of these components. To improve life of components, it is necessary to
remove or reduce the carbon deposition. Lubricating oil helps to wash out these deposits and
clean these components.
SEALING: A thin layer of lubricating oil between piston and cylinder forms a seal by filling
minor leakage paths and surface irregularities on cylinder, piston and piston rings.
NOISE REDUCTION: As friction between two surfaces is reduced, the overall noise level
of engine also decreases.
4.2 PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

For proper functioning of engine and to maintain efficiency of lubrication system, it is necessary
to choose appropriate lubricant for various applications. The lubricant must possess certain
properties to maintain consistent operation of the system.
VISCOSITY: Viscosity is a measurement of the internal resistance to the flow of any liquid.
It defines the ability of lubricant to withstand a load on a thin film. Viscosity is, most probably,
given highest importance while selecting the lubricant. It decides the ability of lubricant to stay
between two rubbing surfaces. Viscosity of any oil varies with change in temperature. Viscosity
decreases with increasing temperature, i.e. resistance to the flow of oil decreases which results
as a poor film formation between two surfaces. Viscosity increases with decreased temperature
which indicates a characteristic of poor flowing ability. Thus, it is very important to choose
appropriate value of viscosity for the lubricating oil. It should be high enough to prevent contact
between two metal parts and low enough to reduce viscous drag.
POUR POINT: It defines a temperature where the lubricating oil stops flowing because of
high viscosity. Pour point plays vital role when vehicle is operated in low ambient temperature.
Low ambient temperature results as a decreased viscosity of oil. Highly viscous oil creates
choking of lubrication lines. It also offers high resistance to cranking mechanism at the time
of starting the engine.
FLASH POINT: The flash point is the temperature at which the vapor of lubricating
oil starts self-ignition and the temperature at which oil starts burning is called fire point.
Two-stroke engines need to be fed with low flash point lubricant as oil is also burned with
fuel during combustion. Four-stoke engines need a lubricant with high flash point for safe
operation.
Lubricating System 85
OILINESS: It is the property of oil to stick with metal surface to generate a thin film. Higher
oiliness is always a desirable property of any lubricant.
OXIDATION STABILITY: Oxidation stability of oil is its resistance to the chemical reaction
in presence of oxygen. At high temperature, vapor of lubricating oil may undergo oxidation
reaction. This reaction results as a carbon deposition on components and CO emission in the
exhaust. Moreover, it also increases crankcase emissions and reduces lubricating property of oil.
pH VALUE: The lubricating oil should be neutral in reaction, neither acidic nor alkaline.
Acidic nature of oil increases rusting of component. It also adversely affects the carbon deposit
removal rate. Alkaline nature of oil is desirable up to some extent while working with extremely
low ambient temperature. This helps to retain the oiliness in the lubricant.
COLOUR: Colour change indication helps to predict replacement time for lubricating oil.
Generally, fresh lubricant oil has reddish brown colour and changes to black while needed
replacement.
CLEANLINESS: The absence of water and suspended particles are essentially needed
for lubricating oil. Presence of water and foreign particles increases corrosion and wear of
components.
4.3 ADDITIVES FOR LUBRICANT

Mainly, mineral oils are being the first choice as automotive lubricant over natural oil because of
cheaper extraction processes. Natural oils need complex and expensive processes for extraction.
Mineral oils have most of the desired characteristics as a good lubricant. However, many
additives are supplemented in mineral oils to achieve some required properties as per the
varying operating conditions of engines.
DISPERSANTS: These additives help to prevent deposition of sludge at lower temperature.
Dispersants keep the sludge dispersed from the metal parts. Sludge particles remain suspended
in the oil.
DETERGENTS: Detergents prevent the carbon deposition generally take place at higher
temperature. Just like dispersants, detergents also help to disperse carbon particles from metal parts.
CORROSION INHIBITORS: It is obvious that metal parts of engine are subjected to high
temperature because of which corrosion is likely to take place. Corrosion inhibitors neutralize
the acidic products of combustion. These inhibitors also form a thin layer on metal parts to
avoid chemical exchange with acidic products.
ANTI-OXIDANTS: Lubricants have tendency to form adhesive liquid at high working
temperature as a result of oxidation reaction. This adhesive liquid sticks with the metal parts and
restricts smooth motion between them. Anti-oxidants are used to avoid oxidation of lubricants
at high temperature.
ANTI-WEAR ADDITIVES: Temperature and pressure inside the cylinder increases
drastically with continuous running of engine. High pressure and temperature cause the thin
film of lubricant to break. Breaking of lubricant film result as metal to metal contact between
rubbing parts.
VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS: Viscosity index improvers avoid thinning of lubricating
oil during high temperature and solidification during low temperature. Viscosity index improvers
help to keep the viscosity of oil within limit. Molecules of improver form a chain which
responds differently under different temperature conditions. This chain helps to avoid decrease
in viscosity with rising temperature and increase in viscosity with falling temperature.
ANTI-FOAM ADDITIVES: Foam formation during dynamic condition creates pumping
problems. A small amount of air causes oxidation resulting in adhesive liquid as stated
earlier.
OILINESS IMPROVERS: These ingredients are added to maintain the oiliness of oil under
varying temperature conditions. Oiliness plays vital role in forming of thin layer on the metal
parts, on failing of which, metal parts are exposed to high temperature.
4.4 GRADING OF LUBRICATING OILS

The lubricating oils are classified with the help of a system developed by SAE (Society of
Automotive Engineers, USA) in which viscosity of oil is used to designate the lubricating
oils. –18°C and 99°C are the two temperatures used as a reference to assign the number to
any particular oil. The numbers are given from low to high viscosity: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25,
30, 40, 50 or 60. Furthermore, the numbers are written with letter “W” which indicates that
the oil can be used in winter or for cold starting condition. SAE 0W, 5W, 10W and 20W are
the oils which can be used for cold starting and can withstand very low temperatures without
any considerable change in viscosity. SAE 30, 40, 50 and 60 are the oils which can withstand
high working temperature without significant change in viscosity. These all oils fall under the
category of single grade oil.
As discussed in the previous section, varieties of additives are available to improve the
desired properties of any lubricating oil. With the help of these additives, it is possible to
manufacture oil with more than one viscosity at different temperatures, i.e. viscosity of oil
changes with change in temperature. These types of oils are known as multigrade oils. For
example, 20W 40 designate a common multigrade oil. This oil falls under the SAE 20W grade
at –18°C and also in the SAE 40 grade at 99°C. Thus oils has to pass all the requirements of
SAE 20W grade as well as requirements of SAE 40 grade. Other possible multigrade oils are
5W 30, 10W 30, 10W 40, 20W 20, 20W 30 etc.
4.5 TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

Mostly, lubricants used in two wheelers are products of crude oil. Crude oil is heated to
different temperature ranges to accumulate vapors at different stages. These vapors are then
condensed in various ways to produce different petroleum products. Mainly, four types of
lubricants are used in two wheelers: Two-stroke lubricating oil, dry lubricants, grease and
synthetic oils.
4.5.1 Two-stroke Engine Oils

Nowadays, two-stroke engines are used in small capacity mopeds and on some old scooters. In
two-stroke engine, lubricating oils is supplied in the engine either by premixing with petrol or
injected in the petrol. In both the cases, lubricating oil has to lubricate the various components
first and then it is supposed to burn with air fuel mixture without leaving any ash behind.
Ordinary lubricating oil increases carbon deposition on the spark plug. This carbon deposit
increases over period of time and finally reaches to its extreme level where spark plug fails
to generate spark with sufficient strength. This results either as misfiring or as non-starting
condition of engine. To avoid fouling of spark plug, two-stroke engine oils are mixed with
special additives resulting in following advantages.
Reduced spark plug fouling
Reduced sticking of piston rings
Reduced deposition in combustion chamber
Improved resistance to bearing rusting
Reduced deposition in exhaust port
Efficient cleaning of engine component at higher temperature
Improved engine performance
Improved fuel economy of engine
4.5.2 Dry Lubricants

A dry lubricant is used as powder or thin film to provide protection from damage in the
environments where liquid lubricant cannot be used. It is also known as solid lubrication, dry
film lubrication and solid film lubrication. A combination of solid and liquid lubrication is
also feasible and may have a beneficial effect on the friction and wear performance of sliding
surfaces. Dry lubricants can be distributed in water, oils, and greases to achieve improved
friction and wear properties under conditions of extreme pressures and temperatures. Dry
lubrication can be implemented where unusual conditions exist which make oils and greases
unsuitable. For example, lubrication to chain, a chain with dry lubricant won’t pick up as much
duct as oil lubricated one. Dry lubricants can be applied to a surface in a variety of forms.
The oldest and simplest method is to rub the fine powders of dry lubricants on surfaces to be
lubricated. Certain dry lubricants have been blended in a vaporized vessel and sprayed directly
onto the surfaces to be lubricated. This thin solvent penetrates deeply and quickly. Following
are some basic properties of good dry lubricants.
They provide low, constant and controlled friction between two rubbing surfaces
They are chemically stable over the large temperature range
They do not damage the bearing material
They provide strong adhesion to one or both bearing surfaces
They have sufficient resistance to wear even in the dry state
They are non-toxic and economical
4.5.3 Grease Lubrication

Thin lubricating oils cannot be used where components are subjected to heavy cyclic loads.
Moreover, it is very difficult to penetrate the dry lubricants in the components which are not so
easily accessible. To overcome these difficulties, different types of greases are used as lubricant.
Grease is a semi-solid form of lubricating oil which is prepared by dissolving a thickening
additive in mineral lubricating oil. The fibres of thickening additive trap the oil and provide
bonding by creating solid boundaries. Molecules of oil provide lubrication and fibres provide
strength to withstand heavy loads. Grease can be trapped between two surfaces or components
by providing mechanical sealing arrangements. Following are some drawbacks of grease.
Because of high resistance to shearing or churning, grease provides sufficient
lubrication in low speed conditions.
Viscosity of grease does not change over low range of temperature.
In comparison with oil, greases are very poor coolants.
Grease loses the bonding of fibres and suffers from shearing at high temperature.
It is difficult to achieve cleanliness while using grease as lubricant.
Sealing is mandatorily required to avoid contaminations on greased components.
It is difficult to remove layer of grease during long time service schedules.
4.5.4 Synthetic Oils

It is possible to improve properties of mineral oil to get maximum advantage but dispersion of
all the additives is not possible. Compromise has to be done with mineral oil as it has reactive
nature with many additives. Moreover, even with proper additives, mineral oil cannot be used
in extreme operating conditions. To achieve these requirements, artificially produced chemical
compounds are blended with each other to produce lubricating oil known as synthetic oil.
Synthetic oils are used as a replacement of conventional mineral oils. Synthetic oil contains
perfect blending of specific chemical compound as per the working conditions and possesses
extraordinary properties as listed below.
Excellent wear protection
Improved working temperature range
Decreased sludge and carbon deposition
Better oxidation stability
Better film strength
Lower volatility
Better water separation
Less additives required
Lower pour point and higher flash point
Non-toxic, odorless
More environmentally friendly
Extended replacement periods
4.6 TWO-STROKE PRE-MIX LUBRICATION

Oil-fuel pre-mix lubrication is the oldest and simplest approach of engine lubrication and
used for two-stroke engines. Lubricating oil is mixed with petrol in the ratio of 1:20 and this
mixture is burned inside the cylinder. During the upward motion of piston, air-fuel-oil mixture
is impelled in the crankcase. Some oil particles get settle on components in the crankcase, on
cylinder walls and on the piston skirt. Remaining particles are pushed into the combustion
chamber along with air and fuel. Here, oil particles again trapped to various components in
combustion chamber and finally burned with mixture if left out within the mixture as shown
in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Pre-mix Lubrication.
The major advantage of pre-mix lubrication system is that it does not require any
component to run the lubricating system. This system runs till the engine runs, i.e. pre-mix
lubrication system is reliable and cheaper. If one fails to mix the oil in the fuel tank certain
disaster with engine will result. Moreover, correct ratio also has to be maintained while filling
the tank with oil-fuel mixture. Improper ratio leads to incomplete combustion and more exhaust
emissions. The incorrect oil-fuel ratio once fed into the tank cannot be changed anyhow and
has to be burned during combustion. This leads to harmful effects to various components like
spark plug, piston rings etc.
4.7 PORT INJECTION LUBRICATING SYSTEM

To overcome the difficulties with pre-mix system, port injection system was introduced in
1960s. It injects the lubricating oil into the intake manifold instead of pre-mixing with fuel.
This system makes use of pump and injector to inject the oil. Lubricating oil is injected in the
flowing stream of air and fuel just after the carburetor as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Port Injection Lubricating System.
The amount of oil to be injected depends upon the engine speed and throttle position.
A mechanical linkage signals the pump to meter the quantity of oil. Full open throttle at high
speed sends indications to the pump to deliver highest amount of oil into flowing air-fuel stream.
Smaller throttle opening at lower speed indicates less amount of oil requirement, so the pump
delivers less. At idle running condition, engine needs lowest amount of oil for lubrication, so
pump delivers very small amount to maintain 100:1 ratio of fuel-oil mixture. This varying
quantity of lubricating oil prevents the fouling of spark plug and lowers the exhaust emissions.
4.8 DIRECT BEARING LUBRICATING SYSTEM

Direct bearing lubrication is an extension of port injection system. Rather than injecting oil into
the intake manifold, this system supplies the lubricating oil directly to the critical components of
engine. Just like port injection, metering of oil is done through throttle position and oil pump.
Figure 4.3 illustrates a direct bearing lubrication system. Two distribution lines are extracted
Figure 4.3 Direct Bearing Lubricating System.

from the pump: one supplies the oil to the upper end components like piston, piston rings, piston
pin etc. second line supplies the oil to the lower end components like connecting rod, crankshaft
bearings, connecting rod bearings etc. Both the lines are further divided to distribute oil in
various compartments. One common bigger line shares the oil between clutch, crankshaft and
transmission. A frequent top-up of the oil tank is necessarily required to avoid heavy damage
or a complete breakdown of engine. Carbon deposition and exhaust emissions are drastically
reduced as the amount of lubricating oil burned with air-fuel is very small. Furthermore, top-up
period in direct bearing lubrication is also less compared to port injection system.
4.9 SPLASH LUBRICATING SYSTEM

Small capacity single cylinder engines use splash lubricating system which is shown in Figure 4.4.
The crankcase is provided with special shape to form oil sump. Lubricating oil is squelched
to the components with the help of connecting rod. As shown in Figure 4.5, connecting rod is
provided with the scoop and hollow pipe in the direction of rotation. The oil is thrown upward
because of centrifugal force produced with the help of scoop. The dripping oil is again collected
and settled in the oil sump. Some engine also use oil pump to circulate the oil. This arrangement
uses oil channels from where the connecting rod scoop generates splashing action. Irregular
quantity of splashed oil, burning with air-fuel mixture, insufficient lubrication in cylinder head
components, passing out with exhaust gas are some drawbacks of splash lubricating system.

Figure 4.4 Splash Lubricating System. Figure 4.5 Connecting Rod with Scoop.
4.10 WET SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM

Many two wheelers make use of wet sump lubricating system. Just like splash lubrication, this
system also contains oil sump in crankcase but the method of supplying oil differs. A single
oil pump inside the crankcase forces the lubricating oil towards various distribution channels.
In majority cases, these distribution channels are integrated part of engine blocks. Once
supplied to the main areas like cylinder head, piston, connecting rod etc. by pump pressure,
oil then lubricates various components during down dripping generated due to gravitation
force. Many engines also use pressure relief valve to regulate the oil pressure throughout the
distribution channels. Figure 4.6 illustrates wet sump lubrication system. Crankcase ventilation
becomes necessary while using wet sump lubrication system. Moreover, vertical height of the
engine also increases considerably due to oil sump. It also raises the COG and reduces ground
clearance.
Figure 4.6 Wet Sump Lubricating System.
4.11 DRY SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM

To avoid increase in ride height, many high performance two wheelers use dry sump lubrication
system. The oil reservoir is located outside the engine and oil is supplied to the oil pump
due to gravitational force. Pump pressurized the oil and supplies to the components through
distribution lines. Pressure relief valve is used to regulate the pressure in the system. Oil is then
collected in the sump at bottom of the crankcase. One high speed scavenging pump extracts
the oil from the sump and supplies back to the reservoir. Speed of scavenging pump is much
higher than the oil feed pump because of which sump almost remains empty (dry) during
working condition. A warning lamp on instrument panel is used to indicate low level of oil in
the reservoir. Figure 4.7 shows dry sump lubrication.
Figure 4.7 Dry Sump Lubricating System.
4.12 COMMON SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM

Nowadays, all motorcycles and some scooters are using common sump lubrication system. All
the components of engine, primary reduction, clutch and transmission are lubricated with same
oil either supplied by wet sump or dry sump system. This approach of lubrication minimizes
the time required for top-up as well as simplifies the layout of distribution lines. Engine parts
are carefully designed to work with same grade of oil as components of transmission have
to work with. Figure 4.8 shows multicylinder engine with common sump lubrication system.
Figure 4.8 Common Sump Lubricating System.

4.13 SEPARATE OIL SUMP LUBRICATING SYSTEM

Early two wheelers and some modern scooters with CVT
use separate oil sump system. Contrasting with common
sump system, this system uses different oil sumps for
different systems, i.e. engine has its own sump for particular
grade of oil while transmission works with different grade
of oil in another chamber. Engine and transmission are kept
in separate cases and connected with the help of chain drive.
This chain drive works a primary reduction unit and also
requires separate sump for lubrication. Figure 4.9 shows
arrangement of separate oil sump lubrication system. It
becomes essential to use separate oil sump system while
using CVT because the oil required less viscosity for proper
working of trapezoidal pulleys. The only advantage of this
system is the design of optimized components as per the
requirements. Manufacturing of engine as a complete unit
Figure 4.9 Separate Sump
becomes complex and requires high precision at the time
Lubricating System.
of breakdown maintenance. Top-up of lubricating oil is also
tedious and time consuming process as worker has to fill each chamber with different grade
of oil.
Review Questions
1. What is the function of lubrication system? Why it is necessary?
2. What are the desired properties of good lubricating oil?
3. Discuss different types of additives used to improve the properties of lubricant.
4. Why synthetic oils are preferred than mineral oil as a lubricant? Explain in detail.
5. How the lubricating oils are graded?
6. Describe operation of splash lubrication system with neat sketch.
7. Why dry sump lubrication system is preferred in high performance two wheelers?
Explain working of dry sump lubrication system.
8. Compare common sump and separate sump lubrication systems.
9. Explain working of direct bearing lubrication system.
10. Which are the two conventions methods adopted for the lubrication of two-stroke
engine? Explain any one in detail.
5
Cooling System
Contents
YY Factors Affecting the Temperature of Engine
YY Air Cooled Engine
YY Oil Cooled Engine
YY Water Cooled Engine
YY Radiators
YY Thermostat
YY Water Pump
Highest combustion temperatures in the multicylinder engine can vary from 2000°C to 3000°C.
The combustion temperatures average between 650°C to 925°C. Heat must be removed from the
engine as continuous high temperature would damage engine parts. The cooling system keeps
the head and cylinder walls at optimum temperature. The cooling system removes about 30%
of the heat created during combustion. Cooling system of engine has to absorb the excessive
heat to avoid bad effects as listed below.
The high temperature causes reduced strength of various components of engine.
Uneven expansion of components results as seizing of engine.
High temperature also affects the properties of lubricating oil. Lubricant film breaks
at high temperature and friction between various components increases, resulting as
more heat generation. Moreover, lubricating oil starts burning and produced high
amount of carbon deposits.
High temperature creates hot spots inside the cylinder and causes pre-ignition of
fresh charge.
If engine temperature is lowered than a critical limit, corrosion on various metal
components is likely to take place because of presence of acidic combustion products.
At lower temperature, moisture created during the combustion process can condense
and flow into the lubricating oil.
Efficient operation of cooling system depends on the design and operating conditions of the
95
engine. The design is based on heat output of the engine, types of cooling system used, normal
ambient temperature, types of fins, number of fins, radiator size, type of coolant, size of water
pump, type of fan, thermostat, and system pressure. The cooling system must allow the engine
to warm up to the required operating temperature quickly and then maintain that temperature.
A faulty cooling system seems to be a major cause of engine failure.
5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE TEMPERATURE OF ENGINE

The following are the main factors which affect the temperature distribution in engine.
Figure 5.1 shows illustrative representation.
Figure 5.1 Factors Affecting Engine Temperature.
AIR–FUEL RATIO: The temperature inside the combustion chamber depends on the A:F
ratio. The maximum gas temperature occurs at A:R ratio of 13:1. Moreover, rich mixture takes
more time to combust which results as further increase in chamber temperature.
COMPRESSION RATIO: Higher compression ratio helps to improve overall heat rejection
rate. The gas temperature increases as the compression ratio increases. The compressed gases
at high pressure expand more and liberate more heat energy at the end of expansion stroke.
ENGINE SPEED: The heat input per cycle increases with increase in engine speed as rate
of supplying fresh charge also rapider. As a result, more heat is transferred to the components
by burning gases. Thus, engine temperature increases with engine speed.
ENGINE OUTPUT: The mixture mass supply per cycle increases with increase in load on
the engine. Therefore, heat released and indirectly heat transferred increases with load on the
engine.
Cooling System 97
IGNITION TIMING: The angle of advance is kept to compensate the time required for
combustion. Higher the angle of advance, the pressure and temperature in the cylinder increases.
This increases the component temperature inside the cylinder.
TYPES OF COOLANT: The properties of coolant decide the heat transfer rate between
coolant and engine components as well as heat carrying capacity of coolant. It also helps to
decide the recirculation amount of coolant if needed.
TURBULENCE: Generally, high turbulence occurs with high pressure and temperature,
resulting as increase in spontaneous heat transfer to engine components.
5.2 AIR COOLED ENGINE

Air cooling of small capacity engines by providing external fins is been traditionally used and
is an efficient approach of providing cooling. Efficiency of air cooling system mainly depends
upon the flow of air stream around the cylinder and through the narrow passages of fins.
The cooling fins are either cast integral with the cylinder block and head or they are fixed
separately. Heat transfer rate also depends on the temperature of atmospheric air. Hot
atmospheric air causes less heat transfer and results as high working temperature of engine.
This may cause severe damage to internal components of engine like piston, piston rings, valve
seat etc. Figure 5.2 illustrates arrangement of fins on an air cooled engine.
Figure 5.2 Cooling Fins on V Twin Engine.
Advantages of Air Cooled Engine

1. The design and manufacturing of air cooling system is easy and inexpensive.
2. Servicing and repairing of air cooling system is easier.
3. There is no danger of leakage of coolant.
4. The weight of air cooling system per BP of engine is very less.
5. The freezing in the cooling system never takes place.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled Engine

1. Heat removal rate highly depends on the atmospheric temperature. This necessitates
the provision of high clearance between components to avoid over heating casualties.
2. Efficiency of air cooling system is low because of which it can be used on small
capacity engines.
3. Contamination of dirt causes drop in the heat transfer rate.
4. Working temperature remains high.
5.3 OIL COOLED ENGINE

Figure 5.3 shows an oil cooling system used for small to medium capacity engines. Fundamentally,
it is a combination of air cooling as well as oil cooling system in which lubricating oil is also
used to carry large amount of engine heat. Lubricating oil is continuously circulated through
the circuit shown in the layout. Radiator is added in the layout of wet sump lubrication system.
Radiator is small cross heat exchanger which is been placed in front of engine. Heat transfer
takes place between cool atmospheric air and hot oil in the radiator. Centrifugal type oil pump
is located inside the oil sump which forces the oil towards various distribution lines. Oil then
flows towards crankcase due to gravity in-between which it cools various components and
also provides lubrication. Hot oil is collected in the oil sump and circulated again through the
circuit. Figure 5.4 shows actual arrangement of oil cooled engine.
Figure 5.3 Layout of Oil Cooling System. Figure 5.4 Actual Arrangement of Oil Cooled
Engine.
Advantages of Oil Cooled Engine

1. Top-up time of lubricating oil can be improved as continuous cooling of oil is helpful
to maintain its properties.
2. Carbon deposition is reduced considerably because of circulating oil.
3. More heat transfer is possible than air cooled engine.
Cooling System 99
Disadvantages of Oil Cooled Engine

1. Leakage of oil can be possible at various connections if left untighten during
maintenance process.
2. Quantity of lubricating oil required is more than air cooled engine.
3. Maintenance procedure is complicated and time consuming if compared to air cooled
engine.
4. Contaminated oil can damage the oil pump and affects the efficiency of cooling
system.
5.4 WATER COOLED ENGINE

Figure 5.5 shows the cooling circuit used in water cooled engines. In two wheelers, working
principle of water cooled engine remains same as other engines used in cars and trucks. Hot
water goes to radiator because of density difference. Thermostat and coolant temperature sensor
controls the flow of water. Heat transfer takes place in the radiator and water vapor is converted
into cooled water. Cooled water is then circulated through engine block and cylinders with
the help of pump driven by crankshaft power. Proper coolants are added into water to avoid
freezing or boiling of water. Figure 5.6 illustrates a complete system of water cooled engine used
on two wheelers. Radiator is designed for the maximum rate of heat transfer using minimum
space. Sometimes, cooling airflow through the radiator is aided by a belt or electric motor
driven cooling fan.
Figure 5.5 Water Cooling System Circuit.
Advantages of Water Cooled Engine

1. Uniform cooling of remote components like valve, cylinder head, spark plug etc. is
possible.
2. The specific fuel consumption is considerably lower in water cooled engine.
3. Greater flexibility is available for engine mounting design because of absence of
cooling fins.
Figure 5.6 Water Cooling System.
4. Compact engine design is possible.

5. No need to expose the engine to the atmospheric air. This helps to improve the faring
design resulting as better aerodynamic characteristics.
6. Better cooling at lower speed can be achieved with the help of cooling fan.
Disadvantages of Water Cooled Engine

1. Contaminated water can cause rusting of water jackets.
2. Serious damage may be caused to the engine within a short period of time in the
case of malfunctioning of water cooling system.
3. The water pump consumes considerable power from the engine crankshaft.
4. Initial and maintenance cost is very high.
5.5 RADIATORS
Oil cooled as well as water cooled engines make use of radiator. The main function of radiator
is to cool the hot coolant coming out of the engine by flowing air. The heat transfer between
coolant and air takes place by conduction and convection. As shown in Figure 5.7, the coolant
flows through oval-shaped core tubes. Heat is transferred through the tube wall to the cooling
fins. The fins are exposed to the cool air that flows through the radiator, which removes heat
from the radiator and carries it away. Fundamentally, two basic designs of radiators are used
on two wheelers.
Down-flow radiators: This design was used mostly in older vehicles, where the coolant
used to enter the radiator at the top and flowed downward, exiting the radiator at the
bottom.
Cooling System 101
Figure 5.7 Radiator Construction.
Cross-flow radiators: Most radiators use a cross-flow design, where the coolant flows from one
side of the radiator to the opposite side. This arrangement provide high rate of heat dissipation.
Figure 5.8 illustrates arrangements in cross-flow radiator.
Figure 5.8 Cross-flow Type Radiator.
The main constraint of heat transfer in a cooling system is the limitation of heat transfer
from the radiator to the air. Heat transfers from the coolant to the fins as much as five times
faster than heat transfers from the fins to the air. The radiator must be designed to remove
an amount of heat energy approximately equal to the heat energy produced by the engine. As
the engine power is increased, the heat-removing requirement of the cooling system is also
increased, and so as the size of radiator. With a given frontal area, radiator capacity may be
increased by increasing the core thickness, packing more material into the same volume, or
both. The radiator capacity may also be increased by placing a shroud around the fan so that
more air will be pulled through the radiator. Many high performance two wheelers use curved
radiators to increase the heat dissipation and allowing more air flow through the fins.
5.6 THERMOSTAT
The thermostat controls the minimum
normal temperature of coolant. The
thermostat is a temperature controlled
valve located at the engine side. A
condensed wax plastic pellet heat sensor
is located on the engine side of the
thermostatic valve. A tapered piston rod
is enclosed in a synthetic rubber boot
sealed in the upper end of the capsule
(a brass pressing) which contains the wax.
The upper end of this rod is screwed
into a central hole in a bridge carried
by the main seating ring. As the engine
warms, the heat sensor is actuated. A
piston connected to the wax pellet, opens
the thermostat valve. As the thermostat
begins to open, it allows coolant to flow
to the radiator, where it is cooled. The Figure 5.9 Closed Thermostat Valve and By-pass
remaining part of the coolant continues Flow of Coolant.
to flow through the bypass, thereby bypassing the thermostat and flowing back through the
engine. Failure of the wax capsule would cause the valve to remain closed, with possible
disastrous consequences. Figure 5.9 shows construction of thermostat and by-pass flow of low
temperature coolant. Figure 5.10 shows construction of wax pellet based thermostat. Figure 5.11
illustrates open thermostat valve and flow of high temperature coolant towards radiator.
Figure 5.10 Wax Pellet Type Thermostat.

Cooling System 103
Figure 5.11 Opened Thermostat Valve and Flow of Coolant.
5.7 WATER PUMP

Low temperature water leaves the
radiator from the bottom outlet. It
is pumped into the warm engine
block, where it picks up some
heat. From the block, the warm
water flows to the hot cylinder
head, where it picks up more heat.
Thus, water is circulated from the
radiator to the engine and back
to the radiator with the help of
water pump. Water pumps are not
positive displacement pumps. The
water pump is a centrifugal pump
that can move a large volume
of water without increasing the
pressure of the water. The water
is sucked inside the pump from
the centre of the impeller. Impeller
is provided with set of vanes as
Figure 5.12 Centrifugal Water Pump.
shown in Figure 5.12. Centrifugal
force throws the water outward so that it is discharged at the impeller tips. As engine speeds
increase, more heat is produced by the engine and more cooling capacity is required. The
pump impeller speed increases as the engine speed increases to provide extra water flow at
the very time it is needed. Water leaving the pump impeller is fed through a volute. The
volute is a smoothly curved passage that changes the fluid flow direction with minimum loss
in velocity. The volute is connected to the front of the engine so as to direct the water into
the engine block. On V-type engines, two outlets are often used, one for each cylinder bank.
Sometimes, diverters are necessary in the water pump volute to equalize water flow between
the cylinder banks of a V-type engine in order to equalize the cooling. Figure 5.13 illustrates
actual arrangement for water pump in two wheeler engine.
Figure 5.13 Various Components of Water Pump.
Review Questions
1. Why cooling of engine is necessary?
2. Discuss the effects of following factors on engine temperature.
(a) A:F ratio
(b) Compression ratio
(c) Engine speed
(d) Turbulence
(e) Types of coolant
3. Why air cooling is used in small capacity engine? Also explain advantages and
disadvantages of air cooling system.
4. Draw a neat diagram of oil cooling system and explain its working.
5. Discuss merits and demerits of water cooling system.
6. Explain construction and working of radiator.
7. What is the importance of thermostatic valve? Describe working of wax pellet
type thermostat valve with neat sketch.
8. Describe working of water pump used in water cooled engine.
6
Exhaust System
Contents
YY Exhaust System
YY Different Layouts
YY Exhaust Pipe and Header
YY Layouts of Exhaust Pipes
YY Muffler
Exhaust system plays vital role in deciding operating characteristics and performance of
any engine. Exhaust systems are also a beloved field of research through the years and so
have advanced to help the engines to perform better and better with minimum noise
and emissions. Fundamentally, exhaust system has to perform following three functions for
engine.
It provides proper passage for removing exhaust gases.
It helps to improve power output of the engine by controlling appropriate backpressure.
It damps the exhaust noise.
Design of exhaust system includes study of gas dynamics, heat and mass transfer theories,
piping design, chemical reaction in catalytic convertor and acoustic engineering. Muffing the
exhaust sound is the most important aspect in designing of any exhaust system. It depends on
type of muffler, location of muffler, acoustic routing of pipes etc. Indeed, many vehicles are
recognized and stand as the first choice of riders for their tuned exhaust sound. A trend is being
followed by many riders to replace the factory installed exhaust by dyno-tuned aftermarket
exhaust.
The location and routing is the second major consideration in exhaust system design.
This highly depends on engine location, engine type, power output, type of vehicle, types of
muffler and its damping capacity. Location and routing of exhaust piping decides the range of
back pressure at which engine operates. Figure 6.1 shows relationship between exhaust port
pressure and crank angle. Back pressure influences at two different position of crank: at the
start of when the exhaust valve opens and at cam overlap.
105
Considering the positive (back pressure) peak at the far left which is known as main
pressure wave. This positive peak is generated as the exhaust valve just opens before BDC.
Some energy must be consumed in order to overcome this initial positive (back) pressure in
the exhaust system before the exhaust gas is pushed out of the combustion chamber. This has
been achieved through the huge pressure difference created between the cylinder gases and
the atmospheric air. After overcoming the positive back pressure, the exhaust gas travels with
high velocity and generates a negative pressure behind. As shown in Figure 6.1, the pressure
in the diagram has a negative value. The suction or vacuum inside the exhaust pipe increases
if the value of negative pressure increases. This suction known as scavenging effect not only
helps to remove more exhaust gas from the cylinder, it also helps to draw more fresh charge
inside the cylinder. The faster the exhaust gas travels the more vacuum it creates. It is always
beneficial to get as much as negative pressure before cam overlap.
Figure 6.1 Pressure Measurements at the Exhaust Valve.
At overlap period, a reflected pressure wave can be observed which travels back towards
the engine, i.e. some amount of exhaust gas flows back to the cylinder. This reflected wave
is known as reversion and it pollutes the intake charge during overlapping and reduces the
oxygen content coming into the cylinder. Less oxygen for combustion means less power. The
reflected pressure at the exhaust valve is still negative but less negative than main pressure
wave. This reflected pressure pulse is the second back pressure which the engine experiences.
It reduces exhaust flow speed because the exhaust pulse must now push against this pressure
to move forward. A loss in flow speed means less negative pressure and reduced vacuum in
exhaust pipe. As a result, efficient removal of exhaust gas is obstructed and drop in scavenging
efficiency is also observed. Power and torque output also decreases with any increase in
back pressure. Experiments also demonstrate that even with this small amount of increase
in back pressure, peak torque dropped by 4% and peak power by 5%. The back pressure in
the exhaust pipe can severely affect the intake flow characteristics. The engine’s volumetric
efficiency can directly affect the engine’s output and the emission levels. Only improved
designed of exhaust system can help to achieve good volumetric efficiency, high power and
torque output and less fuel consumption. Thus, many aspects of exhaust system design decide
the performance characteristics of engine. These parameters include the following:
Exhaust System 107
Exhaust manifold length

Exhaust manifold and downpipe design (geometry)
Exhaust manifold material, thickness and insulation
Exhaust gas dynamics
Catalytic convertor position, length and configuration
Muffler design
6.1 EXHAUST SYSTEM OF TWO WHEELERS

An exhaust system of any two wheeler is always a challenging task to design, reasons are less
space available, COG location, dynamic balancing of vehicle, strict emission norms etc. Overall
exhaust system varies drastically in each type of vehicle, i.e. from moped to high performance
motorcycles. A general layout of exhaust system is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Layout of Exhaust System.
Exhaust pipe is a precisely designed hollow passage which allows the removal of exhaust
gases from the cylinder. It also helps to remove the exhaust gases with highest possible velocity
to maintain the back pressure. It is connected to the exhaust port via flange coupling. Depending
upon the vehicle type, exhaust pipe also contains various connectors for EGR and oxygen
sensors. EGR connection is located nearer to engine side of pipe and used to extract required
amount of exhaust gases to be circulated with fresh charge. As mentioned earlier, oxygen sensor
gives the amount of oxygen coming out of the cylinder. This measured amount of oxygen
is fed to the ECU to calculate the amount of fuel needs to be injected. Thus oxygen sensor
connector is used only when vehicle is equipped with FI system.
Header is a primary expansion chamber used to generate high velocity flow of exhaust
gases inside the exhaust pipe. A connector is used to link the header with exhaust pipe. The
connector is also used to mount the exhaust system on the frame. The catalytic convertor is
mounted inside the header either on pipe side or on muffler side. Nowadays, catalytic convertor
has become essential component of exhaust system. The catalytic convertor is used to reduce
the exhaust emissions without any moving or burning components. Muffler is a secondary
expansion chamber used to reduce the noise level. Exhaust pipe and muffler, together, generates
particular tuned exhaust sound for vehicle. Muffler cover is used to protect the passenger from
the heat and gives aesthetic appeal to the system.
Figure 6.3 illustrates layout of exhaust system used in scooters. Space availability for
exhaust system is very less in scooters as engine is located at rear. So the entire system needs
to be condensed and should accomplish all the basic functions of exhaust system. As a result,
the length of the exhaust pipe is reduced to meet the size requirements. In most cases, catalytic
convertor is located inside the muffler body rather than in header tube. This arrangement
facilitates the advantage to lengthen the header to maintain appropriate velocity of flowing
gases.
Figure 6.3 Compact Exhaust System of Scooter.
Even with the small space accessibility, many after-market tuned exhaust systems are
available to improve the torque curve of scooter engine. Muffler cover plays vital role in
exhaust system of scoter as it is the only scope for aesthetic improvements. Sometimes, chromed
muffler grill is also used for protection as well as aesthetic appeal. Figure 6.4 shows actual
arrangement of exhaust system in scooter.
Figure 6.4 Arrangement of Exhaust System in Scooter.

Exhaust System 109
Figure 6.5 explains construction and layout of exhaust system used in endure bike. As
mentioned earlier, endure bikes make use of raised exhaust to avoid water (sludge) to come
inside the exhaust and to avoid inflowing water into the cylinder. To generate high torque
output, endure bike exhaust system is equipped with specially designed volute type expansion
chambers ahead of header. The primary expansion chamber helps to maintain engine back
pressure while second expansion chamber creates high velocity gas flow. Figure 6.6 shows
actual arrangement of raised exhaust in endure bike.
Figure 6.5 Raised Exhaust System of Endure Bike.
Figure 6.6 Arrangement of Raised Exhaust System in Endure Bike.
Some multicylinder high performance bikes also use raised exhaust system to maintain
back pressure on the engine. Figure 6.7 shows raised twin exhaust on high performance bike.
Raising the exhausts also increases overall length of exhaust pipes. Depending upon the
configuration, either single or double headers are used to generate high velocity gas flow.
Together, exhaust pipes and headers are tuned

to drag out best possible power and torque
output from the engine. Nozzles at the end
of mufflers also help to provide thrust against
stationary bunch of air. Furthermore, raised
exhaust also facilitates high speed turning to the
riders by providing greater leaning range i.e.
exhaust never touches the ground during lean
position of bike. Heat shields on the mufflers
turn into necessity to protect pillion passenger
from scorching. This raised exhaust also adds
aesthetic value to the bike.
Cruiser bikes generally have high capacity
V-Twin engine and adopt lowered exhaust
system to maintain the COG of vehicle nearer
to ground. Lowered COG of vehicle helps
to maintain longitudinal stability all through Figure 6.7 Raised Exhaust System in
cruising. Moreover, straiten lowered exhaust High Performance Bike.
facilitates easy removal of exhaust gases from high capacity V Twin engine. Length of header
is kept considerably longer than the endure bikes and sport bikes. This helps to configure the
engine as an end-range power engine which is also best suitable for cruisers. Lowered exhaust
pipes and mufflers limit the tilting of vehicle during high speed turning. Figure 6.8 shows layout
of exhaust system for cruiser bike and Figure 6.9 displays actual arrangement.
Figure 6.8 Lowered Exhaust System of Cruiser Bike.

Exhaust System 111
Figure 6.9 Arrangement of Lowered Exhaust System in Cruiser Bike.
6.2 EXHAUST PIPE AND HEADER

Exhaust pipe, sometimes also known as runner pipe, helps to remove the exhaust gases with
highest possible velocity. It also helps to maintain the back pressure. Exhaust pipe design
needs extensive considerations to maintain the flow of gases and so as the back pressure on
the engine. Actually, power output and torque curve of any engine highly depends on layout
and dimensions of exhaust pipes. Large diameter and shorten length of exhaust pipe helps
to increase end-range power while smaller pipe with more length helps to increase low to
mid-range power. Moreover, power output drops with increase in number of tight curves in
the exhaust pipe. Practically, pipes with smooth definite curves helps to maintain appropriate
back pressure in the system and gives best power output. Torque curve can be improved by
combining these primary exhaust pipes into one common collector known as header. Header,
actually, provides an expansion passage to the flowing gases. This sudden expansion further
increases the velocity of flowing gases and helps to improve the scavenging pulses in the
exhaust system. The improved scavenging pulses are used to extract more exhaust gases from
the cylinder. It also helps to draw more fresh charge inside the cylinder which finally improves
the torque output of the engine. The experimented combination of exhaust pipe and header to
generate best possible power and torque output from the engine is known as exhaust tuning.
Without considering either factory-made or aftermarket tuned exhaust systems, following are
some basic layouts currently used for multi cylinder engines of two wheelers.
6.2.1 Two-into-Two
As name suggests, Two-into-Two layout is used for twin cylinder engine. This layout contains
independent exhaust pipe and muffler for each cylinder. Individual exhaust pipe and muffle do
an exceptional job of silencing twin cylinder engine and still generates decent power and torque
output. In this layout, each exhaust pulse in one of the cylinder is completely independent of
pulses generated in other cylinder, thus it is also known as independent pipe exhaust system.
Figure 6.10 shows arrangement of Two-into-Two layout parallel twin engine.
Figure 6.10 Top View of Two-into-Two Layout Used for Parallel Twin engine.
6.2.2 Two-into-One
After evolution of exhaust tuning, manufacturers started using Two-into-One layout.
Two-into-One layout uses individual exhaust pipes and single muffler. Both the exhaust pipes
are merged into single reducing cone. This reducing cone is further connected to header and a
single muffler as shown in Figure 6.11. The reducing cone provides sudden expansion to the
flowing gases. This expansion helps to increase the velocity of flowing gases. The alternate
exhaust pulses generated in each cylinder are collected in the reducing cone and converted to
continuous pulses. These continuous and doubled pulses are used to improve the extraction of
gases from each cylinder.
Figure 6.11 Top View of Two-into-One Layout Used for Parallel Twin Engine.
6.2.3 Three-into-One
Just like Two-into-One arrangement, three-cylinder in-line engines also use tuned Three-
into-One layout. The pulsation in the reducing cone is much incessant than a Two-into-One
configuration. Figure 6.12 shows top view of Three-into-One layout. Reducing cone of this
arrangement requires precisely manufactured curves as amount of flowing gases is higher.
Exhaust System 113
Figure 6.12 Top View of Three-into-One Layout Used for Three-Cylinder In-line Engine.
6.2.4 Four-into-Four
Most of high performance bikes use four-cylinder in-line engines. Early sport bikes and few
of the current high performance bikes are implementing independent pipe exhaust system as
shown in Figure 6.13. The advantage remains same as Two-into-Two layout, i.e. each cylinder
is equipped with exclusively designed individual header and muffler. This pack of four pipes
coming out from the cylinders gives racy and bulky appearance to the vehicle. However,
maintenance cost is considerably higher in this configuration. Each muffler has to be carefully
insulated for safety of the pillion passenger.
Figure 6.13 Top View of Four-into-Four Layout Used for Four-Cylinder In-line Engine.
6.2.5 Four-into-Two
Many modern bikes with four-cylinder in-line engine incorporate Four-into-Two exhaust
configuration. This arrangement provides various benefits like racy bulky appearance, efficient
use of exhaust pulses, lower maintenance cost, greater balancing of vehicle during high speed
turning etc. If precisely tuned, Four-into-Two configuration can help to shape low-range power
engine. Figure 6.14 demonstrates Four-into-Two layout.
Figure 6.14 Top View of Four-into-Two Layout Used for Four-Cylinder In-line Engine.
6.2.6 Four-into-One
The advent of the Four-into-Two layout brought on the Four-into-One layout in which a single
muffler is used between four exhaust pipes. This layout has already proven itself at drag strips,
road courses and on street also. Figure 6.15 illustrates Four-into-One exhaust layout.
Figure 6.15 Top View of Four-into-One Layout Used for Four-Cylinder In-line Engine.
Exhaust System 115
6.3 MUFFLER
The high pressure exhaust gases are rapidly released as soon as the exhaust valve opens. This
results as a strong pressure wave through the exhaust system, which produces a sound known
as a blast. It is the same sound produced when the gun is fired and high pressure gases are
released into the atmosphere. In an engine, the high pressure pulses are generated according
to firing frequency of the engine which is alternate in nature. The blasts come so fast that
they merge together in a steady exhaust system. These high pressure pulses generate huge
sound and vibrations. When the vibrations are large, the sound is loud. The muffler captures
the large explosions of high pressure exhaust gas from the cylinder and smoothens out the
pressure pulses. This allows constant released rate of exhaust gases. Muffler performs this
smoothening through the use of pierced tubes within the expansion chamber. In this way, the
muffler silences engine exhaust noise.
High pressure sound waves propagating along an exhaust pipe can be weakened using
either a dissipative type or a reactive type muffler. A dissipative type muffler uses sound
absorbing material to take energy out of the acoustic motion in the wave. They are also known
as absorption mufflers. Reactive mufflers, which are commonly used in two wheeler applications,
reflect a portion of the sound waves back towards the source and prevent sound from being
transmitted along the pipe. Two-wheeler reactive muffler design is based on the principle of
expansion chamber. Expansion chamber mufflers reflect waves by introducing a sudden change
in cross-sectional area in the pipe as shown in Figure 6.16. Changed cross-sectional area is
used to destruct the wave and reduces noise. Some expansion chamber muffler systems are also
packed with sound absorbing material which helps to improve the high frequency attenuation.
Figure 6.16 Working Principle of Reactive Muffler.
Practically, a two-wheeler muffler, as shown in Figure 6.17, consists of series of resonating

and expansion chambers. These chambers are design to reduce the sound wave at definite
frequencies. The exhaust gases are supplied to the expansion chamber via perforated tubes.
Perforation helps to maintain the frequency at which expansion chamber works. The circulation
pattern of flowing gases decides the noise damping characteristics of any muffler. The muffler
can be more silent by increasing number of chamber pass. At the same time, more number
of pass also increases back pressure on the engine. On the other hand, a single expansions
chamber with a single tube creates less back pressure. Following are some basic functional
requirements of muffler.
Figure 6.17 Construction of Reactive Type Muffler.
BACK PRESSURE: Importance of back pressure is already discussed in the first section.
The basic function of any muffler is to mute the working of an engine. To accomplish this,
muffler has to be designed with maximum number of restriction to the flowing gases. More
number of restrictions means the exhaust gases are forced through frequent geometrical changes.
Each geometrical change adds up in final value of back pressure. As said earlier, increased
amount of back pressure reduces the power output of the engine. Therefore, to limit the back
pressure, especially for performance vehicles, geometrical changes are kept to a minimum. A
typical example of this is a “straight through” muffler, also known as “Free Flow Silencer”. The
exhaust gases are allowed to pass through the straight perforated pipe without any obstruction
resulting as minimum back pressure and added power output.
SOUND: Muffler is used to lower the noise of engine to a desired level of comfort for rider
and passenger. It also helps to reduce noise pollution. However, there has been a growing trend
in recent years to replace the stock muffler with after-market performance muffler. Generally,
stock mufflers are designed to control the sound level and not for peak performance. After-
market straight through absorption mufflers are designed for minimum back pressure and added
power output. Moreover, they are attractive in aesthetics too. Therefore, stock mufflers are
replaced by after-market mufflers to improve vehicle performance. Additionally, the increased
noise level and noticeable rumble through straight perforated pipe helps to mark the presence
of vehicle. However, free flow of exhaust gases creates many adverse effects on performance
after long run of engine.
DURABILITY: Another functional requirement of muffler is longer life span, especially,
because muffler has to work with hot exhaust gases. The hot exhaust gas generates carbon
deposition on the absorptive material in absorption mufflers. This causes reduction in muffing
characteristics. In the case of reactive mufflers, carbon deposition does not affect much on the
muffing characteristics. The only possibility in reactive muffler is the rusting of metals due to
hot gases. This can be avoided by using corrosion resistive material for constructing muffler
components. This is the main reason why reactive mufflers are more durable and are the first
choice for two-wheeler engines.
SIZE: Size of the muffler depends upon the space availability. Huge muffler can efficiently
mute the sound, looks sturdy but shifts the COG of vehicle. Short muffler helps to maintain
COG but cannot achieve desired sound damping. So designers have to compromise between size
and damping ability of muffler. As a solution, many modern two wheelers are using separated
Exhaust System 117
mufflers. Partial sound damping takes place in primary muffler which is located nearer to engine
and rest damping is taken care by secondary muffler at the back. This secondary muffler is
also used to create aesthetic appeal.
COST: Cost of muffler includes cost to the manufacturing company as well as cost to the
customer. Muffler needs replacement or repair in only extreme cases throughout the lifespan
of vehicle.
Two-wheeler mufflers are available in numerous shape, style and size depending upon the
application. The inside construction of muffler varies with different brands and models. The
customer always bothers about the sound produced by the muffler and aesthetic appeal rather
than inside construction of muffler. Therefore, designers always emphasize more on external
aesthetics without affecting the basic functionality. Generally, small capacity two wheelers are
DNA type vehicles. Majority of parts are just converted into small scale replica of the parental
vehicle. Figure 6.18 shows few types of mufflers used on high performance parental bikes.
Figure 6.18 Various Mufflers on High Performance Bikes.

Review Questions
1. What is the importance of back pressure? How it affects the engine performance?
2. Discuss the construction details of exhaust system used in two wheelers.
3. Compare raised and lowered exhaust layout used in motorcycles.
4. What is the function of exhaust pipe and header? Why it is necessary to increase
the velocity of flowing gases?
5. Explain various layouts of exhaust pipes.
6. Explain working principle of muffler.
7. Which are the basic functional requirements of exhaust muffler? Explain in detail.
7
Scavenging System
Contents
YY Scavenging Process
YY Scavenging Methods
YY Scavenging Pumps
The process of removing exhaust gases with the help of fresh charge is known as scavenging.
The scavenging process takes place during overlapping period of valves or ports, i.e. when
both EV and IV or both TP and EP remain open for a moment. As discussed in Chapter 2,
scavenging process plays vital role in two-stroke engine as it works with open port system.
The very fundamental requirement of scavenging system is to push out the exhaust gases from
the cylinder without any loss of fresh charge. The exhaust removing process should take place
without any mixing and without any heat transfer between fresh charge and exhaust gases.
Moreover, this process should continue until all the exhaust gases are replaced by the fresh
charge inside the cylinder. The cylinder should be fully filled with fresh charge when piston
reaches to BDC. Such scavenging system in practice is impossible to achieve but care should
be taken to minimize the loss of fresh charge. This ideal system is not possible in practice
because of following three reasons.
The mixing of fresh charge with exhaust gases cannot be avoided as the whole flow
remains turbulent.
The heat transfer always takes place between low temperature fresh charge and high
temperature exhaust gases.
Some amount of fresh charge always escapes due to developed flow path of high
velocity exhaust gases.
7.1 SCAVENGING PROCESS

As said earlier, scavenging process should take place without any loss of fresh charge. But
practically, it is difficult to achieve ideal scavenging process.
119
Figure 7.1 Ideal Scavenging Process.
7.1.1 Ideal Scavenging Process

Figure 7.1 shows various stages of ideal scavenging process. Figure 7.1(a) shows the downward
movement of piston generated due to combustion inside the cylinder. In Figure 7.1(a), due to
downward motion of piston, the exhaust port is about to open and fresh charge is shifted inside
the transfer port. The major amount of high pressure exhaust gases starts evacuation from the
cylinder as soon as exhaust port opens. This happens because of huge pressure difference
between cylinder gases and atmospheric air. Figure 7.1(b) illustrates the same. After the removal
of major amount of gases, pressure difference falls rapidly and flow of exhaust gases slow downs.
Moreover, temperature of exhaust gases decreases quickly due to expansion process. Transfer
port is not opened till the temperature and pressure inside the cylinder decrease to an appropriate
level. Figure 7.1(c) shows the opened transfer port due to further downward movement of
the piston. The fresh charge coming inside the cylinder pushes the rest of the exhaust gases.
The scavenging process takes place until all the exhaust gases are replaced by the fresh
charge inside the cylinder. Following are the assumptions made in ideal scavenging process.
Theoretically, no heat transfer takes place between fresh charge and exhaust gases as
the temperature of gases is less after the expansion.
Exhaust gases are pushed outside the cylinder by a clearly visible thin layer of fresh
charge as shown in Figure 7.1(c).
After completing scavenging process, fresh charge achieves initial pressure and
temperature at which it was supplied in the transfer port.
The scavenging process stops suddenly.
Fresh charge does not escape the cylinder because of negligible pressure difference
between cylinder and atmosphere.
7.1.2 Practical Scavenging Process

Practically, it is impossible to achieve removal of exhaust gases without any heat transfer.
Moreover, it is also difficult to avoid loss of fresh charge through the exhaust port. Therefore,
Scavenging System 121
practical scavenging process can be divided in three distinguished sub-processes: Part

scavenging, Mixing and Short circuiting.
PARTIALLY IDEAL SCAVENGING: It is a stage of scavenging process wherein exhaust
gases are drawn out of the cylinder through pressure difference between atmosphere and cylinder.
However, the actual amount of drained exhaust gases is much lesser than the amount assumed in
the ideal scavenging process. This happens because of time consumed in weakening the pressure
barrier in the exhaust manifold. The high linear speed of piston also allows quick opening of
transfer port. The fresh charge comes inside the cylinder as soon as the transfer ports opens where
cylinder still contains considerable amount of high temperature exhaust gases. Figure 7.2(a)
shows incomplete ideal scavenging process.
MIXING: Consequential process of incomplete scavenging is a mixing of fresh charge and high
temperature exhaust gases. In point of fact, three processes take place simultaneously: removing
of exhaust gases, breathing the fresh charge and expansion. The exhaust gases are removed with
high velocity after breaching the pressure barrier. The fresh charge is also introduced in definite
flow pattern. As a result, the whole system works under turbulence. Therefore, it becomes
impossible to avoid mixing of fresh charge with high temperature exhaust gases. Moreover,
considerable amount of heat transfer takes place between low temperature fresh charge and
high temperature gases when exhaust gases are pushed outside the cylinder with the help of
fresh charge. The very first bunch of fresh charge which comes in contact with exhaust gases
starts evaporation due to heat transfer and further boosts the mixing. Figure 7.2(b) displays
mixing stage in scavenging process.
Figure 7.2 Practical Scavenging Process.
SHORT CIRCUITING: As stated earlier, exhaust gases are removed from the cylinder with
high velocity. The exhaust gases travel with high velocity and generate a negative pressure
behind. This negative pressure not only helps to remove more exhaust gas from the cylinder,
it also helps to draw more fresh charge inside the cylinder. If not controlled, this negative
pressure develops an easy flow path for the evaporated fresh charge from where it escapes
the cylinder. This is known as short circuiting. Figure 7.2(c) shows short circuiting during
scavenging process.
7.2 SCAVENGING METHODS

The use of symmetric port timing diagram is a major reason behind greater loss of fresh
charge during scavenging process. In symmetric port timing diagram, the exhaust port is closed
after the transfer port which allows significant amount of fresh charge to be escaped during
upward motion of piston. To avoid this short circuiting, many two stroke engines make use
of asymmetric port timing diagrams wherein exhaust port is closed before the transfer port
with the help of auxiliary valve or rotary valve. Moreover, many scavenging methods are
also developed to avoid short circuiting. Generally, various scavenging methods are classified
according to the direction of flow.
7.2.1 Cross Scavenging System

It is the most common method of scavenging used for small capacity two-stroke engines. As
shown in Figure 7.3, exhaust port and transfer port are located on opposite sides of cylinder.
The fresh charge is deflected upward in the cylinder with the help of crowned piston. The baffle
of piston guides the fresh charge up and over the dome pushing the exhaust gases down the
other side of dome. Exhaust gases are then removed from the exhaust port on the other side.
Figure 7.3 Cross Scavenging System.
Earlier, all the two-stroke engines were using cross scavenging system. The reasons behind
were simplicity and low manufacturing cost. The system was replaced by loop scavenging for
various reasons like poor scavenging, heavy piston, poor combustion chamber design, high
thermal stresses in piston, compulsion to use water cooling system etc. As an alternative, many
other systems are developed. The first alternative is with head-ward deflected transfer port as
shown in Figure 7.4. The opening of transfer port is angling towards top of the cylinder. This
helps to reduce the size of the crown on the piston.
Figure 7.4 Deflected Transfer Port for Cross Scavenging.
Other alternative systems use either auxiliary inlet valve or auxiliary exhaust valve.
These auxiliary valves are operated by camshaft. The additional inlet valve system is used to
compensate the loss of fresh charge occurs during short circuiting. Scavenging process takes
place in a similar manner explained above. The only difference is the operation of auxiliary
inlet valve. It supplies additional amount of fresh charge after the closing of exhaust port and
helps to breathe more charge to fill the cylinder completely. On the other hand, additional
exhaust valve system closes the exhaust port before closing the transfer port. Either rotary
valve or camshaft operated poppet valve is used to close the exhaust port. This arrangement
works on asymmetric port timing diagram.
7.2.2 Loop Scavenging System

The cross scavenging system was replaced by loop scavenging system because of stated
drawbacks. The simplicity and better scavenging efficiency of loop scavenging system have
attracted the designers. The gas flow in this system completes a loop during its flow from inlet
to exhaust as shown in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5 Loop Scavenging System.

The transfer port may be located just below the exhaust port or may be located side-by-side.
The loop scavenging process is more effective than cross scavenging process due to flow path
pattern. Figure 7.6 illustrates actual construction of loop scavenged two-stroke engine.
Figure 7.6 Actual Arrangement in Loop Scavenged Engine.
Figure 7.7(a) shows top view of loop scavenged system. The fresh charge is introduced
into the cylinder from one end. It completes the loop and pushes the exhaust gases out from
opposite direction. Thus exhaust gases are removed from throughout the cylinder with the help
of three-dimensional loops. As a result, better scavenging is possible without much loss of
fresh charge. As shown in Figure 7.7(b), tangential loop system is used as an alternative. The
fresh charge is introduced from two sides of cylinder. Both the streams of fresh charge move
up and over the piston pushing the exhaust gases down. A single exhaust port is located in
middle of two transfer ports. It provides much better scavenging than the simple loop system.
Figure 7.7 Flow Pattern in Loop Scavenging System.
One more advanced arrangement is a combination of simple loop and tangential loop
system. It uses more than two transfer ports with different inclination. Their inclination varies
according to their positions relative to exhaust ports. The inclined transfer ports help to generate
more number of loops at the same point of time. Moreover, more than one exhaust ports help
to scavenge the gases easily and efficiently. Figure 7.8 illustrates such arrangement.
Figure 7.8 Combined Single Loop and Tangential Loop Scavenging System.
7.2.3 Uniflow Scavenging System

Uniflow scavenging is so called because fresh charge and exhaust gases do not change the
direction flow during scavenging process. As a result, the possibilities of mixing and short
circuiting are significantly reduce. The transfer port is uncovered and fresh charge is supplied
with the help of motion of piston. The exhaust port which is controlled by a poppet valve
is located in the cylinder head. The poppet valve is operated with the help of camshaft. The
arrangement is shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 Uniflow Scavenging System.
The fresh charge comes inside the cylinder from the transfer port. The exhaust gases are
pushed upward and drawn out from cylinder head. The direction of flow, like cross scavenging
and loop scavenging, does not change because of which it is known as uniflow scavenging system.
7.3 COMPARISON OF SCAVENGING SYSTEMS

As discussed in previous sections, basic difference between various scavenging systems is the
direction of flow. This direction flow plays vital role in deciding the scavenging efficiency
which finally affects power output of an engine. Table 7.1 shows comparison of three types
of scavenging methods.
TABLE 7.1 Comparison of Scavenging Systems
Method Direction of Flow Advantages Disadvantages
Cross 1. Good scavenging at part 1. Poor scavenging at full

Scavenging throttling and at low speed throttle and high speed
2. Simple in construction 2. High fuel consumption
3. Low manufacturing cost 3. High tendency to knock
4. Limits the compression ratio
5. Poor design of combustion
chamber
6. Huge unbalanced forces due
to heavy piston
7. High thermal stresses in
piston
8. Difficult to cool piston
crown
9. Water cooling is necessary
Loop 1. Good scavenging at full 1. Poor scavenging at part

Scavenging throttle and at medium speed throttle and high speed
2. Simple in construction 2. High fuel consumption at
if compared to uniflow part throttle
scavenging
3. Low manufacturing cost than 3. High tendency to knock
uniflow scavenging
4. Water cooling is not 4. Higher heat transfer rate
necessary between exhaust port and
transfer port
5. Improved design of 5. Difficult to manufacture
combustion chamber when uses combined looping
system
6. Lower unbalanced forces
Uniflow 1. Good scavenging over all 1. Complex in construction

Scavenging range of throttle position
and speed
2. Low fuel consumption 2. High manufacturing cost
3. Reduced possibilities of 3. Difficulty in cooling piston
mixing and short circuiting
4. Improved power output 4. High turbulence in inlet flow
5. Simple and effective design through valve creates short
of combustion chamber circuiting
6. Good balancing of
reciprocating masses
7.4 SCAVENGING PUMP

Mainly, two wheelers make use of small capacity two-stroke petrol engines. These engines do
not required huge amount of air/fresh charge for scavenging purpose. Despite the fact, design
and construction of these two-stroke engines include in-built scavenging pump. As explained
earlier, fresh charge from carburetor is fed into the crank case. Downward motion of piston
compresses the fresh charge and acts as a reciprocating pump. The fresh charge is then pumped
into the transfer port. A non-return type reed valve in the intake manifold avoids back flow of
fresh charge during downward motion of piston. This method of pumping the fresh charge is
known as crankcase scavenging. This system is shown in Figure 7.10.
Figure 7.10 Crankcase Pumping with Reed Valve.
This is most simple in construction and cheapest in initial cost. But this system is very
uneconomical and inefficient in operation as crankcase pump has a very low volumetric
efficiency. Therefore, instead of excess charge, the engine receives less charge than theoretically
required for the complete combustion. The delivery ratio is very less and therefore, complete
scavenging is not possible and burned gases always remain in the cylinder at the end of
compression. This results as low power output. This system works satisfactorily with small
capacity engines as swept volume as well as amount of fresh charge required is also less.
Review Questions
1. What is scavenging? Why it is not possible to have ideal scavenging?
2. Explain the three stages of practical scavenging process with neat sketch.
3. Discuss the cross scavenging system.
4. Why loop scavenging system is better than cross scavenging process? Explain
the various layouts of loop scavenging system.
5. Compare various scavenging systems.
6. Explain working of crankcase pumping system.
8
Cranking System
Contents
YY Basic Cranking Mechanism
YY Types of Ratchet
YY Push Starting
YY Moped Cranking Mechanism
YY Kick Start Mechanism
YY Layouts of Kick Start Mechanism
YY Auto-start Mechanism
YY Starting Motor
YY Starting Drive
Turning the crankshaft is the oldest and easiest way to start the engine. Rotation of
crankshaft generates reciprocating motion in the piston. The reciprocating motion of piston
generates vacuum inside the cylinder. The sufficient amount of fresh charge is supplied to
the cylinder due to reciprocating strokes of the piston. Gradually, suction and compression
reaches to the appropriate level and fresh charge is then ignited inside the cylinder. It is
very difficult to crank the crankshaft directly as friction between various components
of engine is very difficult to exterminate. Sufficient leverage must be provided to reduce
the cranking effort and this is completed through the cranking mechanism. Cranking
mechanism of any two-wheeler plays vital role in fashioning the vehicle popular.
Many two wheelers are known only for the ease provided in their cranking mechanisms.
Cranking mechanism should provide easy way of starting the engine and it should be
certainly without much effort. Especially for daily transportation vehicles, it becomes
necessary to design and manufacture effortless and efficient cranking mechanism. Nowadays,
vehicles are equipped with more than one cranking mechanism. This facilitates the rider
to use the optional system if primary system fails to start the engine. Some fundamental
cranking mechanisms, which have been used in two wheelers, are discussed in following
sections.
128
Cranking System 129
8.1 BASIC CRANKING MECHANISM

As shown in Figure 8.1, most of the cranking mechanism consists of a cranking element, one-
way ratchet, ratchet spring and reduction gear pair. The cranking element is one type of lever
which is used to reduce the effort required to crank the engine. The leverage is generated either
by pedal or by kick. The one-way ratchet is used to allow the engagement of cranking element
with reduction gear pair. This ratcheting device helps to rotate the shaft in one direction, but
still allows it to turn freely in the other direction. This facilitates the spontaneous disengagement
of cranking element form the crankshaft as soon as the engine starts. Ratcheting spring is used
to retain the engagement of ratchet, especially for the duration of cranking. Reduction gear pair
is incorporated to connect the crankshaft and cranking element. It further reduces the cranking
effort by providing correct torque ratio. There are various types of ratcheting devices used in
two-wheeler cranking mechanisms. Few common types are described below.
Figure 8.1 Basic Cranking Mechanism.
8.1.1 Roller Type Ratchet

The roller type ratchet consists of a set of steel rollers rolling between driving shaft and driving
gear. Figure 8.2 shows the arrangement of roller type ratcheting mechanism. The driving shaft,
usually known as kick shaft, has a splined boss. This boss contains ramps on the periphery.
These ramps are used to secure the steel rollers between boss and driving gear. The flexible
retaining springs help to limit the movement of rollers. As the driving shaft is rotated by
applying effort on cranking element, the steel rollers are blocked tightly in the narrow passages
of the boss ramps. As a result, a positive engagement is produced between driving shaft and
driving gear and both rotate in the same direction as shown in Figure 8.1. The driving gear is
kept in mesh with the second gear in transmission which is finally connected to primary drive.
Therefore, motion is transferred from cranking element to engine crankshaft through driving
shaft, boss, steel rollers, driving gear, second gear and primary drive. As engine starts, the
speed of driving gear is increased. The driving gear moves ahead by pushing the steel rollers
into wider passages of ramps. This in turn breaks the contact between steel rollers and driving
gear due to increased gap as shown in Figure 8.2. The boss and driving shaft thus brought to
stationary position and so as the cranking element.
Figure 8.2 Roller Type Ratchet.
8.1.2 Lock Pawl Type Ratchet

Just like roller type ratchet, lock pawl type arrangement also use ratcheting between driving
shaft and driving gear. Figure 8.3 shows constructional details of lock and pawl type ratchet.
The driving gear can rotate freely on the driving shaft and has one-sided internal teeth. Driving
shaft contains a boss on which the pawl is assembled. The boss is either integral part or rigidly
connected with the driving shaft. The pawl can oscillate with respect to hinge point on the boss.
The motion of pawl is restricted with the help of pawl spring. A steel pin is used to push the
pawl towards the one-sided internal teeth of the driving gear. As driving shaft is rotated by
cranking element, the knife edge of the pawl gets wedged inside the tooth to generate positive
engagement. Both driving shaft and driving gear rotate in the same direction. As engine starts,
Figure 8.3 Lock Pawl Type Ratchet.

Cranking System 131
the speed of driving gear is increased. The driving gear moves ahead by throwing the pawl
out of the internal teeth. This in turn breaks the engagement between driving gear and driving
shaft. The boss and driving shaft thus brought to stationary position and so as the cranking
element. Figure 8.4 shows actual assembly of lock and pawl ratchet.
Figure 8.4 Actual Assembly of Lock Pawl Ratchet.
8.1.3 Regular Ratchet Wheel

Both Roller and Pawl type ratchets are having complex construction as ratcheting is done
within the driving gear. To avoid this complexity, modern two wheelers make use of regular
ratchet wheel. Figure 8.5 illustrates the regular ratchet wheel. The driving gear is manufactured
with ratchet teeth on one side. The driving gear is mounted on bearing and it is free to rotate
on driving shaft. The rotation of driving shaft is transmitted to the ratchet wheel through
splines. The forcing collar initially helps to engage the ratchet wheel with the driving gear
when cranking element is brought to stroke. Sometimes, ratchet spring is used to disengage the
ratchet wheel when engine starts. Figure 8.6 shows actual assembly of regular ratchet wheel.
Figure 8.5 Regular Ratchet Wheel.

Figure 8.6 Actual Assembly of Regular Ratchet Wheel.
8.2 PUSH STARTING

Older two wheelers were using magneto ignition system in which appropriate spark strength
was not possible at lower engine rpm. Moreover, battery technology was not developed up
to desired level. Majority of two wheelers were equipped with carbureted two-stroke engines.
All the mopeds were provided with pedals for cranking the engine. On the other hand, pedals
were avoided and gradually brought to prohibition to reduce the weight on the racing bikes.
Gradually, prohibition was converted into necessity and adopted on all types of scooters and
motorcycles. Thus, pedaling system was then used only on mopeds and transformed to a
benchmark for mopeds. These all circumstances indicated the designers and riders to incorporate
some easy and efficient way of cranking the engine. The simplest way came out from this
necessity is to push the vehicle.
The power and torque of the engine is delivered to the rear driving wheels through
clutch, gearbox and final drive. Clutch is primarily used to engage and disengage the
engine from the gearbox. Gearbox is used to provide various torque and speed ratios according
to requirements. The final drive provides the output torque of the gearbox to the rear driving
wheels. Fundamentally, together, all these components form a link between engine and
driving wheel. The only flexible link available in-between engine and driving wheel is
the clutch. So engine can be cranked if the driving wheel is rotated without applying
(disengaging) the clutch. The reverse flow of motion takes place from driving wheel to
the engine through final drive, gearbox and clutch. Thus, vehicle is pushed to rotate the
driving wheel and as a result, cranking is provided to the engine. This method of cranking
the engine is known as push start or bump start. This technique permits the rider to use
the momentum of a rolling bike to rotate the engine over sufficient speed required to start
it. In push start method, initially the vehicle is kept in 1st or 2nd gear. It becomes necessary
to first disengage the clutch to push the vehicle and to gain some momentum. After attaining
sufficient speed, clutch lever is released to engage the engine crankshaft with rotating
driving wheel. Older generations of scooters and motorcycles were using only push start
technique for cranking purpose. All the modern two wheelers with manual transmission
can be cranked using push start technique. Of course, this method of cranking is very
inconvenient and inefficient. Furthermore, it is difficult to push start the two wheelers which
are equipped with CVT.
Cranking System 133
8.3 MOPED CRANKING MECHANISM

As said earlier, mopeds are using pedaling mechanism for cranking the engine. Pedals are also
used to propel the moped like bicycle. Both propelling effort cannot be used simultaneously i.e.
driver can use either engine power or pedaling for driving the vehicle. Therefore, it becomes
necessary to locate the ratchet at appropriate position to facilitate spontaneously disengagement
of pedals from the crankshaft when engine power is used to drive the vehicle. Normally, mopeds
are equipped with two or three speed automatic transmission. The output shaft of this automatic
transmission is used to crank the engine. This output shaft is connected with the crankshaft
through starting clutch. Basically, two types of layouts are used to transmit the motion to the
output shaft of the gearbox: Indirect Transmission and Direct Transmission
8.3.1 Indirect Transmission

This layout works on the principle of push start method. As shown in Figure 8.7, the pedaling
mechanism is connected on one side of rear driving wheel through chain drive. The driven
sprocket of pedaling mechanism consist roller type ratchet which allows propelling the vehicle
using pedals. This propelling action exerted only when pedals are applied in forward motion.
Ratchet makes the pedaling mechanism free when turned in reverse direction. The driving
sprocket of pedaling mechanism is connected with rear axle which also houses driven sprocket
Figure 8.7 Layout of Indirect Transmission Used in Moped.

of automatic transmission on the other side. Another chain or belt drive connects the automatic
transmission with the rear wheel as shown in Figure 8.7. The automatic transmission gets the
drive from the engine through starting clutch and primary belt drive. The starting clutch is
used to disconnect the crankshaft form the automatic transmission. Therefore, rotation of pedals
is transmitted to the engine crankshaft through rear wheel, rear axle, chain drive, automatic
transmission, primary belt drive and starting clutch. The starting clutch is manually disengaged
at the time of pedal start. After attaining sufficient rotational speed, the clutch lever is released
and engine crankshaft is connected with moving primary drive. The reverse flow takes place
as soon as the engine starts and rear wheel moves much faster than the pedal sprocket. The
roller type ratchet allows disengagement of pedaling mechanism from the rear driving wheel.
8.3.2 Direct Transmission

In indirect transmission, cranking effort required to start the engine is very high as motion
of pedals has to be transmitted to the crankshaft through many components. To avoid this
condition, almost all modern mopeds are equipped with direct transmission arrangement. Figure
8.8 shows layout of such system. The effort of pedaling is directly transmitted to the output shaft
of automatic transmission. The driving sprocket of a chain drive is connected with pedals and
driven sprocket is connected to the output shaft of automatic transmission. The driving sprocket
of automatic transmission is also mounted on the same shaft as shown in Figure 8.8. A regular
Figure 8.8 Layout of Direct Transmission Used in Moped.

Cranking System 135
ratchet wheel connects the pedal transmission with automatic transmission during cranking.
Rest of the arrangements for primary belt drive and starting clutch remains same as indirect
transmission. The cranking effort is considerably reduces as motion is directly transmitted to
automatic transmission. Moreover, only one driven sprocket at rear wheel facilitates easy and
efficient accommodation of drum brake.
8.4 KICK START MECHANISM

Pedal cranking mechanism occupies more space. Moreover, it contains many components in
flow path from pedals to crankshaft. It becomes necessary to revolve the pedals more than
twice to attain sufficient speed at crankshaft. As mentioned earlier, pedal cranking mechanism
was eliminated from scooters and motorcycles during beginning stage of development. As an
alternative to pedal cranking, designers came up with efficient method of cranking known as
kick start mechanism.
The name “Kick Start” is derived with respect to its operating method. It makes use of
oscillating cranking element rather than a rotating cranking element. The oscillation in cranking
element is generated by forcing it downward using foot. This jerking action is like foot kick
and thus known as kick start mechanism. The cranking element is known as kick. The complete
rotation of crankshaft is achieved through appropriate gear ratios. The motion is transmitted
from kick to crankshaft through kick shaft, ratchet, kick gear, kick idle gear, kick pinion gear,
primary driven gear and primary driver gear. Figure 8.9 shows fundamental layout and various
components of kick start mechanism.
Figure 8.9 Kick Start Mechanism.

KICK: Kick is a cranking lever which is pivoted at the end of kick shaft. It is manufactured
from forged steel. The shape of lever body is precisely designed for proper accommodation after
cranking the engine. One turning pair is also essential to minimize the size within available
space. Locking bolt and washer is used to lock the kick. Foot peg is used to exert force for
cranking the engine. Figure 8.10 illustrates design of kick.
Figure 8.10 Construction of Kick.
Figure 8.11 Torsion Spring.
TORSION SPRING: Torsion spring helps to retain initial position of the kick. Figure 8.11
shows torsion spring used in kick start mechanism. One end of the spring is hooked into the
kick shaft while other end is attached with crankcase. The spring wounds and stores energy
when kick is applied. The stored energy is then released after actuation of ratchet and kick is
pitched back to its initial position. Too much stiffness of spring makes the kick hard and difficult
to operate. Moreover, it throws the kick back with jerk resulting in major injuries to the driver.
RATCHET WHEEL: As explained earlier, the one-way ratchet is used to allow the
engagement of kick with kick gear. This ratcheting device helps to rotate the kick shaft in one
direction, but still allows it to turn freely in the other direction. This facilitates the spontaneous
disengagement of kick form the crankshaft as soon as the engine starts. Mostly, kick start
mechanism uses regular ratchet wheel to avoid constructional complexity. Figure 8.6 shows a
ratchet wheel.
RATCHET SPRING: Ratchet spring is used to retain the engagement of ratchet, especially
for the duration of cranking. It is a simple compression spring mounted between ratchet wheel
and crankcase wall. In some designs, it is mounted between kick gear and ratchet wheel.
Cranking System 137
KICK GEAR: Kick gear is used to convert an oscillated stroke of the kick into a rotary
stroke. It provides rotational motion to the primary driven gear. It consists ratchet teeth on the
side walls. Figure 8.6 illustrates a kick gear with ratchet teeth.
KICK SHAFT: Kick shaft is used to mount essentially required driving components of kick
start mechanism. It contains two splined portions: one for kick mounting and other for ratchet
wheel mounting. Kick gear can freely rotate on the kick shaft. One locking groove is provided
to hook the torsion spring. Figure 8.12 shows constructional details of kick shaft.
Figure 8.12 Kick Shaft.
KICK IDLE GEAR: It is used to transmit the motion of kick gear to primary driven gear.
The practice of including an idle gear depends upon space availability and design of drive train.
KICK PINION AND PRIMARY REDUCTION: The kick pinion and primary reduction
gear pair is incorporated to connect the crankshaft and kick. It further reduces the cranking effort
by providing correct torque ratio. Generally, the kick pinion is rigidly mounted with primary
driven gear while primary driver gear is directly mounted on the crankshaft. Figure 8.13 shows
kick pinion and primary reduction gear pair while Figure 8.14 shows actual arrangement of
kick starting mechanism.
Figure 8.13 Primary Driver and Driven Gear.

Figure 8.14 Actual Arrangement of Kick Starting Mechanism.
8.5 LAYOUT OF KICK START MECHANISM

There are two popular approaches used for kick start mechanism: Transmission kick start and
Primary kick start.
8.5.1 Transmission Kick Start Layout

Almost all scooters and few economic motorcycles are using transmission kick start layout.
Indeed, it is the primogenital layout for kick start mechanism. The kick gear is located inside
the gearbox and always remains in mesh with second gear. Figure 8.15 shows the arrangement
of transmission kick start layout.
Components on kick shaft remain same as explained earlier. The foot power is transmitted
to the crankshaft through kick shaft, ratchet, kick gear, second gear pair of gearbox and primary
reduction gear. This arrangement eliminates idle gear and kick pinion gear, resulting as overall
weight reduction. As power is transmitted through gearbox, it becomes essential to crank the
engine with clutch engaged position, i.e. kick comes to be free if clutch lever is pressed.
Moreover, vehicle moves forward if kick is applied with engaged gear and with disengaged
clutch because foot power is then transmitted to the driving wheels through output shaft of
Cranking System 139
Figure 8.15 Transmission Kick Start.
the gearbox. Therefore, it is also not possible to crank the engine without neutral position
of transmission. To sum up, this type of kick starter drive can be used only with the clutch
engaged and the transmission in neutral.
8.5.2 Primary Kick Start Layout

Primary transmission layout is shown in Figure 8.9 which facilitates cranking of engine
without engaged clutch because drive is led to the crankshaft through primary reduction
gear. Furthermore, engine can be cranked in any gear simply by disengaging the clutch. This
is a nice feature which avoids difficulty in finding neutral each and every time while cranking
the engine. Construction and working of primary kick start layout is already explained in
Section 8.4.
8.6 AUTO-START MECHANISM

At the present time, nearly all two wheelers are equipped with auto-start mechanism. Auto-
start mechanism simplifies the cranking procedure and starts the engine on one push of a
button. Therefore, it is also known as push button start system. Auto-start system generally
consists of two separate circuits—the power circuit and the control circuit. The power circuit
contains battery, cables, main current side of the solenoid switch, starter motor and drive
mechanism while the control circuit involves starter button switch, ignition switch, energizing
side of solenoid switch and safety switch. Figure 8.16 shows circuit layout of auto-start
mechanism.
Figure 8.16 Auto-start Mechanism Circuit.
STARTER MOTOR: A starter motor uses electromagnetic principles to convert electrical

energy from the battery to mechanical power to crank the engine. The starter is normally a
0.5 to 2.6 hp electric motor that can develop nearly 8 hp for a very short time when used
to crank the a cold engine. Current for the starter motor or power circuit is controlled by a
solenoid or relay, which is itself controlled by the driver-operated ignition switch.
BATTERY: The primary purpose of an automotive battery is to provide a source of electrical
power for starting the engine. The battery also acts as a voltage stabilizer because it forms a
reservoir where large amounts of current can be removed quickly during starting and replaced
gradually by the alternator during charging. The battery must be of the adequate capacity and be
at least 75% charged to provide the necessary current and voltage for correct starter operation.
STARTER SOLENOID: The high current required by the starter must be able to be turned
on and off. A small ignition switch operates a solenoid or relay that controls the high current
to the starter.
STARTER DRIVE: The starter drive uses a small pinion gear that contacts the engine
flywheel gear teeth and transmits starter motor power to rotate the engine.
IGNITION SWITCH: The ignition switch controls the starter motor operation. As mentioned
earlier, auto-start system uses two different circuits. Both the circuits have different functions
but works together while cranking the engine.
CONTROL CIRCUIT: The control circuit involves starter button switch, ignition switch,
energizing side of solenoid switch and engine stop switch. This circuit allows current to flow
from battery to ignition switch, then to solenoid and then through starter switch to ground. The
flow of current from battery to solenoid takes place after putting the ignition switch to ON
position. The ignition switch is operated by turning the key. The starter button given on the
handle bar allows completion of circuit. Modern two wheelers also use various safety switches
Cranking System 141
to ensure safety of driver and passenger before starting the engine. These safety switches include
engine stop switch, neutral switch, clutch switch, side stand switch etc.
Figure 8.17 Actual Arrangement of Auto-Start System.
POWER CIRCUIT: The power circuit consisting of battery, cables, main current side of
the solenoid switch, starter motor and drive mechanism. Heavy duty cables are required to
run the power circuit. The current travels from battery through the heavy relay to the starter
motor to ground.
8.7 STARTER MOTOR

A starter motor uses electromagnetic principles to convert electrical energy from the battery
to mechanical power to crank the engine. The current travels through the brushes and into the
armature windings, where other magnetic fields are created around each copper wire loop in
the armature. The two strong magnetic fields created inside the starter housing create the force
that rotates the armature. A strong magnetic field is created by the field coil magnets inside
the starter housing. The armature, a conductor, is installed inside this strong magnetic field.
A small clearance is provided between the armature and the field coils. The two magnetic
fields act together, and their lines of force are strong on one side of the armature loop wire
and become weak on the other side of the conductor. This causes the conductor (armature)
to move from the area of strong magnetic field strength toward the area of weak magnetic
field strength. The difference in magnetic field strength causes the armature to rotate. This
rotation force (torque) is increased as the current flowing through the starter motor increases.
The strength of the magnetic fields inside the starter determines the torque of a starter motor.
Magnetic field strength is measured in ampere-turns. The magnetic field strength is increased
by either increasing the current or the number of turns of wire. The magnetic field of the
starter motor is provided by two or more pole shoes and field windings. The pole shoes are
made of iron and are attached to the frame. The field windings are usually made of a heavy
copper ribbon to increase their current-carrying capacity and electromagnetic field strength.
Figure 8.18 shows operation of starter motor.
Figure 8.18 Operation of Starter Motor.
Figure 8.19 shows construction of starter motor. A starter motor consists of the main
structural support called the motor housing, one end of which is called a field housing and
the other end a drive end housing. The drive end casing encloses the drive pinion gear, which
engages with the engine flywheel gear teeth to start the engine. The field housing supports the
end containing the starter brushes. Through bolts hold the three components together.
Figure 8.19 Construction of Starter Motor.
The steel case of the starter motor contains permanent magnets. Nowadays, in many
starters, permanent magnets are used in place of the electromagnetic field coils and pole shoes.
This helps to eliminate the motor field circuit, which in turn eliminates the possible field
coil faults and other electrical problems. Inside the permanent magnet, is an armature that
is supported with either bushings or ball bearings at both ends. This facilitates free rotation
of armature with respect to magnet. The armature is constructed of thin, circular disks of
steel laminated together and wound lengthwise with heavy gauge insulated copper wire. The
laminated iron core supports the copper loops of wire and helps concentrate the magnetic field
produced by the coils. Figure 8.20 shows various components of armature.
Cranking System 143
Figure 8.20 Components of Armature.
Insulation between the laminations helps to increase the magnetic efficiency in the core.
For reduced resistance, the armature conductors are made of a thick copper wire. The two ends
of each conductor are attached to two adjacent commutator bars. The commutator is made of
copper bars insulated from each other by mica or some other insulating material. The armature
core, windings, and commutator are assembled on a long armature shaft. This shaft also carries
the pinion gear that meshes with the engine flywheel ring gear.
To supply the proper current to the armature, a motor must have four brushes riding on the
commutator. Most starter motors have two grounded and two insulated brushes. These brushes
are held against the commutator by spring force. The ends of the copper armature windings are
soldered to commutator segments. The electrical current that passes through the field coils is
then connected to the commutator of the armature by brushes that can move over the segments
of the rotating armature. These brushes are made of a combination of copper and carbon.
8.8 STARTER DRIVE

A starter drive includes small pinion gears that mesh with and rotate the larger gear on the
engine flywheel for starting. To prevent serious damage to either the starter gear or the engine,
the pinion gear must engage with the engine gear slightly before the starter motor rotates.
Moreover, it must be disengaged after the engine starts. The ends of the starter pinion gear
are tapered to help the teeth mesh more easily without damaging the flywheel ring gear teeth.
All starter drive mechanisms use a one-way clutch that allows the starter to rotate the engine,
but then turns freely if the engine speed is greater than the starter motor speed. This clutch,
called an overrunning clutch, protects the starter motor from damage if the ignition switch is
held in the start position after the engine starts. The overrunning clutch, which comes as an
in-built part of the starter, uses steel balls or rollers fitted in tapered notches. Figure 8.21 shows
construction of overrunning clutch. The taper notch forces the balls or rollers tightly into the
notch when it is rotated in the necessary direction. When the engine rotates faster than the
starter pinion, the balls or rollers are forced out of the narrow tapered notch, allowing the pinion
gear to turn freely (overrun). The spring between the drive tang or pulley and the overrunning
clutch and pinion is called a mesh spring. It helps to cushion and control the engagement of
Figure 8.21 Overrunning Clutch.
the starter drive pinion with the engine flywheel gear. This spring is also called a compression
spring, because the starter solenoid or starter yoke compresses the spring and the spring tension
causes the starter pinion to engage the engine flywheel. The ratio of the number of teeth on
the engine ring gear to the number on the starter pinion is between 15:1 and 20:1. Figure 8.22
shows starting drive used in auto-start mechanism.
Figure 8.22 Starter Drive.
When the ignition switch is operated a supply is made to terminal on the solenoid. This
in turn, energized the two windings, the hold-on winding and the pull-in winding. The pull-in
winding is of very low resistance and hence draws a high current. This winding is connected
in series with the motor circuit. The current flowing through this winding allows the motor to
rotate slowly to enable engagement. Simultaneously, the magnetism generated in the solenoid
attracts the plunger. It pushes the pinion into mesh with the flywheel ring gear with the help
of operating lever. When the pinion is fully in mesh the plunger at the end of its travel causes
a heavy-duty set of copper contacts to close. These contacts now supply full battery power to
the main circuit of the starter motor. When the main contacts are closed the pull-in winding is
Cranking System 145
effectively switched off due to equal voltage supply on both ends. The hold-on winding holds
the plunger in position as long as the solenoid is supplied from the key switch. When the
engine starts and the key is released, the main supply is removed and the plunger and pinion
return to their rest positions under spring tension.
Review Questions
1. Explain importance of cranking mechanism. Also describe basic cranking
mechanism.
2. Why it is necessary to use ratcheting element in cranking mechanism? Explain
roller type ratchet with neat sketch.
3. Explain construction and working of lock and pawl type ratchet.
4. Draw a layout of indirect transmission used for moped cranking mechanism.
Also explain how the motion is transferred from pedals to crankshaft.
5. Explain direct transmission layout for moped cranking mechanism.
6. Explain construction and working of kick start mechanism.
7. Why primary kick start is better than transmission kick start?
8. Draw circuit layout of push button start system. Also explain function of each
component.
9. Explain construction and working of starter motor.
10. Why is starter drive important? How does it work? Explain the working of
overrunning clutch.
9
Transmission System
Contents
YY Layout of Transmission System in Two Wheeler
YY Primary Reduction
YY Types of Primary Reduction
YY Clutch, Multi-plate Clutch
YY Centrifugal Clutch
YY Gearbox
YY Constant-Mesh Gearbox
YY Sequential Gearbox
YY Gear Shifting Mechanism
YY Continuous Variable Transmission–CVT
YY Final Drive
YY Chain Drive
YY Belt Drive
YY Shaft Drive
YY Cush Drive
The transmission system transmits the power from engine crankshaft to rear driving wheels.
Various components work in organized manner to form a power train. The main functions
which are performed by the transmission system are:
The torque produced by the engine varies with speed only within narrow limits. But
practically, under different running conditions, vehicle needs large variation of torque
availability at the driving wheels. The main function of transmission system is to vary
the torque ratio between engine and driving wheels as and when required.
The transmission system helps to reduce high speed of engine to optimum speed at
which vehicle can run safely.
The transmission system also provides neutral position so that the engine can be
disconnected from the driving wheels even with the clutch in the engaged position.
146
Transmission System 147
The transmission system provides a flexible link to transmit torque and power to the
rear driving wheel even under continuous fluctuation.
9.1 LAYOUT OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM IN TWO WHEELERS

The transmission power train of any two wheeler fundamentally includes primary drive,
clutch, transmission and final drive. Figure 9.1 shows layout of transmission system used in
motorcycles. The engine crankshaft is connected to the clutch through primary drive. Primary
drive helps in initial speed reduction. Various types of primary drive is used in two wheelers
which includes belt drive, chain drive or gear drive. Clutch is used to disconnect the engine from
the rear driving wheel as and when required. Fundamentally, two wheelers use either multiplate
clutch or centrifugal clutch. The transmission, also known as gearbox, encloses set of four or
five gear pairs to provide correct torque ratio as per the requirements. Basically, two wheeler
can be equipped with either manual transmission or CVT. Generally, CVT is used in modern
scooters while all motorcycles make use of manual transmission. The final drive transmits the
output torque and power from the gearbox to rear driving wheel. Belt drive, chain drive, shaft
Figure 9.1 Layout of Transmission System for Motorcycle.

drive or gear drive is used as a final drive to transmit the torque and power. Figure 9.2 shows
layout for scooters with manual transmission in which final drive is eliminated and output shaft
of the gearbox is directly connected with rear driving wheel. The power to the primary drive is
transmitted through clutch. Therefore, primary drive is also disconnected from the engine whenever
the clutch is disengaged. All scooters with manual transmission use constant mesh gearbox. The
same power train is used for cranking of the engine as explained in the previous chapter. Elimination
of final drive makes the unit compact and becomes easy to accommodate within available space.
Figure 9.2 Layout of Transmission for Scooter with Manual Transmission.
Figure 9.3 shows transmission layout for scooter with CVT. The crankshaft is connected to
the driving pulley of CVT. The flexible metallic belt transmits the power to the driven pulley.
Figure 9.3 Layout of Transmission for Scooter with CVT.

Different torque ratio are achieved through varying diameters of both pulleys. The diameter of
pulley is varied with the speed of engine crankshaft. The centrifugal clutch engages the CVT
with final transmission due to centrifugal action. Two-speed automatic gearbox is used as a
final drive to transmit required power and torque to the rear driving wheel.
9.2 PRIMARY REDUCTION

Two-wheeler engines operate much faster than the car engines to meet power and torque
requirements. Moreover, two-wheeler engines are small, compact and have to revolve the
crankshaft much faster to produce sufficient power. Some two-wheeler engines can work up
to the speed of 15000 RPM. So it becomes necessary to reduce the speed before the power
flow reaches to the gearbox. Therefore, speed reduction is provided between engine and clutch
in the form chain drive or belt drive or gear pair. Generally, the reduction ratio is kept 3:1,
i.e. engine crankshaft runs three times faster than the clutch. As shown in transmission layouts,
clutch is mounted adjacent to crankshaft to avoid transmission losses. The pair which facilitates
speed reduction between engine and clutch is known as primary reduction. Following are some
of the primary drive commonly used in two wheelers.
9.2.1 Belt Drive

Few factory-made and almost all custom-made cruiser motorcycles are equipped with belt drive
as a primary reduction unit. This system includes driving pulley, timing belt and driven pulley
for power transmission. Timing belts have teeth on the contact side of the belt. These teeth
match with the grooves provided on the driver and driven pulleys. Driver pulley is attached on
crankshaft while driven pulley is mounted on clutch housing. Timing belts provide positive drive
and can transmit high power. Figure 9.4 shows arrangement of belt drive as primary reduction.
Figure 9.4 Belt Drive as Primary Reduction.
In belt drive reduction system, the clutch turn in the same direction as engine crankshaft.
This requires transmission with layshaft so that power goes in and out of the transmission on
the same axis. The major benefit from belt drive is that it does not require any lubrication and
adjustment but the life of belt drive is very less. It requires frequent replacement due to wear
of teeth or tearing of belt.
9.2.2 Chain Drive

Chain drive is used as an alternative to belt drive for primary reduction. Just like belt drive, in
a chain type primary reduction, the clutch rotates in the same direction as engine crankshaft.
The components of chain drive include driving sprocket, the chain, driven sprocket and chain
tensioner. The drive sprocket is splined to the crankshaft and can accommodate single, dual or
even triple roller chain. A typical triple roller chain is shown in Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5 Triple Roller Chain as Primary Reduction.
The driven sprocket is rigidly connected or integral part of the clutch housing. The power
is been transmitted to the clutch shaft with the help of clutch plates fitted on the clutch inner hub.
As chain is made up of metal, it elongates with frequent use. Therefore, it becomes necessary
to incorporate some device for setting tension in the chain. Generally, shoe or slipper plates are
used between two sprockets to avoid chain slack. Figure 9.6 illustrates a typical approach to
adjust the chain tension. The adjusting nut can slide in the groove made on centre plate. This
adjusting nut is connected with adjusting shoe which also slides along with nut. The slack in
the chain is removed by moving the adjusting nut upward. Adjusting nut must be tighten after
achieving suitable tension in the chain. The chain requires periodic lubrication, adjustment and
cleanliness. Life of chain drive is much higher than the belt drive if maintained periodically.
9.2.3 Gear Drive

On most of the two wheelers, the primary drive usually is a set of two gears. A small driver
gear is splined to the engine crankshaft and larger driven gear is an integrated part of the clutch
Figure 9.6 Chain Tensioner Shoe.
housing. The difference in size allows necessary speed reduction and allows crankshaft to rotate
three times faster than the clutch. Figure 9.7 shows a set of gear used as primary reduction
unit. The clutch housing is removed from the larger driven gear.
Figure 9.7 Gear Pair as Primary Reduction.
There are two types of gears used as primary gears: spur gears and helical gears. The
spur gears are strong, efficient and cheap to manufacture while helical gears silent in operation
but costly to manufacture. The gear pair as a primary drive rotates the clutch in opposite
direction to the direction of engine crankshaft. For this reason most vehicles with this type of
primary reduction use constant-mesh gearbox. In constant-mesh gearbox, power goes in from
one shaft and comes out from another shaft which helps to counteract the rotation reversal
of primary drive. Gear drive does not require any adjustment but periodic lubrication helps
to maintain efficient working of primary drive gears. Below table gives comparison of three
types of primary drive.
TABLE 9.1 Comparison of Various Primary Drive
Belt Drive Chain Drive Gear Drive

1. Construction Requires three compo- Requires four components Requires only two com-
nents 1. Driver pulley ponents
1. Driver pulley 2. Belt 1. Driver gear
2. Belt 3. Driven pulley 2. Driven gear
3. Driven pulley 4. Chain tensioner 3. Bushes
2. Efficiency 98% 100% 100%
3. Life Short Long Perpetual
4. Manufacturing Cost High Low Very low
5. Maintenance Difficult Moderate Easy
6. Lubrication Not required Frequently required Required
7. Replacement Needs frequent replace- Need frequent adjustment Practically no replacement
ment needed
9.3 CLUTCH
A clutch is a releasable coupling which connects the crankshaft with input shaft of the gearbox.
It is said to be engaged or in, when the shafts are coupled, and disengaged or out, when
they are released. Mechanical clutches fall into two main categories: positive engagement and
progressive engagement.
The positively engaged clutches are connected with some mechanical devices such as
splines, keys, dogs, jaws or teeth. It is when engaged, both the shafts rotate together and
when positively disengaged, no torque can be transmitted from the driving to the driven shaft.
In contrast, the progressive type clutch is gradually engaged, so that the speed of the driving
shaft falls while, simultaneously, that of the driven shaft rises from its initial stationary state
until both rotate at equal speeds. Positive engagement clutches are unsuitable for connecting
the engine to the gearbox. Two wheelers are equipped with a progressive engagement clutch
of the friction type which is located between the engine and the gearbox.
The simplest friction type clutch includes two discs. The driver disc, which is usually the
engine flywheel, and the other, generally termed as the pressure plate, is connected with gearbox.
The flywheel is bolted to a flange on the end of the crankshaft, while the other plate slides
axially on the output shaft. Such a clutch is engaged by its spring or springs and disengaged
by a pedal or lever under the control of the driver. To illustrate the basic principles applicable
to all progressive engagement clutches, a simple clutch is shown in Figure 9.8. The two plates
A and B are keyed on the ends of shafts C and D. Both shafts are supported in bearings E and
F. generally, the driven disc B is pushed against driver disc A with the help of spring force.
Initially the axial force pressing the discs together is too small for the tangential frictional
force to overcome the resistances to rotation of the driven shaft, so there is slip at the friction
faces. The relative velocity between friction faces progressively reduces until it becomes zero
at the instant of full engagement. After full engagement, as shown in Figure 9.9, both shafts
rotate at same speed if there is no slip between friction faces. Following are some fundamental
requirements of clutch.
Figure 9.8 Clutch in Disengaged Position.
Figure 9.9 Clutch in Engaged Position.
TORQUE TRANSMISSION: The clutch should be able to transmit the maximum torque of
the engine under all conditions. The clutch facing is heated due to friction during engagement.
Clutch temperature limits the torque transmitting capacity of clutch. This requires that the
clutch facing must maintain a reasonable coefficient of friction under all working conditions.
Moreover, the friction material should not crush at high temperatures.
ENGAGEMENT: The two-wheeler clutch should be gradually engaged to form a positive
transmission. It should not produce jerks during engagement.
HEAT DISSIPATION: Large amount of heat is dissipated during working condition of
clutch. The friction surfaces should have sufficient area and mass to absorb the generated heat.
Moreover, efficient cooling of clutch is also required for adequate heat dissipation.
DYNAMIC BALANCING: As clutch rotates with high speed, it becomes necessary to
balance the rotating masses of clutch.
VIBRATIONS: Vibrations generated due to misalignments, unbalanced masses, worn
components and wrong assembly should be avoided. The entire transmission power train runs
adversely if vibrations are generated in the clutch. Moreover, it also reduces transmission
efficiency of the clutch. Major vibrations in the clutch assembly lead to noisy operation and
wiped out plates.
SIZE: The size of the clutch must be smallest possible so that it should occupy minimum space.
Especially for two wheelers, space availability plays vital role in selection and design of clutch.
INERTIA: The rotating parts of clutch should have minimum inertia. Higher inertia leads
to hard gear shifting because the clutch plate keeps on spinning even after disengagement.
EASE OF OPERATION: For higher torque transmissions the operation of disengaging the
clutch must not be tiresome to the driver. The springs should be designed in such a way that
they can exert the necessary force without increasing effort of the driver.
The torque transmitted by the clutch depends on three factors: spring force, coefficient of
friction and mean radius of the friction facing. A limit on spring force is set by the magnitude
of the effort that a driver can exert on the clutch control lever. The mean radius of the friction
facing is restricted by the space availability and manufacturability. Consequently, there is a
maximum torque above which a simple pedal actuated clutch of this type cannot be used.
Indeed, for small spaced two-wheeler vehicles and some others having very powerful engine,
some means are needed to obtain a higher torque transmission capacity. As a solution, two
wheelers use multi-plate clutch or small centrifugal clutch.
9.4 MULTIPLATE CLUTCH

The multiplate clutch is merely used on two wheelers because of less space availability. As
said earlier, two-wheeler engines run at high speed and can develop huge amount of power
and torque. The multiplate clutch helps to transmit this power and torque to the gearbox with
nearly 98% efficiency. More than one set of plates generate sufficient friction without increasing
considerable heat dissipation.
Figure 9.10 shows constructional details of multiplate clutch. The drive comes from the
primary reduction gear pair. The crankshaft drives the primary driver gear which is kept in
mesh with primary driven gear. The primary driven gear then turns the clutch assembly. The
multi-plate clutch has several frictional plates and clutch plates also known as driver plates
and driven plates. These plates are stacked alternately, i.e. it makes a set of one clutch plate
and one friction plate.
CLUTCH HOUSING: The primary driven gear is directly assembled with the clutch housing
either through rivets or with bolts. The clutch housing covers entire assembly and rotates with
primary driven gear. Some high performance clutches are equipped with thrust springs to absorb
the socks during engagement and disengagement. Figure 9.11 shows details of clutch housing.
The clutch housing contains slots on the outer edge as shown in Figure 9.11. These
slots are used to hold the friction plates. The primary driven gear and the clutch housing are
centred on the output shaft, but a bearing enables them to rotate freely on the output shaft as
shown in Figure 9.10.
FRICTION PLATES: The friction plates are also known as drive plates. The friction plates
are made up of steel and are lined with friction material. Both the sides of friction plate are
lined with friction material to increase the torque transmission capacity of the clutch. Figure 9.12
shows details of friction plate. The friction plates have radial tabs on their outside edges that
fit into slots on the edge of the clutch housing. This connection allows free sliding of friction
plates in the clutch housing but does not allow free rotation. All the friction plates start rotation
with the clutch housing as soon as the primary driven gear is rotated. The intersection between
clutch housing and friction plates is clearly shown in Figure 9.10. The numbers of friction
plates may vary from five to twelve depending upon the torque transmission capacity of the
clutch.
Figure 9.10 Construction of Multiplate Clutch.
Figure 9.11 Clutch Housing.

CLUTCH PLATES: The clutch plates are simple leveled steel plates which are accumulated
intermediary between two friction plates. The friction surfaces are directly rubbed on the clutch
plates, causing them to rotate. The clutch plates have teeth on their inner edge that fit onto
external splines of the clutch boss. Thus, the clutch plates can slide easily on the clutch boss
but cannot rotate freely. Figure 9.12 shows details of clutch plate. Moreover, Figure 9.10 also
shows connection between clutch plates and the clutch boss.
Figure 9.12 Friction Plate and Clutch Plate.
CLUTCH BOSS: The clutch boss rides in the centre of the clutch housing and is splined to
the output shaft. Figure 9.13 illustrates details of the clutch boss.
Figure 9.13 Clutch Boss.
The clutch boss contains external splines on which the clutch plates are fitted. An end
flange limits the sliding of plates over the clutch boss. Inside the hollow boss, the guides are
provided for the clutch springs. These guides are used to avoid deflection of the clutch springs.
Moreover, these guides have internal threads to accommodate the locking bolts. The clutch
boss rotates with the clutch plates and drive is then transmitted to the output shaft through
internal splines. Figure 9.10 shows the assembly of the clutch boss within the clutch housing.
PRESSURE PLATE: The pressure plate is used to exert an axial force on the set of friction
plates and clutch plates. This axial force keeps the plates in engagement. On the inner side,
the pressure plate comprises seats to accommodate clutch springs and on the outer side, it
comprises seats to accommodate locking nuts and washers. Figure 9.14 shows construction of
the pressure plate. Figure 9.10 shows how the spring force is transmitted to the set of plates.
The pressure plate is pushed towards clutch boss due to spring force. As a result, a direct
contact is then made between pressure plate and friction plates. Consequently, the friction
plates and clutch plates are squeezed together by the axial force. The same pressure plate is
also used to disengage the clutch.
Figure 9.14 Pressure Plate.
CLUTCH SPRING: All multi-plate clutches use compression type coil springs to exert
axial force on the pressure plate. The numbers of springs depend upon the design and torque
transmission capacity of the clutch. Generally four, five, six or eight springs are used to generate
sufficient axial force on the pressure plate.
LOCKING BOLTS AND WASHERS: Locking bolts and washers are used to hold and
limit the travel of clutch spring from one end. The locking bolts are directly inserted into the
guides provide inside the hollow clutch boss as shown in Figure 9.10.
OUTPUT SHAFT: The output shaft of the clutch is also called input shaft of the transmission
as same shaft is used to provide drive to the gearbox. This shaft is splined to the clutch boss
and rotates with it. Figure 9.10 shows the assembly between output shaft and clutch boss.
THRUST WASHER: Thrust washer is inserted between the clutch housing and the clutch
boss. It limits maintains appropriate distance between housing and boss as well as absorbs
thrust during engagement and disengagement.
LOCKING NUT: Locking nut is used to lock the clutch boss on the output shaft.
Figure 9.15 shows a complete assembly of the multiplate clutch. The engine turns the
primary drive gear, the primary drive gear turns the clutch housing, the clutch housing carries
the friction plates, the friction plates rub against the clutch plates due to spring force exerted
through the pressure plate. The clutch plates on the clutch boss turn it, the clutch boss turns
the shaft, passing the power to the transmission. When the release mechanism is operated by
the hand lever, the plates become free to rotate and slip. The engine, primary drive, clutch
housing and friction plates continue to turn, but clutch plates, clutch boss, shaft and transmission
remain motionless.
Figure 9.15 Complete Assembly of Multiplate Clutch.
9.5 ASSIST SLIPPER CLUTCH

A slipper clutch is a specially designed multiplate clutch for high performance vehicles which
helps to decrease the effort required to disengage the clutch from the engine. This partial
disengagement takes place when riders decelerate through the corners.
Figure 9.16 shows arrangements on slipper clutch. Mainstream components remain similar
like normal multiplate clutch. It consists two additional components: clutch boss cam and
pressure plate cam. Both cams are splined with the output shaft and rotate with it. The boss
cam is fastened to the boss and rotates with it. The pressure plate cam, however, can slide
freely on the output shaft. It is also rotated due to positive engagement with the boss cam. In
normal operation, i.e. during acceleration, both cams create positive engagement as shown in
Figure 9.17. This in turn, provides drive to the whole drive line and acts as normal multiplate
clutch. This action of clutch is denoted as assist clutching.
Under certain circumstances, like cornering, the rear wheel tries to drive the engine faster
than it would run under its own power. This would normally be transferred back through the
chain producing wobble, chatter or loss of traction in the rear wheel. The tendency of rear
wobbles increases with high capacity engine which produces greater engine braking than smaller
displacement engines. Moreover, the rear suspensions are also subjected to additional loading
when rear wheel tries to transmit the power back to the engine. Therefore, the slipper action
is intended to partially disengage the clutch.
When drive comes back from the transmission box through the rear wheel, the output shaft
and the boss try to rotate faster than the clutch housing. This as a result, momentarily pauses the
positive engagement between two cams. Quicker movement of the output shaft and boss and so
as the boss cam, forces the pressure plate cam to move outward as shown in Figure 9.18. These
two cams thus generate slip between mashing teeth. The outward movement of the pressure plate
cam also forces the pressure plate outward. Consequently, springs are moderately compressed
and clutch becomes partly disengaged. This action clutch is denoted as slipper clutching.
Figure 9.16 Assist Slipper Clutch.

Figure 9.17 Assist Clutching. Figure 9.18 Slipper Clutching.
9.6 SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH

Two wheelers with longitudinal crankshaft mounted engine, manage to accommodate a single
plate clutch in their driveline. As shown in Figure 9.19, a single plate clutch assembly consists
of a clutch plate that is splined to the output shaft. When the rider depresses the clutch lever,
a throw-out bearing (release bearing) is forced against the fingers of the pressure plate. The
pressure plate is bolted to and rotates with the flywheel. When force is exerted on the centre of
the pressure plate, the pressure is released from the clutch plate that has been forced against the
engine flywheel. With the pressure removed from the clutch plate, the engine can be operated
without transferring torque to the transmission. This also permits the transmission to be shifted
because a shift cannot be made if the transmission is transferring engine torque. When the rider
reduces force on the clutch lever, the diaphragm spring and the lever spring combine to return
Figure 9.19 Single Plate Clutch.
the clutch lever to its at-rest position (clutch-engaged position). When the clutch lever moves,
the pressure on the throw-out bearing is released and the force against the diaphragm spring
is released allowing the force of the pressure plate to clamp the clutch disc tightly between
the flywheel and the pressure plate.
The clutch plate is round with a splined centre hole that slips over the splines of the input shaft
of the transmission. Friction material is riveted to both sides of the clutch disc—one side touches
the flywheel of the engine and the other side touches the friction surface of the pressure plate.
Friction material is either woven or molded from a mixture of other materials. Woven materials
are softer and help cushion clutch engagement, but they may not last as long as molded materials.
The purpose of the pressure plate is to exert a force on the clutch plate so that engine
torque can be transmitted from the engine to the transmission. The required strong clamping
force is provided by diaphragm spring. Most pressure plates today are made of stamped steel
with a nodular cast iron driving plate. A smooth, machined area on one side forms the friction
disc contact surface. When the clutch engages, spring force pushes the pressure plate toward the
flywheel so the friction disc is clamped between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Engine
torque flows through the clutch to the transmission input shaft. Figure 9.20 shows actual
assembly of a single plate clutch used on few motorcycles.
9.7 CLUTCH RELEASE MECHANISM

As said earlier, multiplate clutch always remains in engaged position due to spring force.
The spring force must be released to disengage the clutch, i.e. the plates must be separated
to disengage the transmission from the engine. A release mechanism is used to achieve this
disengagement. The release mechanism pushes the pressure plate away from the clutch boss.
The clutch springs are compressed and axial force is removed for that moment. The friction
Figure 9.20 Single Plate Clutch Assembly.
plates and clutch plates become free to rotate and slip with respect to each other. Fundamentally,
two types of release mechanisms are used in two wheelers.
Figure 9.21 shows screw type clutch release mechanism. The inner release piece runs like
a screw in the threads of the outer release components. Both inner and outer release components
are located on the other side of clutch in the engine.
Figure 9.21 Screw-type Clutch Release Mechanism.

A lever is connected to the inner release component which is directly pulled by the
clutch cable. A pushrod–1 is extended from inner release to the other side in the clutch boss.
The pushrod–1 can freely reciprocate inside the output shaft of the clutch. At the end of the
pushrod–1, another small pushrod–2 is used to push the pressure plate away from the clutch
boss. A retaining spring is used between lever and inner release to hold the position of lever.
The screw type motion of inner release is transmitted to the pushrods. The pull of the clutch
cable is then converted into the direct pushing motion needed to disengage the clutch. The
compressed clutch springs again force the pressure plate to engage the clutch as soon as the
driver releases the hand lever.
Figure 9.22 shows cam type clutch release mechanism. The only difference is the way
in which pushing motion is generated to disengage the clutch. The clutch cable is attached to
the clutch lever. The clutch lever actuates the vertical shaft at the end of which the cam is
attached. Pulling the clutch lever causes the shaft to rotate in the clutch cover. The cam also
rotates with the shaft and pushes the pushrod–1, pushrod–2 and pressure plate. This action
compresses the clutch springs and relieves axial force from the friction plates, allowing the
clutch boss to rotate freely.
Figure 9.22 Cam-type Clutch Release Mechanism.
Some two wheelers use pull type action for the pressure plate as an alternative to push type
action. This arrangement avoids extension of pushrod–1 from one side to other and simplifies
the mechanism. The pushrod–2 is mounted reversely and directly used to pull the pressure plate
away from the clutch boss. Pulling action can be generated either by screw type mechanism
or cam type mechanism.
9.8 CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH

In the centrifugal type clutch, the centrifugal force is used to generate the axial force required
for keeping the clutch in engaged position. Moreover, elimination of friction plate, clutch plate
and pressure plate makes the clutch assembly simple. The advantage of the centrifugal clutch
is that no clutch lever is required. The clutch is operated automatically depending upon the
speed of the engine. Moreover, when used with CVT, centrifugal clutch allows driver to simply
twist the accelerator for driving. Figure 9.23 shows schematic diagram of centrifugal clutch.
Figure 9.23 Centrifugal Clutch.
The CVT transmission pulley is driven by the crankshaft

through belt drive. This driven pulley is connected with the
driving plate of the clutch. The transmission pulley and the
driving plate are mounted on the output shaft of the clutch and
can rotate freely with the help of bearing. This output shaft
provides power to the final drive. The driving plate contains
three pivot points for clutch masses. Clutch masses are pivoted
on single point on the driving plate and interconnected with the
help of clutch springs. The clutch springs are tension springs
which are used to retain position of the clutch masses. Clutch
masses are lined with friction material on the outer periphery.
The entire assembly is covered by the clutch housing which is
bolted to the output shaft. Therefore, output shaft start rotating Figure 9.24 Centrifugal Clutch
as soon as the clutch housing rotates. The centrifugal force on in Engaged
clutch mass increases with engine speed and overcomes the Position.
tension force of spring at designed value of RPM. As the engine speed reaches to designed
value, the clutch masses glide outward due to increased centrifugal forces. The friction linings
on the clutch masses are then rubbed on the inner face of clutch housing. Gradually friction
increases between lining and the clutch housing and the clutch is engaged with final drive.
Figure 9.24 shows engaged position of centrifugal clutch.
The centrifugal force increases rapidly up to certain speed after which no great increase
takes place. The clutch remains in fully engaged position unless the engine speed is decreased.
At idle speed of engine, clutch remains in disengaged position because the spring tension
remains higher than the centrifugal force produced due to less speed. Proper ventilation on
the clutch housing keeps the clutch at moderate temperature. Dry running of centrifugal clutch
can damage the linings as well as the clutch housing. Figure 9.25 shows actual arrangement
of centrifugal clutch.
Figure 9.25 Actual Assembly of Centrifugal Clutch.
9.9 GEARBOX
The two-wheeler engine is light, compact, efficient and can develop tremendous amount of
power for its size. The main drawback is that it is only efficient over a relatively narrow range
of RPM. At low RPM, it develops high torque and at high RPM, it develops high power.
Moreover, continuous running on high RPM cause quick wear and tear of components. These
characteristics of engine necessitate a multi-speed transmission, also known as gearbox. The
gearbox allows the engine to run within its efficient RPM range while driving wheel speed
varies greatly. As stated earlier, the two-wheeler engine runs at high speed. The same speed
cannot be utilized to run the vehicle. Therefore, the engine must run approximately five times
faster than the rear driving wheel. The primary drive and the final drive also take part in this
speed reduction. Other speed reductions are taken care by the gearbox which allows rider to
select appropriate speed from four to six different ratios. The lower ratios help the engine to
mobilize the mass of the vehicle and driver without overloading clutch or engine itself. The
higher ratios allow the engine to run in its efficient range.
The gearbox is located behind the engine and receives its power through the primary
drive and the clutch. The clutch engages and disengages the engine from the transmission
to allow easy up or down shifting of gears as well as efficient start and stop of the vehicle.
Fundamentally, two wheelers are equipped with either manual gearbox or automatic gearbox.
Conventionally, in manual gearbox, gearbox uses steel gears to achieve the reduction ratios.
The gearbox consists of two parallel shafts on which the gear pairs are mounted. One shaft is
known as driver or main shaft while other one is known as output or lay shaft. It sometimes
also called a countershaft. Each shaft carries four, five or six different sized gears. Each gear
meshes with a corresponding gear on the other shaft. In automatic gearbox, the power is first
transmitted through variable diameter pulleys and belt drive and provided to final drive train.
The automatic transmission selects the correct reduction ratio according the engine speed.
Moreover, engagement and disengagement also takes place automatically with the help of
centrifugal clutch. Figure 9.26 shows the classification of gearbox used in two wheelers.
Figure 9.26 Classification of Two Wheeler Gearbox.
9.10 CONSTANT-MESH GEARBOX

In this type of gearbox, all the gears are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on
the layshaft. This gearbox uses a one-piece cluster gear with four or five gears formed with
different diameters. This cluster of gears is known as main shaft. The main shaft is rotated
through the primary gear pair. The layshaft gears are free to rotate. The layshaft itself works
as output shaft for the transmission and directly connected to the driving wheel. Figure 9.27
shows layout of constant-mesh gearbox.
The output shaft is made hollow in which the gear shifting mechanism works. This
shaft is also provided with seats to accommodate steel balls. The gear shifter rod reciprocates
inside the hollow output shaft. The gears on the output shaft are free to rotate but do not slide.
Therefore, all the gears remain in mesh with corresponding gears on the cluster. The locking
of gear and output shaft is accomplished with the help of steel balls. Figure 9.27 also shows
the shifting pattern in which the gears are shifted. Fundamentally, two types of gear shifting
mechanisms are used for constant-mesh type gearbox.
9.10.1 Ball Lock Type Gear Locking Mechanism

The ball lock type gear locking mechanism uses steel balls to lock the gear with the output
shaft. Figure 9.27 shows the details of ball lock mechanism. The gears on the output shaft
are provided with internal seats. Half sphere of steel ball can be accommodated in this seat.
Total four steel balls are used to lock one gear with the output shaft; therefore entire gearbox
Figure 9.27 Constant-mesh Gearbox.
assembly comprises total sixteen steel balls. The gear selector stem is connected with the gear
shifting rod. The gear shifting rod reciprocates inside the output shaft as shown in Figure 9.27.
A ball receiver is connected on the other end of gear shifting rod which is used to push the
steel ball. As ball receiver pushes the steel ball outward, the ball seats in the inner slot of
the gear. Half sphere of steel ball remains in output shaft while other half sphere remains in
the gear. All the four steel balls move outward simultaneously to engage the gear. Therefore,
the output shaft is locked with the gear and starts revolving with the gear. Figure 9.27 shows
the neutral position while Figure 9.28 shows first gear in mesh. The power then comes from
primary drive to cluster gear and then first gear to steel balls, and steel balls to the output
shaft. The ball receiver, shifter rod and shifting stem remain stationary.
The first gear is shifted when the shifting stem is pulled outward with the help of shifting
lever. Consequently, inward pushing of shifting stem gives higher gear engagement. The shifting
lever is operated through the two discs and flexible cable mechanism. Figure 9.29 illustrates
actual ball lock mechanism used on the manual transmission scooters.
9.10.2 Trunnion Type Gear Locking Mechanism

Some scooters use trunnion type locking mechanism to engage the output shaft with the selected
gear. The trunnion is also known as spider. The arrangement of cluster gear, main shaft, driven
gears and output shaft remain same as ball lock mechanism. The output shaft is provided with
four longitudinal slots. The four arms of trunnion are inserted into these slots to guide the motion
Figure 9.28 Constant-mesh Gearbox–1st Gear in Mesh.
Figure 9.29 Constant-mesh Gearbox with Ball Lock Mechanism.
of trunnion. The trunnion is attached with the gear shifting rod either through threads or through
small bolt. The gear shifting rod reciprocates inside the output shaft through gear stem and gear
shifting lever. Figure 9.30 shows neutral position of the gearbox in which the trunnion is held
between the 1st and 2nd gears. As the gear shifting rod moves outward, the trunnion slide into the
slots of output shaft. The arms of trunnion then seats in the inner slots of gear. Half-length of arm
remains in gear and half-length remains engaged with shaft as shown in Figure 9.31. Therefore,
the power is transmission then takes place from primary driven gear to cluster gear, cluster gear
to 1st gear, gear to trunnion and trunnion to output shaft. Figure 9.32 shows first gear in mesh.
Figure 9.30 Trunnion Locking Mechanism.
Figure 9.31 Locking of Gear with Output Shaft.

Figure 9.32 Constant-mesh Gearbox–1st Gear in Engagement.
The first gear is shifted when the shifting stem is pulled outward with the help of shifting
lever. Consequently, inward pushing of shifting stem gives higher gear engagement. The shifting
lever is operated through the two discs and flexible cable mechanism. Gear shifting becomes
slight harder than the ball lock mechanism because of absence of roller pair. It becomes
difficult to insert and remove the square shape trunnion arms into square grooves of gear. As a
solution, some locking mechanism use chamfered trunnion. Figure 9.33 shows actual assembly
of trunnion type locking mechanism in constant-mesh gearbox.
Figure 9.33 Constant-mesh Gearbox with Trunnion Lock Mechanism.

9.11 SEQUENTIAL GEARBOX

Modern motorcycles use sequential gearbox which actually is a combination of sliding-mesh and
constant-mesh type gearboxes. Few gears on the main shaft and countershaft remain stationary
while few gears move side-by-side for engaging and shifting. The arrangement of gears gives
easy shifting in which driver follows a sequence in the form of either 1-N-2-3-4-5 or N-1-2-
3-4-5. The driver has to follow the sequence for up-shifting as well as down-shifting. Mostly,
the shifting is carried out with the help of foot lever located at the left side of the motorcycle.
As gears have to slide through the meshing gear, it becomes necessary to use spur gears.
Figure 9.34 shows layout of the sequential gearbox.
Figure 9.34 Sequential Gearbox.
As said earlier, the power is transmitted from clutch boss to mainshaft. Four, five or six
driving gears are mounted on the mainshaft. The mainshaft is single piece shaft which is splined
at various spots to fix the necessary gears. The 1st gear on the mainshaft is permanently fixed
and rotates with the mainshaft. The 2nd gear on the mainshaft consists dog teeth on both side
faces. Figure 9.35 shows the single piece gear and dog. The 2nd gear slides left and right with
the help of selector fork. The 3rd gear is mounted on a bush between 1st and 2nd gears on
Figure 9.35 Gear with Integrated Dog.
the mainshaft. Circlip is used to lock the axial movement of the 3rd gear. So 3rd gear is free
to rotate on the mainshaft but cannot slide. Moreover, the 3rd gear consists female grooves in
which the dog teeth are engaged. Figure 9.36 shows design of 3rd gear and circlip lock. The top
gear is free to rotate on the mainshaft and cannot slide due to circlip lock. Therefore, starting
from the clutch side, the mainshaft consists one fix and one free gear alternatively. Here, fix
gear portraits 1st and 2nd gears which rotate with the mainshaft while free gear portraits 3rd
and 4th gears which do not rotate with the mainshaft.
Figure 9.36 Gear with Female Slots and Locking Circlip.
All the gears on mainshaft remain in mesh with the corresponding gear on the countershaft.
Arrangements of gears on the countershaft are like a reversed mirror image of the arrangements
on mainshaft. The 1st gear on the countershaft is mounted through bearing and is free to rotate
on the shaft. The 2nd gear on the countershaft is also free to rotate and consists female dog
grooves. The 3rd gear has dog integrated with it and cannot rotate freely with countershaft
just like 2nd gear of mainshaft. The 4th gear is also splined to the countershaft and cannot
rotate freely.
As shown in Figure 9.34, in neutral position, each fix gear of the mainshaft remains
in mesh with free gear on the countershaft while each free gear on the mainshaft remains in
mesh with fix gear of the countershaft. The clutch boss transmits the power to the mainshaft.
All the fix gears on the mainshaft rotate with it and free gears remain stationary. At the same
time, free gears on the countershaft rotate but the countershaft doesn’t. Thus, power doesn’t
transmit from the mainshaft to the countershaft and vehicle stays in neutral.
Figure 9.37 shows 1st gear in engagement. The 3rd gear with dog on the countershaft
is shifted towards right. The dog teeth on the gear face are engaged in the female grooves of
the 1st gear-driven. The power is then transmitted from the mainshaft to 1st gear-driver (fix),
1st gear-driver (fix) to 1st gear-driven (free), 1st gear-driven (free) to the 3rd gear-driven
with dog (fix) and the 3rd gear then rotates the countershaft. Likewise, the 2nd gear comes in
engagement as the 3rd gear with dog on the countershaft is shifted towards left. Figure 9.38
illustrates 2nd gear in engagement.
Figure 9.37 1st Gear in Engagement.
Figure 9.38 2nd Gear in Engagement.
Figure 9.39 shows 3rd gear in engagement. The 2nd gear with dog on the mainshaft is
shifted towards right. The dog teeth on the gear face are engaged in the female grooves of
the 3rd gear-driver. The power is then transmitted from the mainshaft to 2nd gear-driver with
dog (fix), 2nd gear-driver with dog (fix) to 3rd gear-driver (free), 3rd gear-driver (free) to 3rd
gear-driven with dog (fix) and the 3rd gear then rotates the countershaft. Likewise, the top
gear comes in engagement as the 2nd gear with dog on the mainshaft is shifted towards left.
Figure 9.40 illustrates 4th gear in engagement.
As said earlier, each gear on the mainshaft is constantly in mesh with a companion gear
on the countershaft but it rotates freely until it is engaged by a sliding gear which locks the
gear with the shaft. Even though all the gears can be meshed simultaneously, only one gear
pair transmits the power. The other pairs of gears all have one gear spinning freely. Figure 9.41
shows actual assembly of 5-speed sequential gearbox.
Figure 9.39 3rd Gear in Engagement.
Figure 9.40 4th Gear in Engagement.
Figure 9.41 Actual Assembly of 5-Speed Sequential Gearbox.

9.12 GEAR SHIFTING MECHANISM

There are mainly two types of mechanism which have been used for selecting the required
gear and sliding the same to engage with the companion gear on the countershaft. The one
in which the gear shifter is located on the left side of handle bar, which is mostly used on
scooters. The other is in which the gear shifter lever is located at the left foot, which is mostly
used on motorcycles. The former type of selector mechanism has the advantage that almost no
linkage is involved whereas in the later type rather complicated operating linkage is employed.
Moreover, later mechanism gives smooth shifting whereas former gives bit harder shifting.
Whichever is the shifting mechanism used, it is ensured in the design that no two gears
can be engaged simultaneously. This is achieved through suitable interlocking mechanism which
ensures that any gear can be engaged only after the neutral has been obtained. The interlocking
mechanisms are already explained in the earlier sections.
9.12.1 Hand Operated Shifting Mechanism

The hand operated shifting mechanism is generally used on scooters with constant-mesh type
gearbox. The twist grip on the left handle bar is directly attached to the first selector sector.
The clutch lever is also located on the same twist grip to provide ease to operate on clutch
during the shifting. The selector sector oscillates with the twist grip. Two flexible metal cables
are connected with this selector sector. These cables are then routed properly and extended up
to the gear selector stem located on the right-side of vehicle. Figure 9.42 illustrates the layout
of such gear shifting mechanism.
Figure 9.42 Hand Operated Gear Shifting Mechanism.
The flexible cables are assembled to another selector sector which operates the selector
stem through a link. The selector stem then operates the shifter rod to lock the gear either
by ball lock mechanism or by trunnion type lock mechanism. The constructional details of
the selector sector are shown in Figure 9.43. The selector housing shields and mounts all the
components. The selector sector has teeth fabricated on the periphery. The pattern and pitch
of teeth is decided with respect to the stem stroke required to engage the gear. The selector
sector has grooves on the circumference which are used to lock the cables. The retaining spring
is used to push the roller assembly towards the selector sector. The roller assembly holds the
selector sector in position by inserting the roller between two teeth.
Figure 9.43 Selector Sector Assembly.
The roller axle transmits the motion from the selector sector to the shifting stem. The
routing and tension in the shifting cable plays vital role in efficient working of this mechanism.
Frequent tension adjustment in the cables is necessary to avoid hard gear shifting. Moreover,
this mechanism works without any lubrication because of which the shifting is bit harder than
the foot operated shifting mechanism.
9.12.2 Foot Operated Shifting Mechanism

Gear shifting in a motorcycle gear box is accomplished by forks that fit into circumferential
grooves in the hubs of the sliding gears. Usually a four speed transmissions have only two
forks, but five or six speed box needs three forks. Figure 9.44 portraits a shifting fork used in
foot operated shifting mechanism.
Figure 9.44 Shifting Fork.

The foot lever is connected with the gear change shaft. The change shaft oscillates and
operates a set of two shift arms. Together, these shift arms form a lever which is used to rotate
the indexing drum. Each gear change requires only a few degree of drum rotation. Most five
speed transmission need only 1/6 of a turn of the drum. The end of the drum has a set of pins,
known as indexing drum, which works in conjunction with hooks and levers to rotate the drum
by proper amount. Figure 9.45 shows construction of indexing drum.
Figure 9.45 Indexing Drum.
A spring loaded drum stopper holds the pins to lock the indexing drum in each gear
position. Sometimes other detents are used, but the objective is the same to hold shifter drum
in position. The shift forks are controlled by a shifter drum. The function of the drum is to
convert the oscillating motion of the lever into a rotating motion so that the shifter forks can
move the sliding gears into and out of engagement. The shifter drum is a kind of cam with
slots in its surface in which roller follower on the forks ride. The forks themselves may be
supported by the drum or by separate shafts. Either way, their lateral movement and positions
are controlled by slots in the shift drum. Figure 9.46 illustrates the construction of shifter drum.
Figure 9.46 Shifter Drum.
The motion of the foot lever is transmitted to the change shaft. The change shaft moves
the set of levers in definite pattern. The hooks on the lever A operate the indexing drum. As the
indexing drum is rigidly assembled with the shifting drum, the drum also rotates by fixed amount
of degree. As the drum rotates, the forks are moved sideways to shift the gears. Figure 9.47
shows layout of foot operated shifting mechanism. Figure 9.48 shows actual assembly of foot
operated shifting mechanism.
Figure 9.47 Foot Operated Shifting Mechanism.
Figure 9.48 Actual Assembly of Foot Operated Shifting Mechanism.
9.13 CONTINUOUS VARIABLE TRANSMISSION–CVT

In CVT, various torque and power ratios are achieved through variable diameter pulleys rather
than gear pairs. As shown in Figure 9.3, the crankshaft rotates the driving pulley. The driving
pulley is connected with the driven pulley through a metallic belt or heavy duty rubber belt.
The driven pulley drives the centrifugal clutch. The output of the centrifugal clutch is provided
to the final transmission.
Figure 9.49 shows construction of the driver pulley. The arrangement is done in such a
way that the diameter of pulley at which belt comes in contact increases with the engine speed.
Figure 9.49 Driving Pulley of CVT.
To accomplish this, the pulley is separated into two sheaves. Half of the driving pulley remains
stationary which is known as fix sheave and other half slides on the engine crankshaft known
as a sliding sheave. The sliding motion of sheave is controlled by the weight rollers. As engine
speed increases, the rollers move outward due to increased centrifugal force.
Outward movement of rollers pushes the sliding sheave towards the fix sheave, as a result,
distance between two sheaves decreases. Because of trapezoidal engagement, the belt smoothly
slides outward between two sheaves and working diameter of driving pulley increases. The
cam plate guides the outward and inward motion of the rollers in definite way. The direction
of cam guides on the cam plate helps to develop high centrifugal force on the rollers even at
low engine RPM.
The belt used in the CVT cannot elongate with the increased diameter of driver pulley.
Therefore, to compensate the belt length, it is necessary to decrease the diameter of driven
pulley. Consequently, opposite to driver pulley, the driven pulley diameter is reduced with
increase in engine speed. Figure 9.50 shows arrangement in driven pulley. The fix sheave of
the driven pulley is rigidly connected with the driving plate of the centrifugal clutch. Thus,
the centrifugal clutch and the fix sheave rotate with same speed. A sliding sheave floats on
the fix sheave bush. A compression spring forces and holds the sliding sheave towards the
fix sheave.
The belt forces the sliding sheave away from the fix sheave due to length compensation.
The sliding sheave is held against the spring force which forces the sliding sheave back as
soon as the engine speed decreases. Figure 9.51 shows the position of CVT at initial speed
range of the engine. The small diameter at driver pulley and larger diameter at driven pulley
provide necessary torque rise required to start the vehicle. This is equivalent to lower gear
pairs of manual transmission system.
Figure 9.50 Driven Pulley of CVT.
Figure 9.51 CVT in Initial Speed Range of Engine.
Figure 9.52 shows the position of CVT at higher speed range of the engine. The larger
diameter at driver pulley and smaller diameter at the driven pulley helps to achieve maximum
power transmission. The driven pulley rotates three times faster than the driver pulley. This is
equivalent to higher gear pairs of manual transmission system. Therefore, CVT gives infinite
number of gear ratios depending upon the diameters of the driver and the driven pulleys.
Moreover, torque and power reduction take place instantly and continuously with varying
engine speed. This simplifies the operation of transmission especially in dense traffic conditions.
Figure 9.52 CVT in Higher Speed Range of Engine.
However, the maintenance cost of CVT is considerably high than a manual transmission.
Moreover, operation of CVT is noisy due to constant sliding of pulleys and belt. Figure 9.53
shows actual assembly of continuous variable transmission.
Figure 9.53 Actual Assembly of CVT.
9.14 FINAL DRIVE

The final drive is like replica of the primary drive and also plays vital role in speed reduction
train. Generally, final drive is provided between the output shaft of gearbox and rear driving
wheel. As said earlier, in scooters with manual transmission, the output shaft is directly
connected to the rear driving wheel. In scooters with CVT, the output shaft of the centrifugal
clutch provides power to the final transmission which consists of simple gear train to achieve
appropriate speed reduction. However, in motorcycles, the centre distance between the output
shaft of gearbox and the driving wheel is considerably high because of which gears cannot
be used as final drive. Therefore, it becomes necessary to adopt appropriate drive which can
transmit torque and power without much loss and of course with lowest possible cost. Following
are some of the final drive commonly used in motorcycles.
9.14.1 Belt Drive

This system includes driving pulley, timing belt and driven pulley for power transmission.
Timing belts have teeth on the contact side of the belt. These teeth match with the grooves
provided on the driver and driven pulleys. Driver pulley is attached on output shaft of the
gearbox while driven pulley is mounted on rear driving wheel. Timing belts provide positive
drive and can transmit high power. Figure 9.54 shows arrangement of belt and pulleys as final
drive.
Figure 9.54 Belt Drive.
Figure 9.55 shows cut-section of timing belt. The belt comes in endless form. Generally,
base material of timing belt is polychloroprene rubber and teeth of the belt are made from the
same material. Metallic tension cords are inserted to increase the tensile strength of the belt.
A nylon coating protects the surface of belt from cracking. Belt with cracked or broken teeth
should be replaced to avoid breakdown of the system.
Figure 9.55 Cross-section of Timing Belt.
The major benefit from belt drive is that it does not require any lubrication and adjustment
but the life of belt drive is very less. It requires frequent replacement due to wear of teeth or
tearing of belt.
9.14.2 Chain Drive

The chain drive is a light weight and straightforward way to get power transmission to the
rear wheel. Nearly all motorcycles use chain as a final drive. The chain drive works with 99%
efficiency where 1% is lost due to friction. The driving sprocket of a chain drive system is
attached to the output shaft of the gearbox. This sprocket generally has 12 to 23 teeth and is made
of hardened steel. The chain connects the front and rear sprockets, transmitting the engine power
from the gearbox to the rear wheel. Chain comes in several different sizes to match different
power transmitting requirements. The rear or driven sprocket is also made from steel. The number
of teeth on rear sprocket ranges from about 30 to 72. Figure 9.56 shows chain drive assembly.
Figure 9.56 Chain Drive.
There are mainly three categories of chain used for final drive systems on motorcycles. These
are the split roller, seamless roller, and permanently lubricated solid roller chains. Split roller and
seamless roller chains are similar in construction and fall under the category of “conventional roller
chains.” As shown in Figure 9.57, the conventional roller chains are made up of inner side plates,
outer side plates, pins bushings, and rollers. The only difference between the split roller chain
and the seamless one is the construction of the roller. On cheaper chains, the roller is cut from
seamed tubing, while higher quality chains use rollers cut from more expensive seamless tubing.
Figure 9.57 Construction of Chain.
Usually a chip type master link is used to join the ends of a conventional chain, although
a rivet type master link is sometimes used for extra reliability. The rivet type master link
requires a special swaging tool for proper installation. The length of chain increases with time.
Loose chain produces noise during operation and also cost less efficiency. Figure 9.58 shows
arrangement provided on the swing arm to adjust the length of slack chain. The slot given on
the swing arm facilitates backward movement of rear wheel assembly up to acceptable length
of the chain. The adjustment nut and locking nut are used to move and lock the adjuster plates.
The last position of adjuster plate inside the slot gives indication for chain replacement.
Figure 9.58 Length Adjuster Mechanism for Chain.
9.14.3 Shaft Drive

A few of the larger road machines eliminate chain problems by using a driveshaft from the
engine through a universal joint to a spiral bevel gear on the rear wheel hub. The enclosed
rear end gears operate in the oil bath and require virtually no service. Though expensive to
manufacture, the shaft drive mechanism is smooth, quiet and trouble free.
Figure 9.59 shows the major components of a typical unit. It consists of four elements:
Drive Shaft, Universal joint, Bevel gear pair, and Casing (Tube). Drive shaft in most cases
are hollow for better whirling protection on high speed. It is made up of Mild Steel
without any stress concentration. This drive shaft gets the power from gear box through bevel
gear pair.
Figure 9.59 Shaft Drive.

To compensate the uneven road surface, the universal joint is used in drive shaft. Finally,
to transfer the power to rear wheel, a bevel gear pair is used. These three parts are covered
by casing which also forms a sump for lubricating oil. The same case is used as an integral
part of a swing arm. Service of shaft drive should not be attempted without the special tools
and accurate specifications necessary for permanent repair. Figure 9.60 shows actual assembly
of shaft drive.
Figure 9.60 Assembly of Shaft Drive.
9.15 CUSH DRIVE

The cush drive is the final component of transmission system of any two wheeler. The rear
sprocket sometimes bolts directly to the rear wheel, but in majority vehicles, it is bolted to
a cushioning hub that helps to soften the load on the chain and sprockets. The cushioning
hub takes the twisting load during sudden acceleration, braking and gear change. It helps to
prevent damage to the metal components. Generally this device is simply two separate hubs
with rubber bushing or cushions between them. One hub contains chain driven sprocket and
other hub is rigidly connected the rear wheel. A rubber cushions are inserted between these two
hubs to damp the sock loads. Rubber cushions are the parts of drive trains which are heavily
subjected to wear and requiring repair. Sometimes, metallic springs are used as a cushioning
device instead of rubber blocks. Figure 9.61 shows actual assembly of a cush drive.
Figure 9.61 Components of Cush Drive.
Review Questions
1. Why it is necessary to use transmission system?
2. Explain layout of transmission system in two wheelers.
3. Describe importance of primary drive. Also explain chain-sprocket mechanism
as a primary drive.
4. Compare various primary drives.
5. What do you mean by clutch? Explain working of friction clutch.
6. Which are the fundamental requirements of a clutch? Explain in detail.
7. Explain construction and working of a multiplate clutch.
8. How assist slipper clutch helps to partial disengage the clutch? Explain with neat
diagrams.
9. Explain construction and working of a single plate clutch.
10. Describe two types of clutch release mechanism used for multiplate clutch.
11. How centrifugal clutch works? Explain its construction with neat sketch.
12. Why it is necessary to use gearbox. Give classification of gearbox used in two
wheelers.
13. Explain constant-mesh gearbox with ball lock type mechanism.
14. Explain constant-mesh type gearbox with trunnion type locking mechanism.
15. Which gearbox is mostly used in motorcycles? Explain the construction and
working of such gearbox.
16. Explain with neat sketch hand operated gear shifting mechanism.
17. Explain with neat sketch foot operated gear shifting mechanism.
18. How CVT works? Explain with necessary diagrams. Also state advantages of CVT.
19. Explain construction and working of shaft drive.
20. Explain importance of cush drive.
10
Steering and Suspension System
Contents
YY Steering Geometry and Effects
YY Steering Column Construction
YY Handlebar–Types and Construction
YY Suspension Requirements
YY Design Considerations for Suspension System
YY Spring and Shock Absorber Assembly
YY Springer Forks Suspension
YY Girder Forks Suspension
YY Trailing and Leading Link Suspension
YY Telescopic Suspension
YY Single Link Type Front Suspensions
YY Double Link Type Front Suspensions
YY Hard Tail Suspension
YY Swing Arm Suspension
YY Rocker and Link Suspension
YY Dynamic Damping Control in Suspension System
Generally, the function of the steering system is to provide a means whereby the driver
can drive his vehicle accurately. The steering system helps driver to draw the vehicle where
he wants it to be on the road. It also provides direction stability for selection of the path
on which he wants to steer round corners by avoiding other road users and obstructions.
It must keep the vehicle stable on the path irrespective of irregularities in the surface
over which the vehicle is travelling. Apart from this, the effort required to operate the
steering system should be minimal and must not be tiresome to the driver, i.e. handling
of the system should be easy and accurate. As two wheelers are single track vehicles,
even a small change in geometry of steering system also affects the riding characteristics
drastically.
186
Steering and Suspension System 187
Moreover, two wheelers use combine system incorporating suspensions and steering. The
continuous activation of front suspension system during pit holes bumps and turning causes
constant change in steering geometry. Mostly, these variations take place within permissible
limits but sometimes these variations go beyond controllable limits. Therefore, the selection of
values for the steering geometry is challenging task whereas upper and lower limits of these
values also play vital role in dynamic conditions.
10.1 STEERING GEOMETRY AND EFFECTS

The steering geometry of two wheelers includes definite values for various parameters. These
parameters are trail, rack angle, front offset, wheelbase etc. These all parameters, together,
decide the dynamic characteristics of vehicle with respect to handling, stability and road holding.
Figure 10.1 shows various steering geometry for motorcycle.
Figure 10.1 Steering Geometry.
10.1.1 Trail
Definition: The trail refers to the distance between the imaginary point where the steering axis
intersects the ground and the centre of the tyre contact patch. The measured length between the
imaginary point and the centre of front tyre contact patch is known as front trail. The distance
between the imaginary point and the centre of rear tyre contact patch is known as rear trail.
Amount: Front trail—50 mm to 100, Rear trail—1300 mm to 1500 mm.
Fundamentally, function of the trail is to provide a steering stability during straight line
motion as well as during commuting through corners. However, two different types of trail
can be defined in the steering geometry of two wheelers: Ground Trail and Real Trail. The
ground trail is the distance measured parallel to the road surface while the real trail, often
called mechanical trail, is the distance measure perpendicular to the steering axis as shown in
Figure 10.2. Mostly, the real trail remains smaller than the ground trail and becomes equal only
when steering axis is kept vertical. Value of the trail does not remain constant for a particular
vehicle. There are several factors which cause the effective trail to change during normal riding.
Some of these are tilt angle, steering angle, braking, acceleration and profile radius of the tyre.
Following are the various effects of the trail.
Figure 10.2 Difference between Real Trail and Ground Trail.
EFFECTS OF TRAIL: As shown in Figure 10.1, both front and rear tyres touch the road
behind the imaginary point where steering axis intersects it. This is called a positive trail. This
configuration helps to develop self-centreing effect, i.e. the steered front wheel tries to retain
the straight forward position. Figure 10.3 shows how self-centreing is achieved through the trail.
Assume the vehicle is taking left turn and the front wheel is rotated about the imaginary
point to commute the turn. The angle between the plane of the tyre and the direction of the
tangent to the turning curve is known as the slip angle. The rotational movement of the tyre
about the imaginary point also results in sideway sliding of the contact patch. This lateral
movement of contact patch produces a force right angle to the wheel direction. Since the contact
patch of tyre is behind the imaginary point then this force acts on a lever arm to provide a
correcting torque to the steered wheel. This lever arm is equal to the front real trail. Therefore, if
the steering is deflected by some cause, e.g. bump, then positive trail spontaneously counters the
Figure 10.3 Self-centring Through Trail.
deflection and provides directional stability. The trail is called negative if the tyre contact patch
remains in front of the imaginary point. In this condition, the torque generated due to slip angle
would strengthen the original disturbance and so make the machine directionally unstable. As
said earlier, the real trail remains smaller than the ground trail. These values would alter if
the values of front suspension travel and the ground trail are not synchronized. The ground
trail may alter to negative after full compression of front suspension and can make the vehicle
highly unstable as explained earlier. If the ground trail doesn’t alter to negative during full
suspension travel then the real trail will never. Therefore, the ground trail is always referred
first and specified to characterize the vehicle.
Apparently, the straight line motion of two-wheeler is actually a series of correcting
torque curves in which the handlebar is microscopically turned from one side to other all the
time. As explained earlier, a small steering of front wheel generates slip angle, which produces
correcting torque to retain the directional stability. The amount of correcting torque depends
on slip angle, tyre properties, friction coefficient and trail. This corrective torque is sensed by
the rider through the handlebar. Therefore, the trail transmits the response of road conditions
that helps the rider to maintain proper grip between tyre and road.
Figure 10.4 shows effect of increased front trail. The angle by which the tyre is been
steered is same in both the cases. Therefore, restoring force also remains same but the length
of the lever arm on which the restoring force acts is now increased. As a result, the amount
of correcting torque also increases. Furthermore, the larger lateral displacement of tyre contact
patch also needs considerable efforts. This in sequence makes the steering stiffer and difficult
to rotate. Moreover, minute disturbances on the road surface do not responded to the driver
due to larger lever arm. Hence, larger trail helps to maintain the straight position of tyre and
only for these reasons, cruisers use larger trail. Likewise, smaller trail gives easy and quick
Figure 10.4 Effect of Increased Front Trail.
steering which is helpful to commute through the streets. Each minute disturbance on the road
is responded to the driver which helps to maintain the balancing of vehicle.
Summary: Increasing the trail to increase the restoring force and corrective torque on the
wheels results as diminished turning ability.
10.1.2 Castor Angle or Rack Angle

Definition: The Castor or Rack angle is the angle provided between an imaginary centre line
passing through the steering head and imaginary vertical line passing through the front wheel
centre.
Amount: 15° to 30°. Generally, 27° is the standard value for the production of two
wheelers. While trail is measured linearly, the rack is an angular measurement as shown in
Figure 10.1. The basic function of rack angle is to generate the castor effect. The castor effect
is denoted with respect to steering axis and tyre contact patch. For positive rack angle, the
steering axis always remains ahead of the tyre contact patch because of which the vehicle
simply follows the steering axis. Therefore, the rack angle, indirectly, helps to maintain the
straight-line stability of vehicle. Different values of rack can give the same amount of ground
trail as shown in Figure 10.5. The values of real trail are different for each case but the
difference is very small. This equivalence in trails can be achieved through various
configurations like hub-centre steering, providing offset between front wheel spindle and
steering axis and zero rack steering as shown in Figure 10.5. The rack angle becomes zero
with vertical steering axis.
EFFECTS OF RACK ANGLE: Particularly for one configuration like hub-centre steering,
the value of ground trail and real trail increases with increase in rack angle, i.e. the length
of lever arm on which the restoring force acts increases. Therefore, the corrective torque also
increases. Figure 10.6 explains the increase in lever arm length. As explained in previous
section, the tendency of tyre to retain the straight position also increases with increased amount
of the corrective torque.
On the other side, increase in rack angle causes reduction in the lever arm length when
ground trail is kept constant. Figure 10.7 illustrates the principle. The length of real trail is
smaller with offset steering then the hub-centre steering. This in turns generates quick and easy
steering even with larger rack angle.
Figure 10.5 Equal Amount of Trail Achieved through Various Orientation of Steering Axis.
Figure 10.6 Increase in Front Trail for Hub-Centre Steering.
Figure 10.7 Decreased Real Trail.

Larger rack can cause the trail effect to get reduced when the tyre is steered. The large
steering angle at low speed has a tendency to shift the vertical axis of the tyre. This in turn
reduces the effective trail available for that instant. Figure 10.8 shows the straight as well as
steered tyre conditions. The shifting of vertical axis through the tyre contact patch causes the
trail reduction. The effect of tilting is not shown in Figure 10.8. When the turn is initiated, the
tyre gets tilted with respect to two planes. The tilt with respect to vertical plane is called steering
angle and tilt with respect to horizontal plane is called camber. Together, a large steering and tilt
angles can even cause the trail effect to become negative if proper values of trail and rack are
not selected. This necessitates use of larger trail than would actually require. Furthermore, due to
tilting and lateral movement of tyre contact patch, the steering head would drop as the handlebar
is turned to either side. The amount of steering head drop increases with increase in rack angle.
This drop tends to work against the self-centreing effect of castor and decreases the effect of
positive trail. There would be no dropping of steering head with zero rack angle. While this effect
is disadvantageous with respect to directional stability, it helps to steer the wheel in the direction
of turn when vehicle is simply tilted over. However, it is important not to magnify such effects.
Figure 10.8 Reduction in Trail due to Steering.
Figure 10.9 shows the dropping tendency of steering head for 0° and 90° rack angles.
The dropping of steering head due to large rack angle also generates undesirable camber in
the steered wheel. This would in turn, reduces effective steering angle of tyre when compared
with the angle by which the steering handle is turned. The effort given by the driver through
the handlebar is consumed to generate camber rather than the steering angle. This loss increases
as value of rack increases. However, this effect can be compensated by tilting the vehicle with
Figure 10.9 Dropping Tendency of Steering Head.
correct angle during turn. Even though, the effort required for steering the vehicle with large
rack is much higher than the one with smaller rack. Another negative effect of larger rack is
observed while vehicle faces pothole on the road surface. Figure 10.10 shows what happens
when vehicle with larger rack and smaller rack faces the edge of pothole on the road. A reactive
force exerts at the point where tyre meets the edge of pothole. As shown in figure, the vehicle
with zero rack doesn’t respond to the pothole as the force exerted on the steering is much
Figure 10.10 Effect of Reactive Couple.

lesser than the overall weight of the vehicle. First, the steering and then the complete vehicle
lean into the pothole and can be easily controlled. In the case of larger rack, e.g. for 90° rack,
the reactive force generates a moment about the steering axis. This moment tends to throw the
steered wheel back into the pothole, affecting the directional stability.
Summary: Increased rack angle with sufficient amount of trail tends to increase the straight
line stability. Increased rack angle with small trail adversely affects the straight line stability.
It reduces the castor effect by affecting trail. Tendency of dropping of steering head also
increases with larger rack angles.
10.1.3 Wheelbase
Definition: The distance between the wheel centres, when measured parallel to ground, is
known as wheelbase.
Amount: 1100 mm to 1600 mm
Wheelbase affects handling from the standpoint of turning ability and reaction time. It
has several effects but, in general, longer wheelbase gives maximum directional stability. At
the same time, it requires greater effort to commute through the turns.
EFFECTS OF WHEELBASE: The very first drawback of large wheelbase comes out when
vehicle takes turn. The vehicle with large wheelbase needs to be turned deeper into the curve
while vehicle with short wheelbase can complete the same turn with small radius. Figure 10.11
shows how larger wheelbase generates larger turning radius. Consequent to large turning radius,
the driver has to steer the wheel more to complete the turn within the available radius. The
corrective torque increases as the slip angle increases due to larger steering angle. Therefore,
the effort required to turn the vehicle also increases.
Figure 10.11 Effect of Wheelbase on Turning Radius.
The lateral displacement of the rear wheel is smaller in the case of large wheelbase. This
small lateral movement of rear wheel gives minor disturbance to directional stability. Therefore,
longer wheelbase gives greater directional stability than short wheelbase. The long wheelbase
also helps to reduce the weight transfer during braking and acceleration.
Summary: Large wheelbase gives better directional stability and small load transfer while
short wheelbase gives quick handling and manoeuverability.
10.2 STEERING COLUMN CONSTRUCTION

In most two wheelers, the steering column
is constructed by front suspension forks.
These forks are mounted on and steered
through the steering headstock which is an
integrated part of the frame. Furthermore,
the forks and the head tube are connected
through an arrangement called triple tree.
Figure 10.12 shows the components of
steering column.
The triple tree contains three
components: Upper bracket, Steering
Stem and Lower bracket. Figure 10.13
shows arrangement of triple tree. The
front suspension forks are inserted through
the lower bracket and bolted to the upper
bracket. The upper bracket also known as
handlebar crown as it contains raisers to Figure 10.12 Components of Steering Column.
assemble the handlebar. Sometimes, it also
covers the steering lock mechanism. The steering stem is rigidly connected with the lower
bracket. It forms a link which ties upper and lower bracket together. The steering stem is inserted
Figure 10.13 Triple Tree.

through the headstock and locked with the upper bracket. Two bearings help to generate
a free movement of the stem inside the head stock. Bearing race covers prevent entering
of dust inside the headstock stem assembly. The lower bracket avoids lateral flexibility of
the front forks. One or two steering stoppers are also embossed on the lower bracket. The
same are sometimes used to lock the steering. When observed from the side, the distance
between centre axis of steering headstock and the centre axis of forks gives the amount of
fork offset. The fork offset helps to achieve appropriate value of trail. Sometimes, lower
bracket has more offset than the upper bracket to have better combination of higher trail
and small rack. Endure bikes come with maximum fork offset while sport bikes come with
minimum fork offset.
10.3 HANDLEBAR—TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION

Handlebar communicates the effort of driver to the steering system. As said earlier, the driver
has to turn the steering system from one side to other even on the straight line motion. Therefore,
design and contour of the handlebar plays vital role on driver’s fatigue. Fundamentally,
handlebars are classified according to their contour only. The contour decides how easily the
driver can govern the vehicle and can access the control levers and various switches. Handlebars
are made from hollow metal tubing, typically aluminium alloys or chrome plated steel but also
of carbon fiber and titanium. Holes may be drilled for the internal routing of control cables
such as brake, throttle, and clutch. Risers hold the handlebars at their mounting position on
the upper bracket of triple tree as shown in Figure 10.14. Bar-end weights are often added to
either end of the handlebar to damp vibration by moving the bars’ resonant frequency away
from that generated by the engine. Both the ends of handlebar mount the grips which are
equipped with various electrical control switches. Electrical heating elements may be added
under the handlebar grips to provide comfort to the user in cold weather. Following are several
size parameters that describe most motorcycle handlebars.
Width from grip to grip may vary from 30.5 inches to 37 inches.
Rise above mounting location may vary from 0 inch to 20 inches.
Pullback, the distance grips are behind their mounting location, may vary from 4.25
inches to 17 inches.
Diameters vary, commonly 7/8 inch, 1 inch, and 1 ¼ inches
TYPES OF HANDLEBAR
Ape hanger Handlebars: Ape hanger handlebars are only for styling purpose which are
vertically raised far above from the upper bracket. The rider has to reach up to grips to use
them. They are mostly used on custom chopper motorcycles. The rider has to raise his hands
towards front which gives unsuitable riding posture for long distance travelling. The diameter
of handlebar pipe is large enough to damp the vibration as well as to minimize the trail effects.
Overall height of the ape hanger handlebar is larger than the other types. This height affects
adversely and increases the rider’s effort during turns, causes fatigue. Some handlebars can go
up to the heights of 20 inches. Figure 10.15 shows ape hanger handlebar.
Figure 10.14 Handlebar.
Figure 10.15 Ape Hanger Handlebar.
Beach Handlebars: This handlebar is first slightly raised and then bent backward to reach
up to the rider. They are mostly used on cruiser motorcycles. The rider slightly leans backward
which gives appropriate riding posture for long distance travelling. Overall width of the beach
handlebar is larger than the other types of handlebars. This width is used to reduce the effort
of rider during turning. The diameter of handlebar pipe is large enough to damp the vibration
as well as to minimize the trail effects. Figure 10.16 shows beach handlebar arrangement.
Drag Handlebars: Drag bars are nearly straight tubing. This arrangement creates a minor
forward leaning for the rider which is helpful to achieve aerodynamic riding position. Forward
leaning of rider helps to locate centre of gravity nearer to middle of vehicle. It also increases
Figure 10.16 Beach Handlebar.
weight distribution towards front resulting as better load transfer during braking and acceleration.
Smaller rack angle can be used with the drag bars which facilitates easy manoeuvering through
the streets. Figure 10.17 shows drag type handlebar.
Figure 10.17 Drag Handlebar.
Clip-ons Handlebar: These are widely used on sport bikes, in which two separate short
handlebars are assembled directly to the front fork tubes instead of a single tube with risers.
Generally, the upper bracket is locked with the steering stem after inserting the clip-ons on the
front fork. Clip-ons generates more forward leaning for the rider which is helpful to achieve
perfect aerodynamic riding position. Two separate handlebars give great flexibility in positioning
the steering according to rider’s ease. On the other side, steering damper would essentially
require to damp the vibrations which are directly transmitted to the individual handlebars
through the front forks. Figure 10.18 shows arrangement of clip-ons handlebars.
Figure 10.18 Clip-ons Handlebar.
10.4 SUSPENSION REQUIREMENTS

The suspension mechanism should allow a relative motion between the wheel and the vehicle
frame. The relative motions are needed to isolate the vehicle frame from the road socks which
may be in the form of various motions like pitching, rolling, bouncing etc. These undesirable
motions give rise to an uncomfortable ride and also cause additional stress concentration in the
frame and other components. All the components which isolate the vehicle frame from the road
shocks are communally known as suspensions. This includes various mountings, springs and
shock absorbers. Broadly speaking, suspension consists of a spring and a damper. The energy
of road shocks causes the spring to oscillate. It is essential to minimize the oscillations of the
spring quickly as possible to avoid the resonant condition. These oscillations are absorbed by the
damper and restricted to a reasonable level. To perform these functions properly, a suspension
mechanism should have some kinematic and dynamic requirements.
10.4.1 Kinematic Requirements

Theoretically, the front wheel should have eight degrees of freedom with respect to the
vehicle frame as shown in Figure 10.19. The front
wheel should rotate in clockwise and anticlockwise
directions about three axes. These axes can be
defined as spin axis, camber axis and steer axis.
All rotational motions are concurrently necessary
to commute through the turns. The front wheel
simultaneously is required to be steered and tilted
along with the forward spinning. Moreover, two
translation motions parallel to steer axis are also
necessary due to uneven road surface. Up and
down motions of the front wheel is accomplished Figure 10.19 DOF of Front Wheel with
by appropriate suspension system. Respect to Frame.
While allowing the front wheel for eight degrees of freedom, the suspension system also
has to avoid four degrees of freedom. These four DOF includes translation motion parallel to
spin axis and camber axis. Figure 10.20 shows how these transverse motions take place. The
transverse motion of the front wheel parallel to camber axis gives rise to shuddering and wheel
hop. The transverse motion of the front wheel parallel to spin axis increases the tendency for
wobble type instabilities. To achieve the mentioned eight DOF and to restrict other four DOF,
the front wheel should be supported with combination of turning pair and sliding pair as shown
in Figure 10.21. It is important to note that the required camber is typically generated by tilting
the entire vehicle rather than only the front wheel.
Figure 10.20 Restricted DOF for Front Wheel.
Figure 10.21 Front Wheel Support for Required DOF.
Mostly in the case of two wheelers, the rear wheel is used to drive the vehicle. It is non-
steerable wheel instead can move up and down. Contradictory to the front wheel, the rear wheel
needs four degrees of freedom to complete its function as shown in Figure 10.22. It includes
two rotational and two transverse motions. The rear wheel should spin in forward and reverse
directions to deliver the engine power as well as should move upward and downward due to
uneven road surface. Either side tilting of rear wheel with respect to camber axis and steer
axis is undesirable movements. Both these DOF are responsible for generating unstable ride.
Just like the front wheel, the rear wheel should not generate transverse motions parallel to the
Figure 10.22 DOF of Rear Wheel with Respect to Frame.
camber axis and spin axis. Therefore, the rear wheel needs to be restricted for eight degrees of
freedom. To achieve the mentioned four DOF and to restrict other eight DOF, the rear wheel
should be supported with one sliding pair as shown in Figure 10.23. It is important to note
that the camber is typically generated by tilting the vehicle while moving through the curve.
Figure 10.23 Rear Wheel Support for Required DOF.
10.4.2 Dynamic Requirements

The front wheel should be able to steer and stop the vehicle while the rear wheel should be
able to propel and stop the vehicle. So, the suspension system must transmit the driving traction
and deceleration braking forces between the vehicle body and the ground. The suspension
members must also resist lateral forces acting on the vehicle. During braking condition, the
front suspension may need to support 100% of the vehicle’s weight. Moreover addition of the
braking forces increases the static suspension load nearly by triple amount. Whilst doing this
it also has to retain its ability to absorb road shocks. Acceleration condition is quite capable of
causing the reverse problem of transferring all of the loads onto the rear. Meanwhile, cornering
can load both ends by an extra factor of about 50% with the cornering capabilities of modern
tyres. Hence, the wheel suspension system must make the wheel rigid for the taken degrees of
freedom. However, there must also be some compliance members to limit the untaken degrees
of freedom. The most important compliant members are spring and dampers to provide returning
and resistance forces parallel to the steer axis.
10.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSPENSION SYSTEM

The principal reason for adopting any form of suspension is to achieve highest possible comfort
for the rider. To accomplish this function, an efficient system is required that does not convert
any of the vertical wheel motion into a movement of the sprung mass. Firmly, it should pass the
minimum possible vertical acceleration onto the rider. This is impossible to achieve completely.
Another factor which should be taken into account is the frequency of the disturbances felt
by the rider. As road holding is also greatly affected by suspension characteristics, and often
the requirements of comfort and road holding are in conflict, then unavoidable compromises
should be made depending on the intended use of the vehicle. Following are some fundamental
design considerations for suspension system.
10.5.1 Suspension Frequency

The disturbance tolerating capacity of humans is more than that of others which also depends on
the disturbance frequency and the direction. For example, most comfortable frequency is between
1 to 1.5 cycles per second (Hz) when applied in the vertical direction with body also stands
vertical but this is a most unpleasant frequency when applied with horizontal body. Figure 10.24
shows the situation.
Figure 10.24 Amount of Vibrations Transmitted to the Human Body.
Vertical movements are mainly generated from road shocks while horizontal motion from
pitching of the vehicle. If the rider is not sitting with a vertical back, as shown in Figure 10.24,
as when leaning in a racing motorcycle then there will be a cross coupling between these
motions as far as the effect on the rider is concerned. Therefore, it becomes essential to design
the suspension system to damp out, as much as possible, these vertical disturbances even
beyond the range of frequencies between approximately 1.0 and 2.0 Hz. The response from the
suspension becomes minimum when the applied disturbance frequency is several times higher
than the natural frequency of the suspension springs, thus in order to have the smoothest ride
over the widest range of operating conditions it is beneficial to have a low natural suspension
frequency, which requires soft springs.
10.5.2 Sprung and Unsprung Mass Ratio

The sprung mass is the mass of vehicle that is supported on the suspension. For a two-wheeler,
this is basically the entire vehicle’s mass excluding wheels, brakes and few components of
the suspension. The unsprung mass is therefore the whole mass minus the sprung mass. The
highest possible ratio of sprung mass to unsprung mass does not beneficial in all cases as the
demands of road holding and comfort are often contradictory. Road holding, typically the tyre
grip, requires the minimum dynamic variation in the tyre to road vertical load. It is possible
with the minimum unsprung mass. On the other side, to improve comfort, minimum force
should be transmitted to the sprung part. This is possible when the amount of unsprung mass
is more, because most energy would be consumed to lift the unsprung mass when vehicle hits
a raised bump, resulting in fewer vibrations transmitted to the sprung mass. Imagine that a
wheel leaves the bump on the road. As shown in Figure 10.25, the front suspension is partly
or fully compressed. Consequently it exerts equal and opposite forces on both the sprung and
unsprung parts of the machine. It tries simultaneously to raise the bulk of the machine and
return the wheel to the ground.
Figure 10.25 Reaction of Front Suspension through the Bump.
For good road holding the wheel should be quickly moved to the ground without
disturbing the sprung mass. The acceleration of any object depends on its mass and the force
acting on it. Since the same force is acting on both the sprung and unsprung masses; their
relative accelerations depend on the ratio of their masses, while their absolute accelerations are
determined by the suspension force and the absolute values of the two masses. Therefore, for
better road holding the highest possible mass ratio provides favourable results. Unfortunately,
there is a limit to decrease the unsprung mass and so an increase in sprung mass and spring
rate enhances road holding on rough roads and also quickens the response of the unsprung
mass, so keeping the wheels in better contact with the surface.
10.5.3 Cornering Requirements

The effect of cornering forces, particularly sports vehicles, increase in the static suspension
loading where tilting angles exceeds 45 degrees. Figure 10.26 shows how the weight and
cornering force combine to increase suspension loading. For example, how suspension settings
can affect the handlings characteristics. Imagine a two-wheeler is going through a series of
opposite directional bends at high speed. As the vehicle is tilted into the first bend the suspension
compresses under the increased loading. As the vehicle is straightened up, the cornering load is
removed and suspension moves back to the original position. Moreover, the outward centrifugal
force is then replaced by gravitational force. The same sequence is again repeated but on the
opposite direction as the vehicle would be entering into the opposite turn. The suspension again
compresses within a short period of time. This not only reduces the suspension movement
available in the bends for absorbing bumps but also moves the rider to an up and down. The
wheelbase also gets affected if the vehicle is equipped with telescopic.
Figure 10.26 Combined Forces on Suspension during Turn.
This cross-coupling between suspension movement and cornering force can have very
important alterations for stability and control. For example, if the damping is not sufficient
then the spring compression due to cornering may start a small suspension oscillation. This, as
a result, will alter the relationship between the lateral tyre forces actually produced and those
required. This can thus cause cyclic yaw and roll movements, both of which will further add
to the tyre force variation. These interactions can get extremely complex and may become
self-sustaining or worse, actually increase in severity. In practice these effects can be observed
as a damped wobble during corner entry or exit, or to a fully developed uncontrollable weave
resulting in a crash. In any case the varying tyre loads will reduce the ultimate cornering
capability.
10.5.4 Spring Rate and Total Wheel Travel

The softer springing can help to achieve more wheel travel. The higher wheel travel is beneficial
in following ways:
The larger displacement of suspension can absorb larger bumps. The softer spring
transmits less movement to the sprung part of the vehicle. Therefore, control and
comfort can be enhanced, resulting as reduced rider fatigue.
The wheels are kept in closer contact with the ground, enabling more power to be
transmitted at the rear and giving better steering at the front.
However, extreme wheel travel may entail both mechanical and functional problems. Larger
wheel travel generates too much deviation in chain tension or angularity of the drive shaft.
As said earlier, variations in steering geometry and ride-height with different loads result as
instability. To avoid these conditions, a progressive-rate springing can be used by means of
either variable-pitch coil springs or a linkage. The linkage progressively increases the ratio of
strut movement to wheel movement, so stiffening the effective rate. The design of progressive-
rate springing should be attempted properly so that the low initial rate, of course with the
soft springing, should not respond through corners. This leads to an unbalance in the amount
of the available wheel travel. It also results as less travel available with higher spring rate to
absorb energy during bumps. Similar considerations should be taken into account where the
considerable extra load of a passenger and luggage uses the soft springing, leaving only the
hard springing to handle the bumps.
10.5.5 Ride Height and Preload

Most suspension struts incorporate an adjustment for the initial loading on the spring. If there
is some displacement in these struts under static load, then this adjustment will alter the ride
height and can be used to compensate partially for different loads. Some initial compression
is given to the spring when it is fitted to the suspension strut itself. Too much preloading of
the spring can lead to an uncomfortable ride. This approach also restricts the usable suspension
available to respond on the bumps. The approach should be made to have stiff pivoted forks,
efficient damping and softer springs which can be adjusted to allow some extension of the
struts on potholes. This would necessitate a suspension system that has independent adjustment
for installed spring length and overall shock length.
10.5.6 Wheelbase
Wheelbase can have reasonable effect on suspension behaviour in certain conditions, particularly,
in conditions that cause pitching of the vehicle. The pitching angle is inversely proportional to
the wheelbase, i.e. the pitching effect would be half if the wheelbase is doubled. Additionally,
the longer vehicle has a higher sprung pitch moment of inertia which further helps to dampening
the response.
There is another effect of wheelbase which combines with surface conditions to greatly
influence ride quality. If the vehicle is going through the series of bumps as on a corrugated
dirt road, then the movements transferred to the rider will depend heavily on whether the
wheelbase is a multiple of the bump wavelength, or an odd multiple of half of the wavelength.
The curves, as shown in Figure 10.27, with equal wheelbase and bump wavelength, the
entire vehicle with COG moves up and down. In this case each wheel is travelling over the
same part of adjacent bumps at the same time. However, when the bump length is twice the
wheelbase, as shown in Figure 10.28, then the front wheel is at the top of a bump and the rear
wheel is at the bottom. Hence the vertical movements at the front and rear are in opposition.
However the COG hardly has vertical movement. This case would be much more comfortable
for the rider. On the other side, if the front is going up when the rear is going down, and vice-
versa, then the vehicle must be pitching back and fore. These are the two extreme responses
determined by the wheelbase to bump length ratio. Practically, this effect results as a pitching
combined with some vertical movement.
Figure 10.27 Effect of Equal Wheelbase and Bump Wavelength on COG.
Figure 10.28 Effect of Unequal Wheelbase and Bump Wavelength on COG.
10.5.7 Braking and Acceleration

The longitudinal accelerations and decelerations cause a load transfer from one end to the other.
Depending on geometric aspects of the suspension design, which affect anti-dive and squat,
it is usual for these load transfers to extend or compress the suspension. Under braking, the
front forks use to be subjected to load that goes three times higher than the static load. These
loading variations place heavy demands on the suspension system. This also has to fulfill the
requirements during increased compression when cornering as well as during bump absorption.
At the same time, it has to maintain a tyre contact on the road. With such diverse requirements, it
is necessary to make suitable compromises to allow the suspension system to function properly.
10.6 SPRING AND SHOCK ABSORBER ASSEMBLY

As stated earlier, the energy of road shocks causes the spring to oscillate and these oscillations are
absorbed by the damper and restricted to a reasonable level. Generally, in two wheelers, springs
and shock absorber are used as a single unit though distinguished difference in construction and
working can be observed when taken as a single component. Figure 10.29 shows a complete
assembly of spring and shock absorber.
Figure 10.29 Spring and Shock Absorber Assembly.
The spring guide forms a dead end for the assembly. The shock absorber is inserted
inside the coil spring and locked at other end with the help of locking nut. The adjusting nut
facilitates required alteration in the useful length of the spring. Two mounting points on the
absorber are used to mount the assembly between frame and wheel.
10.6.1 Spring
The spring is meant to oscillate as soon as the shock hits the vehicle. This reaction of spring
will be decided by its stiffness and spring rate. The rate is a measurement of the extra force
needed to compress the spring by a given small amount. In some springs, the rate does not
vary throughout the useful length of the spring, so they are known as linear rate spring. On the
other hand some types of springs have varying rate in throughout the useful length, these are
known as a progressive rate springs. Nowadays, springs are using combination of linear rate
and progressive rate. Certain length of the spring is designated to act as a linear rate spring
while remaining length acts as progressive rate spring. These springs are known as dual rate
springs. Figure 10.30 shows three types of springs mostly used on two wheelers. Springs are
available in many forms and with many different materials.
Figure 10.30 Types of Springs.
The springs are made up of steel and wound with equal pitch to have linear rate. The
pitch would be varied in each turn to generate progressive rate type spring. The turns with
less pitch will first respond to the shock and touch each other to act as a solid link. Likewise,
depending upon the amount of load, different turns with different pitch respond and the rate
changed progressively. Before a spring is installed on a vehicle or any load is placed on it, it is
at its uncompressed length, or free length. Once installed, the weight of the vehicle resting on
the spring is called its static load. The static load constantly compresses the spring. Therefore,
the uncompressed length and the spring rate must be such that the spring has room to compress
and keep the vehicle at the correct ride height after the static load is applied.
Spring frequency is a value that reflects the speed at which a spring oscillates, or bounces,
after it is released from compression or extension. Frequency is typically measured in cycles
per second (CPS) or hertz (Hz). There is a direct correlation between spring rate and spring
frequency: the higher the spring rate, the higher the spring frequency. This means that stiffer
springs bounce at a higher frequency, while softer springs bounce more slowly.
10.6.2 Shock Absorber

Shock absorbers are used on all suspension systems which help to reduce and control the
vibrations of the springs. Without shock absorbers (dampers), the spring would continue to jump
after hitting road irregularities. The main function of any shock or strut is to control ride and
handling. Standard shock absorbers do not support the weight of a vehicle. The springs support
the weight of the vehicle; the shock absorbers control the actions and reactions of the springs.
Shock absorbers are also called dampers. Most shock absorbers are direct acting because they
are connected directly between the vehicle frame or body and the axles.
As a wheel moves over a bump, the wheel is forced toward the frame and compresses
the springs. As the spring compresses, it stores the energy. The spring then releases this stored
energy, causing the frame of the vehicle to rise (rebound). After the energy in the spring is used
up, the frame starts downward, causing the spring to compress. In absence of shock absorbers,
the energy released from the spring would be very quick and uncontrolled. The shock absorber
helps to damp the rapid up-and-down movement of the springs by converting the kinetic energy
of movement into heat energy. This is accomplished by forcing hydraulic fluid through small
holes inside the shock absorber.
The hydraulic shock absorber works on the principle of fluid being forced through a
small orifice. Moreover, to control the vehicle ride under all operating conditions, pressure
relief valves are assembled into most shock absorbers. The amount of damping depends on the
pressure drop of the fluid inside the shock and the amount of fluid moved through the orifice.
New vehicles use gas charged shock absorbers. Pressurizing the oil inside the shock absorber
helps to generate smooth ride over rough roads. This pressure helps to prevent formation of
air pockets in flowing oil as it passes through the small passages in the shock absorber. The
pressure decreases as the oil is forced through small passages. As the oil expands, bubbles are
created. The oil becomes foamy. This air-filled oil does not provide dampening effectively.
The result of this aeration (air being mixed with the oil) is lack of dampening and a harsh
ride. To avoid such conditions, shock absorber is filled with pressurized gas that does not react
chemically with the oil in the shock. Nitrogen is normally used to create pressure. Usually,
gas-charged shock absorbers are pressurized with 130 to 150 PSI to improve handling and ride
control. Some shocks use higher pressures, but the higher the pressure, the greater the possibility
of leaks and the harsher the ride. Some gas-charged shock absorbers use a single tube that
contains two pistons that separate the high-pressure gas from the working fluid. Figure 10.31
shows constructional details if single tube gas charged shock absorber.
Figure 10.31 Single Tube Gas Charged Shock Absorber.

The piston rod is attached to the piston which consists of a two-way disc valve. The
piston rod and piston assembly is inserted into the tube which is kept closed from one end.
The tube is sealed from the other end after fully filling both the sides of piston with oil.
In Figure 10.31, the chamber above the piston is intentionally kept empty for easy
understanding. The floating piston, which is kept below the main piston, forms a close
chamber for the compressed gas. The compressed gas is thus captured between tube and
floating piston.
To understand the action of the shock absorber, consider that the vehicle has come across
the bump. Then the mounting eye would move up and so as the tube. Upward movement of
the tube forces the oil to pass from the lower side of the disc valve to its upper side. This
passing of the oil through valve openings provides the damping. Since the volume of the space
above the piston is less by the volume of the piston rod, the oil will also exert its pressure on
floating piston. Therefore, when the tube of the damper moves upwards, the gas will be further
compressed and the floating piston will be moved downwards relative to it by the amount
required to accommodate the changes in the volume of the two oil spaces. This compression
of the gas results in a progressive change in the characteristic of the damping. Modern shock
absorbers use separate gas chambers. For downward motion of the mounting eye, the oil will
pass from the upper side of the valve assembly to the lower side, compressing the floating
piston for volume compensation.
10.7 SPRINGER FORKS SUSPENSION

The first stage of suspension development
came at the front was in the form of
springer forks. The rigid front suspension
was altered to work with some flexibility
in the upward direction. Just like
previous vehicles, springer forks also
incorporated fixed forks. Figure 10.32
shows construction of springer forks
suspension. Conventionally, the fixed
fork is assembled with the triple tree to
provide steering. A link is pivoted on
the other end of the fix fork. The front
wheel is also mounted on the same link.
The wheel spindle always remains ahead
of the pivot point of the link. The pivot Figure 10.32 Springer Forks.
point of the active fork remains in-between wheel spindle and link pivot point to generate
required leverage for operating the suspension. The active fork incorporates suspension strut
on the upper side which is assembled with the upper bracket of triple tree. Generally, shock
absorber is not used with springer forks as the allowed wheel travel is very small. The main
drawback of springer forks is the increased weight. The higher inertia makes the steering
system difficult to rotate.
10.8 GIRDER FORKS SUSPENSION

This can be termed as second generation of front suspension system of two wheelers. They are
known for better structural rigidity during dynamic condition. It makes use of rigid structure
containing either triangulation of steel tubes or forged piece of steel bars. These are known as
girders forks. Two active links are pivoted on the upper and lower brackets of the triple tree.
These active links, on the other end, are pivoted on the girder. A suspension strut is mounted
between girder and head tube as shown in Figure 10.33. The road shocks are transmitted to the
suspension strut through girders and active links restrict the motion of the girder on definite
path. At the time of steering, the complete assembly containing front wheel, girders, active
links and suspension strut rotate with the triple tree. Very small amount of wheel travel limits
the use of girder forks to some cruisers and custom choppers. Girder forks are not suitable
where vehicle has to face huge wheel travel due to uneven road surface. Figure 10.34 shows
springer and girder types forks.
Figure 10.33 Girder Forks.
Figure 10.34 Springer and Girder Forks.

10.9 TRAILING AND LEADING LINK SUSPENSION

The leading link and trailing link suspensions are earlier used of two wheelers. Nowadays,
they are used as an alternative to the telescopic fork, which are mostly used on scooters. These
suspensions use a pivoted link which oscillates to generate suspension effect. The spring and
shock absorber assembly is fitted between oscillating link and rigid tubular structure. Figure 10.35
shows the leading link and trailing link type suspension. The link pivot point is always remains
behind the wheel spindle i.e. the wheel spindle always leads the link pivot, therefore it is
known as leading link type suspension. Whereas, the link pivot point is always remains ahead
of the wheel spindle, i.e. the wheel spindle always trails the link pivot, therefore it is known
as trailing link type suspension.
Figure 10.35 Leading and Trailing Link-type Suspension.
In both type of suspension, the tubular or pressed-steel structure is connected to the

steering column. The link is pivoted on the other end. The suspension struts is inserted into
the triangle formed between rigid structure and pivoted link as shown in Figure 10.35. The
links may be independently casted when used on scooters or formed by a single U-shape loop
around the back of the wheel when used on motorcycles. The independent movement of the
link depends on the rigidity of their attachment to the wheel spindle. If designed precisely,
these suspensions can contribute for greater rigidity, stability, precise control and better anti-dive
characteristics. Moreover, by proper designing of link angle, considerable small rack angle can
be used to commute through the streets. The wheel spindle moves in an arc with respect to the
link pivot point. This in results generates huge difference in trail during bumps and potholes,
sometimes negative also. Therefore these suspensions are generally unsuitable for the large
wheel movement like motorcycles. The COG of steering system is also located far from the
steering axis which makes the steering bit hard to handle.
10.10 TELESCOPIC SUSPENSION

The current state of front suspension indicates universal use of the double acting internal spring
telescopic front forks. The typical front forks is shown in Figure 10.36 consists of the inner
tube, the outer tube or slider, a progressive type coil spring, damping device, oil seals, vents
and drain plug. The inner stationary tube is clamped securely in the triple tree. This forms a
secure base for fork operation and establishes required angle between the forks and the road
surface. The inner tube is provided with two or three small orifices at the bottom. The top of
the inner tube is closed with the threaded plug through which the fork is filled with the oil. A
long progressive rate type coil spring is inserted inside the tubes to provide suspension effect
of the forks. The damping action of the front forks is similar to that explained in the section of
shock absorber. The damping action utilizes a series of orifices and valves through which oil is
forced to pass. Figure 10.37 shows damping action for the telescopic fork during compression
stroke and expansion stroke. The other tube contains the oil seal, dust cover, bushes, drain
plug and axle mounting eye. It also embraces brake mountings, fender mountings and clamps
for electric cables. Figure 10.38 shows actual assembly of telescopic fork.
Figure 10.36 Telescopic Fork Suspension.

Figure 10.37 Oil Flow during Compression and Expansion Stroke of Fork.
Figure 10.38 Actual Assembly of Telescopic Fork.
10.11 SINGLE LINK TYPE FRONT SUSPENSION

The conventional telescopic fork almost performs all the functions of ideal suspension system.
Then again the foremost problem with telescopic suspension is that all the loads are directly
transferred to the handlebar. Moreover, the steering geometry also changes in different
circumstances. One probable solution for these difficulties is to make the suspension stiffer
which again adversely affects the riding characteristics of the vehicle. As a way out, a single link
type front suspension is used to avoid transmission different loads to the handlebar. Figure 10.39
shows construction of single link type front suspension. It is also known as telelever suspension.
Figure 10.39 Single Link-type Front Suspension.
As said, this system distinguishes the two functions of steering and suspension. This
approach considerably increases the ride comfort. The fork involving of two struts with inner
and outer tubes holds the front wheel stiffly. The inner tube slides inside the outer tube to ensure
the required geometry. These forks are supported on the frame through the head tube which also
forms the upper pivot point for the steering. A-arm type link is attached to the frame. It also
supports the forks at lower pivot point of the steering. A centrally mounted suspension strut is
responsible for suspension and damping effects. Two points pivoted steering system gives ease
in operation. Moreover, ball joint at the lower pivot point efficiently transmits all the loads to the
A-arm link. Benefits of this design with A-arm link is that it braces smaller tubes in diameter
than conventional telescopic forks which forms lightweight steering system and generates an
exceptionally reactive performance. The superior road contact is assured by low unsprung masses
and the quick reaction of the suspension system. The geometrical design of the single link type
suspension efficiently decreases compression of forks under braking which as a result reduces
dive under braking. Figure 10.40 shows actual arrangement of telelever front suspension system.
Figure 10.40 Telelever Front Suspension System.

10.12 DOUBLE LINK TYPE FRONT SUSPENSION

The double link front suspension characterizes the highest level of riding accuracy and steering
precision. It associates the highest riding comfort, ease of steering and exceptional directional
stability. It is geometrically a double wishbone type suspension system. Instead of conventional
telescopic forks, this system incorporates highly rigid wheel carrier. The two arms, typically
A-arm links, support the wheel carrier through ball joints. The single suspension strut is
pivoted between the lower arm link and the frame. This suspension strut is responsible for the
suspension and damping action. In double link suspension also, the arm links and suspension
strut are not steered. The set of connecting links from the handlebars to the wheel carrier
transmits the steering movements. Therefore, the front suspension is completely independent
of the steering system.
Figure 10.41 Double Link-type Front Suspension.
The advantage of this system is that the front wheel is not affected by various forces
in the way like conventional telescopic forks. The rigid wheel carrier also avoids lateral and
longitudinal twisting like inner and outer tubes of telescopic forks. The two A-arm links are
used to act during suspension effect to absorb various forces. This effectively counteracts the
forces which tend to twist the front wheel. Another benefit of double link suspension is the
anti-dive characteristics. The proper geometrical design of the double link type suspension
efficiently decreases the compression of central suspension strut under braking. This allows
the rider to commute through the turns without losing the directional stability. Figure 10.42
shows actual arrangement of double link type suspension.
Figure 10.42 Double Link Suspension System.
10.13 HARDTAIL TYPE REAR SUSPENSION

The hardtail suspension was characteristics of early two wheelers and still used on some
cruisers and custom choppers. This suspension system relies on the dampening effect of rear
tyre and the seat spring to absorb the road shocks. The hardtail suspension is popular for its
comparatively simple construction and some unique characteristics. The rear axle is mounted
directly to the frame. The seat is also mounted on the frame through small compression springs.
This results as lower ride height. While the lowered position of COG increases the balancing
characteristic, the absence of a rear suspension makes it challenging to control. Even a small
disturbance can also tend to lift the rear wheel from the road. Moreover, as the rear wheel
lacks in holding the road properly, it would also have less traction on the road. Figure 10.43
shows arrangements on hardtail suspension.
Figure 10.43 Hardtail Rear Suspension.

10.14 SWING ARM TYPE REAR SUSPENSION

The swing arm type rear suspension is used almost universally today. Basically it is a form of
pivoted arm or fork. As shown in Figure 10.44, the one end of this arm is pivoted in the lower
part of frame just behind the transmission. The other end mounts the rear wheel. The swing
arm can be a single sided or dual sided. The suspension strut is fixed between the swing arm
and the frame. Depending upon the arrangement, the number of struts can be single or dual.
The rear wheel is driven either by belt, chain or shaft drive. Twin-shock, each suspension strut
is mounted nearly upright on both side of the wheel, is the favourable suspension system. In
fact this system is still extensively used, although for dirt bikes, racers and road sport-bikes the
system of choice is some form of mono-shock compressed by a rocker and link mechanism.
In addition to structural advantages, swing arm arrangement gives great freedom at the design
stage to incorporate progressive or regressive rate characteristics. The swing arm is either
fabricated with circular and rectangular steel tubing or die-casted from alloys. Mainly, the
swing arm incorporates various mountings and clamps for suspension strut, chain tensioner,
brake caliper, brake pipes etc. Arm-end weights are often added to either end of the swing arm
to damp vibrations. Though numerous revolutionary designs are made to serve the purpose of
suspension as well as aesthetics, few fundamental designs are briefly discussed below.
Figure 10.44 Swing Arm.
TWIN-SHOCK, REGULAR SWING ARM

A regular type H-shaped swing arm with rectangle cross-section is shown in Figure 10.45. It
consists of two suspension strut mounted on the either side. Therefore it is known as twin-shock
swing arm. These struts are responsible for providing the suspension effect. When fabricated
with tubing, this type of swing arm has tendency to undergo lateral deformation under extreme
loading conditions. The deflection characteristics of the two-sided swing arm depend greatly on
the nature and rigidity of the wheel spindle and its clamping method. One easy way to avoid
lateral deformation is to increase the stiffness which finally results as increased unsprung mass.
This adversely affects the efficiency of the suspension. Another major drawback of twin-shock
is the uneven compression of both struts. There is always some difference in the compressed
length of the strut on either side. This leads to reduced stability during high speed. Therefore,
use of twin-shock regular swing arm is limited for small capacity two wheelers.
Figure 10.45 Twin-shock Regular Swing Arm.
MONO-SHOCK, REGULAR SWING ARM

Original technology of mono-shock comes from the racing world where motorcycles compete in
most extreme conditions. More advanced version of this technology is employed in these bikes.
Nowadays, many production models incorporate mono-shock suspension to give statement of
style and comfort. The performance of mono suspension motorcycles is vastly superior to twin-
shock suspension motorcycles. The fundamental idea behind eliminating one of the suspension
struts is to reduce overall weight. Furthermore, by placing the rear suspension strut closer to
the COG of the vehicle, turning characteristics, stability during braking and the overall riding
performance can dramatically improve. It is easier to adjust the ride height, since there is only
one shock to adjust, and there is no worry about matching two shocks. Figure 10.46 shows
twin-shock regular swing arm suspension used in current two wheelers.
Figure 10.46 Mono-shock Regular Swing Arm.

ROCKER AND LINK TYPE REAR SUSPENSION

By one name or other, majority manufacturers currently use rocker and link on mono-shock
suspension system. Basically, it is a four bar mechanism used to achieve significant progressive
rate. The suspension strut, at the bottom, is mounted through the rocker rather than directly on
the swing arm. The top of the strut is either directly mounted on the frame or through a small
rocker. The rocker is connected with the swing arm through a link as shown in Figure 10.47.
The rocker is pulled up by the link from the swing arm at a very small rate from the rocker
pivot. Due to higher displacement of strut mounting point of the rocker, the suspension strut
is then moves upwards at a greater rate. Thus by providing proper leverage to the suspension,
it also allows the strut to be mounted more vertically.
Figure 10.47 Rocker and Link Type Suspension.
The rocker and link mechanism allows locating the strut nearer to COG of the vehicle.
This in turn improves the riding and handling characteristics. The suspension acts relatively
soft in the initial stage and gets stiffer if compressed further.
MONO-SHOCK, SINGLE-SIDED SWING ARM

The next revolutionary design in the rear suspension is single-sided swing arm. Generally it
is used with single suspension strut therefore known as mono-shock single-sided swing arm.
The single strut may be mounted centrally or on either side of the swing arm. Furthermore,
the strut can be either horizontally, inclined or vertically mounted. This design greatly helps
to reduce weight and increases torsional rigidity at the same time. Moreover, it significantly
simplifies the removal and installation of the rear wheel. Even with the single arm, the final
drive remains unaffected, i.e. there is no change to the tension in the chain or belt. Besides
tension in the final drive, this unique suspension assures that the rear driving wheel remains
aligned suitably in the direction of travel. The single-sided arms use quite complex design and
shapes which is the only drawback of this swing arm. The same fundamental design is also
applicable for scooters, in which, the fabricated swing arm is replaced by the casing of CVT
and transmission. Figure 10.48 shows the arrangement on single-sided swing arm.
Figure 10.48 Mono-shock Single-sided Swing Arm.
10.15 DYNAMIC DAMPING CONTROL IN SUSPENSION SYSTEM

As said earlier, immensely diversified expectations from a suspension system requires tremendous
advancement in various aspects of suspension. Progressive springs, gas charged absorbers,
double link at front, rocker and links, single-sided swing arm etc. are the immense advancements
in the field of suspension system. The probable state-of-the-art advancement associated with
the suspension system is the Dynamic Damping Control (DDC) system. It is a combination of
semi-active, electronically-actuated suspension system linked to the traction control system and
ABS controllers via the ECU. DDC is designed to adapt suspension damping automatically
and effectively time to time, as the braking, cornering, throttle, and road-surface conditions
require. DDC controls and adjusts spring compression and rebound damping separately using
spring-travel sensors and electrically-actuated proportional damping valves, with inputs from
the other primary subsystems like gyroscope sensors, lean angle sensors etc. Various systems
and components which play vital role to achieve dynamic damping are explained below.
ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM: During braking, the ABS prevents the wheels from
locking. It does this by constantly measuring the individual wheel speeds and comparing them
with the wheel speeds predicted by the system. This speed measurement is done by individual
speed sensors. If, during braking, the measured wheel speed deviates from the system‘s predicted
wheel speed, the ABS controller takes over, correcting the brake force to keep the wheel at the
optimum slip level and so achieving the highest possible deceleration rate. This is carried out
separately for each wheel. The details about ABS are given in the chapter of braking system.
SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION: As said earlier, the suspension strut is combination of two
components: spring and damper. Spring coil is used to take the vibrations in itself and to avoid
the transmission of vibrations to the vehicle frame. Damper is a unit to kill the vibrations
generated in the spring. The damping characteristics of a damper are highly dependent on the
properties of oil. Following are the four most imperative motives to control the damping ratio
during the ride.
Damping should remain in some limits according to the amplitude of vibrations. If the
damping is more, it damages the parts like wheel axle, wheel, tyre, tube etc. which
are placed under the suspension. If damping is less, it transmits the vibrations to the
vehicle frame and driver.
At the time of braking, the mass transfer takes place from rear to front. At this moment
the damping ratio at front suspension should be more to absorb the vibrations.
At the time of acceleration, the mass transfer takes place from front to rear. Now the
requirement of damping ratio should be reversed.
At the time of turning, inclination of vehicle-rider system adds some force on
suspensions. This tends to load the suspension and compresses the spring. Now during
this lean, if vehicle also faces a bump than vibrations are transmitted to the frame.
This takes place because the spring length and damping ratio available to absorb this
bump is already less. So at the time of turning, it is necessary to maintain appropriate
damping ratio.
The suspensions which can change the damping ratio according to the need during driving
are known as Active (Fully Adjustable damping ratio) and Semi-Active (Partly Adjustable
damping ratio) suspensions. Damping ratio purely depends on the oil properties (Viscosity)
and oil volume used in the damper. So to change the damping ratio, a change is needed either
in the oil properties or in the amount of oil. In the other words, either the viscosity of the oil
can be changed using suspended magnetic particles or the amount of oil can be controlled by
using solenoid operated valves. As two wheelers fall under the category of economic transport,
the later method is mostly used to control the damping. The solenoid valve controls the flow
of oil from reservoir to damper. Valve opens more to allow increased oil flow to the damper if
damping required is more. Valve closes to allow decreased oil flow to the damper if damping
required is less. Solenoid valve itself is controlled by DDC control unit. These valves are
known as proportional damping solenoid valves.
SPRING TRAVEL SENSORS: These are the smart small antenna which works with the
help of piezoelectric materials. It measures the compression or elongation of the suspension
springs. The damping ratio of the damper needs to be changed according to the effective length
of the spring. The reading of spring length is provided to the control unit for calculating the
opening of solenoid valve of the damper. According to compression or elongation, the volume
of damper oil changes by solenoid valves.
LEAN-ANGLE SENSOR: Two piezoelectric gyroscopes mounted in an under-seat module
close to the vehicle’s COG. The gyroscope is a device used to control the directional stability,
as used in aeroplanes and ships. The gyroscopes monitor three axes of rotational positions
Pitching, Rolling and Yawing. Moreover, it also measures the vehicle’s rate of change of
position during turning. It provides the feedback of leaning angle to the ECU to generate the
power accordingly. If the vehicle is perfectly vertical, i.e. making zero angle with vertical then
input from the lean-angle sensor to the ECU unit is “0”.
ENGINE CONTROL UNIT (ECU): In fraction of tuning period, rear wheel has to travel
a little more distance to complete the turn without skidding. If fails, the rear wheel tries to
match up with the bike speed by shifting the rear mass in forward direction (Drift). To avoid
this condition, either driver can decrease the linear speed of bike or can increase the rotational
speed of rear wheel. ECU controls both the actions at the same time. It controls the linear
speed of bike by controlling the throttle opening and controls the rotational speed of the rear
wheel by controlling gear ratio in the gearbox.
DDC CONTROL UNIT: It is just like an ECU and works with microprocessor. It gets the
initial energy from battery. Programming in the DDC unit includes dynamic mathematical
expressions to combine the parameters given from ABS, ECU and spring travel sensors. After
the rapid calculations, it gives the result in the form of digital signal to the solenoid valve of
the semi-active suspension system. Valve controls the flow of oil in the damper to control the
damping ratio. Figure 10.49 shows a layout of DDC technology.
Figure 10.49 Layout of DDC System.
EXECUTION OF DDC: There are three intelligences which work behind this system: ABS
control unit, ECU and DDC unit. ABS and ECU units work for individual systems as well as
at the same time with DDC system.
INPUTS FROM ECU TO DDC: As said earlier, the mass transfers from front to rear at
the time of acceleration. The amount of acceleration is measured by ECU. The tractive effort
required by rear wheel is also calculated. Both these data is given to the DDC unit to control
the damping ratio at rear. DDC provides stronger actuation of solenoid valve at rear suspension.
This causes more oil to flow into the rear damper which increases damping ratio. This happens
in fraction of time and prevents the vehicle from backward flip.
INPUTS FROM ABS TO DDC: As said earlier, the mass transfers from rear to front at the
time of retardation. The amount of deceleration is measured by ABS unit. The braking effort
at front wheel is controlled by the ABS. These data is given to the DDC unit to control the
damping ratio at front. DDC provides stronger actuation of solenoid valve at front suspension.
This causes more oil to flow into the front damper which increases damping ratio. This happens
in fraction of time and prevents the vehicle from forward flip.
INPUTS FROM LEAN-ANGLE SENSOR TO DDC: Because of tilt, suspensions are
loaded more. This load directly depends on tilt angle. So the lean angle sensor also feeds reading
to the DDC unit to control the damping ratio of each damper as and when required. Each of
the three riding modes (Turning on slippery surface, on smooth surface and on rough surface)
is calibrated with a specific lean-angle threshold—from slippery surface mode’s moderate 38°
from vertical to smooth surface mode’s 53° maximum lean angle under hard throttle. No doubt,
straight motion of bike is a result of series of alternate rolling motions. So there is constant
data input arised from lean angle sensor to DDC unit to control the damping ratio.
INPUTS FROM SPRING TRAVEL SENSORS TO DDC: Suspension springs are always
remain loaded even at stationary condition of vehicle. This causes a small change in spring
length. Suspension spring lengths are also affected by uneven road surfaces. The spring travel
sensors create a digital input by measuring the compression or elongation of springs. This input
is provided to the DDC unit to manage the damping ratio at each damper as per the need.
All of the above said factors (Braking, Acceleration, Leaning and Uneven surface) work
mutually and creates smooth ride without any loss of grip or tractive effort. Riders can turn
off the system completely for as and when required.
Review Questions
1. Define following terms.
(a) Trail (b) Rack angle (c) Wheelbase
2. What is importance of trail? Explain effects of trail.
3. Describe effects of rack angle.
4. How wheelbase affects the turning ability of any two-wheeler? Explain.
5. Explain construction of steering column with neat sketch.
6. Describe construction of the handlebar. Also explain characteristics of various
types of handlebars.
7. Why suspension system is necessary? Explain dynamic requirements of suspension
systems.
8. Explain kinematic requirements of suspension system.
9. How suspension frequency and sprung and unsprung mass ratio play vital role
in selection criteria of suspension system? Explain.
10. Explain the following as selection criteria for suspension system.
(a) Cornering requirements
(b) Spring rate and wheel travel
(c) Ride height and preload
11. Why wheelbase is important in selection of suspension system? Explain.

12. Explain construction and working of shock absorber.
13. Explain springer and girder type front suspension system.
14. Describe leading and trailing link type suspensions. Also state their limitations.
15. Why telescopic forks are universally used as front suspension? Explain construction
of telescopic forks.
16. Explain with neat diagram: single link type front suspension.
17. Describe construction and working of double link type front suspension.
18. What do you mean by swing arm? How it works? Also explain types of swing
arm generally used on two wheelers.
19. Explain importance of dynamic damping control system.
20. Draw a layout of DDC system. Also explain its working.
11
Braking System
Contents
YY Theory of Brake Action
YY Fundamental behind Wheel Skidding
YY Drum Brake
YY Disc Brake
YY Mechanical Brake Control System
YY Hydraulic Brake Control System
YY Master Cylinder
YY Anti-lock Braking System
Brakes are one of the most essential control components of the vehicle. Fundamentally, the
kinetic energy of vehicle is converted to heat energy while applying brakes. This conversion
is accomplished by rubbing two friction surfaces. Sometimes a small amount of the kinetic
energy is initially converted into sound and light energy, but this eventually converted to heat
too. The brakes are meant to stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance. Moreover,
this smallest distance should be achieved without costing the rider’s safety. The heat generated
through braking should be efficiently and quickly dissipated to the surroundings to avoid
deteriorated performance. Following are some basic requirements of braking system.
The braking system must have good anti-fade characteristics. Its effectiveness should
not deteriorate with constant prolonged application.
The braking system must be effective enough to stop the vehicle within a smallest
possible distance. The rider must have proper control over the vehicle during sudden
braking. Moreover, the smallest distance must not be achieved with compromised safety.
Air flow around the brakes should be primarily considered while designing the braking
system. Brake cooling comes from several sources, but the major cooling is achieved
from the flow of air carrying the heat away. Overheating of brake leads to brake fade
and decreased effectiveness.
226
Braking System 227
The rider must get proper leverage to operate the brake. The leverage can be achieved
either by mechanical linkages or through hydraulic circuits. Furthermore, the brake operating
levers must be located in optimum range for ease of operation.
11.1 THEORY OF BRAKE ACTION

At the most fundamental level, braking system helps to retard the vehicle by generating friction
between two surfaces. Apart from the braking system, the forces on a vehicle which produce
a braking deceleration may arise from number of sources.
ROLLING RESISTANCE: The major vehicle resistance force on level ground is the rolling
resistance. While other resistances start working under certain conditions of motion, the rolling
resistance exists at the moment the wheel begin to turn. The kinetic energy of vehicle is
converted into heat energy due to friction between tyre and road surface. Rolling resistance
greatly depends on the coefficient of rolling resistance. During low speed range, the braking
force almost remains equal to rolling resistance which is multiplication of weight and coefficient
of rolling resistance. Therefore, the vehicle achieves 100% braking efficiency if it anyhow
achieves unity coefficient of rolling resistance. The rolling resistance itself depends on tyre
material, tread design, tyre temperature, inflation pressure, velocity of vehicle, and road surface.
AERODYNAMIC DRAG: The aerodynamic drag is a resistance which depends on the
dynamic pressure. It is proportional to square of the velocity of the vehicle. It is negligible at
lower speed but adds around 11% to the effect of the brakes at high speed. As the aerodynamic
force opposes the motion of vehicle directly, it does not consume the potential grip from the
tyres, and so is an improver to the deceleration force provided by the brakes. In the rainy
season, the available braking through the tyres is reduced and so air drag becomes relatively
even more important.
DRIVELINE DRAG: The engine, transmission and final drive contribute in the form of
friction drag and inertia drag to overall deceleration force. The friction drag arises from various
rubbing surfaces in the engine and between gears in the transmission. The final drive also
contributes in the friction drag. The inertia of driveline components also adds up in overall
braking force but is depends upon the retardation speed of vehicle. If the vehicle is decelerating
faster, than the driveline components would try to slow down under their own friction. At the
same time, brakes have to supply sufficient force to stop these components. On the other side,
if vehicle is decelerating slower, the friction drag of driveline components is sufficient enough
to stop these components as well as contributes to the overall braking force.
GRADIENT RESISTANCE: The road gradient also contributes directly to the braking effort.
The contribution may be positive when vehicle is climbing the hill or may be negative when
vehicle is going downhill.
By one means or other, if brake is applied to the moving vehicle, it causes weight transfer
to take place. This weight transfer takes place from rear end to front, loading the front forks
with extra amount as explained in previous chapter. Depending upon the suspension type and
geometry, the front end of the vehicle goes down as shown in Figure 11.1. This downward
movement of front end is known as “Nose Dive”. Moreover, with conventional suspensions,
Figure 11.1 Nose Dive due to Braking.
compressions of forks due to weight transfer results as reduced trail and wheelbase. This
drastically changes the handling characteristics for that moment.
In actual practice, brake efficiency of 100% is rarely used for ordinary vehicles. Highly
efficient brakes giving large deceleration might injure the rider due to sudden stopping of the
vehicle. Moreover, with highly efficient brakes rapid tyre wear and brake linings takes place
and there is always a chance of losing direction control when brakes are applied. The brake
efficiencies in general use vary from 50% to 80%, which helps to stop the vehicle within
reasonable distance. The actual stopping distance depends upon:
Vehicle speed
Condition of road surface
Coefficient of friction between road and tyre
Coefficient of friction between brake drum and brake lining
Braking force applied by the rider
11.2 FUNDAMENTAL BEHIND WHEEL SKIDDING

As said, the force of adhesion between the wheels and road depends upon the vehicle weight,
tyre inflation pressure, tread design and coefficient of friction between the road and the tyre.
The friction coefficient further depends on the condition of road surface. Slippery road surface
reduces the coefficient of friction. If the braking force applied on the wheel remains less than
the force of adhesion, the vehicle decelerates gradually till it stops. However, if the braking
force exceeds the adhesion force, the wheel immediately gets locked and starts slipping on
the road surface. The wheel and thus the vehicle slip till the kinetic energy is dissipated in
the form of friction between road and tyres. Apart from the rapid tyre wear, this slipping and
skidding also results as steering difficulties. Generally, the braking force exceeds the adhesion
force during heavy braking.
Furthermore, the weight transfer can cause loss of directional stability during heavy
braking. The wheels get locked while brakes are applied with extra force under heavy braking,
resulting the vehicle to deflect from its true direction of travel. This occurs due to inertia
force acting at COG. The deflected COG of vehicle from true direction generates a couple
about the front tyre contact patch which tends to deflect the vehicle more from the direction.
Braking System 229
Figure 11.2 shows the condition of deflected COG. At the same instant, the braking forces
on both the wheels oppose this deflection. It is obvious from the Figure that the effect from
the front wheel is negligible because of small displaced distance. The major contribution for
gaining the direction back comes from the braking force of rear wheel. The torque generated
at rear wheel can be considered as correcting torque. For maintain the directional stability, the
correcting torque must surpass the disturbing couple generated by the displaced COG. This
can be easily achievable for low deceleration speed. On the other side, at higher deceleration
speed, heavy braking involves greater weight transfer because of which the disturbing couple
remains higher than the correcting torque, resulting in loss of directional stability.
Figure 11.2 Wheel Skidding.
11.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BRAKES

The primary functions of braking system, as explained above, must be accomplished at all
times. In the event of partial failure, the same functions must also be performed with reduced
efficiency. Following are some fundamental design considerations for brakes.
VEHICLE PARAMETERS: First of all, the design of brake should be started with some
necessary parameters related with the vehicle. Then only it can serve the purpose of retardation
and deceleration for that particular vehicle. These parameters include:
Weight of empty and loaded vehicle
Static weight distribution in unloaded and fully loaded conditions
Wheel base
Centre of gravity height in unloaded and fully loaded conditions
Tire and rim size
UNSPRUNG WEIGHT: Some components of the braking system like drum/disc, caliper
assembly, mounting bolts etc. fall under the category of unsprung mass. As discussed in the
previous chapter, sprung to unsprung mass ratio affects the suspension loading as well as
steering geometry during dynamic condition. The components under unsprung mass should be
essentially designed with lowest possible weight. Moreover, more unsprung weight also leads
to greater braking force requirements.
INERTIA: The larger and bulky brakes require more power to accelerate them. Moreover,
it may generate flywheel effect at high speed. Heavy brakes store more energy due to higher
inertia and require huge amount of braking force for retardation. Furthermore, the gyroscopic
effect generated by a heavy brake also resists any change in direction. This in turn makes the
steering heavy. Once turned, the steering then needs much effort to get back into the straight
ahead position.
TEMPERATURE: The heat generated during braking is required to dissipate continuously
so that the brakes should not overheat. Therefore, while designing a brake, the braking area,
radiating surface and the air circulation should be proportioned to avoid overheating of brakes.
For satisfactory performance of the brakes, the heat dissipated must be greater than or equal
to the heat generated.
BRAKING FORCE: In two wheelers, the braking force is applied by the rider. The front
brake is actuated by the hand effort while rear brake is actuated through the foot effort. The
mechanical leverage plays vital role. It must be sufficient enough to avoid rider’s fatigue. The
linkages must multiply the effort given by the rider. The same function must be performed by
the hydraulic system when used for actuating the brakes. The effort given by the rider must
be multiplied for having sufficient pressure at brakes.
FRICTIONAL MATERIAL: A brake friction material should have the following
characteristics, which is dependent upon the severity of the service.
A high and uniform coefficient of friction
Resistance to environmental conditions, such as moisture
The ability to withstand high temperatures together with good thermal conductivity
Good resiliency
High resistance to wear, scoring, and galling
The choice of lining material for a given application is based upon criteria such as the expected
coefficient of friction, fade resistance, wear resistance, ease of attachment, rigidity or formability,
cost, abrasive tendencies on drum, etc.
STOPPING DISTANCE: As said, the braking system must able to stop the vehicle within
lowest possible distance. Todays advanced materials and design methodology helps to achieve
improved braking efficiency which can stop the vehicle at a glance. A sudden deceleration
of vehicle results as huge mass transfer and loss of direction stability. Particularly for two
wheelers, heavy braking causes front flip over of vehicle due to small optimum wheelbase.
This is dangerous for the rider as well as the vehicle. So the braking system must be designed
to work with 50% to 80% efficiency.
11.4 DRUM BRAKE

Drum brakes are still widely used for their simplicity and economy. Drum brakes are generally
expanding type brakes in which the brake shoes are expanded to make contact with the inside
of the brake drum. The brake drum, in most cases, is an integral part of the wheel. The shoes
contain friction lining which are moved by means of an expanding mechanism. Expanding
Braking System 231
mechanism consists of a cam which on actuation pushes the brake shoes towards the drum.
Braking friction is generated between the brake shoes and the drum. An adjuster is provided to
compensate for wear of lining with use. One or two retractor spring is used to hold the brake
shoes in disengaged position. The back plate encloses all the components and protects them
from water, dust, mud etc. Two basic brake configurations are widely found on two wheelers.
These are single leading shoe brake and double leading shoe brake.
11.4.1 Single Leading Shoe Brake

The single leading shoe brake consists of a single cam and two brake shoes. The brake shoes
are embraced with a stationary pivot points. Depending upon the direction of rotation of the
drum, one shoe is called a leading shoes and other is called a trailing shoe. The leading shoe
is “squeezed” into the drum as the brakes are applied. This happens because the rotation of
the drum tends to swivel the shoe on its pivot and turn it into the drum. This action results in
a self “energized” brake because the more the brakes are applied; the harder the brake shoe
is forced into the drum.
The trailing shoe, on the other hand, is swiveled away from the rotating drum. The
advantage of a trailing shoe is that it becomes a leading shoe when the vehicle is rolling
backward, or when it is stopped on an uphill grade. Trail and endure motorcycles use single
leading shoe brakes because of these characteristics. Most street machines use single leading
shoe brake on the rear to simplify the vehicle’s roll back tendency when stopped on a steep
uphill grade. In addition, they are simpler, lighter, and cheaper than other types of brakes.
Figure 11.3 shows construction details of a single leading shoe brake.
Figure 11.3 Single Leading Shoe Brake.
11.4.2 Double Leading Shoe Brake

Bigger, faster vehicles demanded advances in brake designs to keep pace with powerful new
engines and better handling frames and suspensions. The double leading shoe front brake
emerged as the answer to stopping problems for most of these vehicles. Since more braking
force is expected from the front brake, it needs a more efficient system to handle all the weight
that shifts forward during braking. All that’s needed to re-engineer a single leading shoe brake
into a double leading shoe system. The double leading shoe brake includes addition of another
cam and some linkage to actuate and adjust the shoes.
Each shoe of the double leading shoe brake has its own engagement cam. The pivot points
are kept opposite to each other so that each shoe can be “self-energized” by the rotating drum.
It is essentially required that each shoe be adjusted to engage the drum at the same time and
at the same rate. Poor adjustment of double leading shoe brake can result in jerky, dangerous
stops and erratic braking action. Figure 11.4 shows double leading shoe brake. In both the
single leading shoe and double leading shoe arrangements, the back plate must have a fixed
anchor to lock it to the frame. There is always a torque stay strap or a locking lug to prevent
backing plate movement during braking. Figure 11.5 shows actual assembly of a drum brake.
Figure 11.4 Double Leading Shoe Brake.
Figure 11.5 Drum Brake Assembly.

Braking System 233
11.5 DISC BRAKE

Brakes using flat discs as the friction surfaces are now almost the commonest type for the
front wheels of two-wheeler vehicle and are often used for the rear wheels. The earliest disc
brakes were same as a multiplate clutch but most current designs use a single steel disc
and sector-shaped friction pads of relatively small area. The great advantages are, first, that
despite the small area of the pads compared with the area of lining of a drum brake occupying
approximately the half amount of space the rises of temperature are smaller and consequently
the linings are less subject to fade. As a result their life is comparable increased with that of
drum brakes. Secondly, the action of the disc brake is unaffected by the occurrence of wear or
by expansion due to rises of temperature, both of which are sources of trouble in drum brakes.
Figure 11.6 shows arrangement of disc brake.
Figure 11.6 Disc Brake.
The disc brake basically consists of a rotating circular steel plate disc attached to the wheel
hub. A bridge member known as caliper straddles the disc and is mounted on the suspension
fork or swing arm. The caliper contains one, two or three pistons and friction pads which,
when the brake are applied, clamps the disc, causing it to reduce the speed in accordance to
the hydraulic pressure behind each piston generated through the hydraulic circuit.
In the past, the design of disc on two wheelers just followed car practice with the use of
cast iron for the disc material. The cast iron discs were heavy and added extra weight to the
vehicle which was major disadvantage. The moment of inertia of the discs is of great importance
on a two wheeler due to the effect on cornering performance. During commuting through turns,
an increase in gyroscopic effects due to heavy discs adversely affected the steering response.
Disc mass falls under unsprung mass and so suspension reaction also suffered as a result of
heavier discs.
Gradually, use of stainless steel discs was universally accepted due to various advantages.
The steel disc has the advantage that it doesn’t rust in humid climates even if the vehicle
remains unused for a long period of time. The steel disc does not give proper braking during
wet weather. This can be solved using slots and holes on the disc to break up the surface
water. These slots and holes are also used to dissipate heat in the flowing air. The disc may
be fabricated from two different materials. The outer steel disc serves the purpose of braking
element while the light weight material in the core is used to mount the disc. Figure 11.7
shows construction of a disc.
Figure 11.7 Steel Disc.
There are mainly two types of caliper used on two wheelers—single acting and double
acting. The double acting caliper has pistons on each side of the disc. The caliper is mounted to
the front fork and only the pistons move to apply braking force. The single acting caliper only
has pistons on one side of the disc and to balance the braking force the caliper body moves
side-by-side. This movement has several drawbacks like increased uneven pad wear, corrosion
of the moving surfaces, seizing of caliper on the sliding or pivoting pins etc. The main reasons
for the use of single acting calipers are lower cost and space occupied. The double acting
calipers are costly and occupy more space but give efficient output in almost all conditions.
Calipers can also be classified according to the number of pistons. As the radial depth of
the working surface of the disc has to be reduced with time, the length of pads has increased to
compensate for the lack of area, and to ensure an even distribution of pressure it has become
necessary to use multi-piston calipers. Four or six pistons are common with double acting
calipers and two or three with single acting. Sometimes, the pistons of such calipers are of
slightly different diameters to alter the distribution of pad pressure to have uniform pad wear.
Materials which may be used for friction pads generally have their merits and limitations.
Sintered metals tend to have a long life but have a relatively low coefficient of friction. Ceramics
mixed with metals have much higher coefficient of
friction but tend to increase the wear of the disc. Pad
compounds are developed through high-tech chemistry
and are continually evolving. At the highest levels of
racing with carbon discs it is necessary to use carbon
pads. Figure 11.8 shows friction pads used in disc brakes.
The cooling of the disc and pads is achieved mostly
through air convection. The rubbing surface between the
rotating disc and the stationary pads is exposed to the Figure 11.8 Friction Pads.
Braking System 235
vehicle’s frontal airstream. Because of efficient cooling, the disc brake is considerably more
stable than the drum brake under continued brake application. The high conformity of the
pad and the disc and the uniform pressure enable the disc to withstand higher temperature.
Because there is far less distortion with disc compared to drum, the disc can operate at higher
temperatures. A further feature of the disc is it expands towards the pads, unlike the drum
which expands away from the shoe linings. Therefore, when hot, the disc brake reduces its
piston movement whereas the drum brake increases its shoe movement. This in result increases
the lever/pedal travel by increasing inconvenience for the rider.
11.6 CALIPERS
Calipers form a close chamber to force the piston towards the disc. The pressurized fluid
from the reservoir comes inside the caliper through the brake hose. A banzo bolt allows the
pressurized fluid to enter into the caliper chamber. The pistons are inserted into the caliper
chamber. Two sealing rings prevent the leakage of brake fluid from the chamber. The rings
are also used to wipe and clean the piston during each stroke. As stated earlier, two wheelers
make use of two types of calipers—single acting and double acting. Both types of calipers are
explained in following sections.
11.6.1 Single Acting Caliper—Front and Rear

Figure 11.9 shows single acting caliper with two pistons which is generally used at front end.
The single acting caliper has to have lateral movement to compensate the braking force applied
by the friction pads. The upper and lower bridge pins helps to generate required side-by-side
Figure 11.9 Single Acting Caliper—Front.

motion of the caliper. Two rubber boots protect the bridge pins. These boots are also used
to restrict the lateral movement of caliper body. The outer housing of the caliper embraces
major components like sealing rings, pistons, bleeding valve, banzo bolt and upper bridge pin.
The inner housing of caliper is mounted on the front forks through bolts. Therefore, lateral
movement takes place between outer and inner housings of caliper when brake force is applied.
The pad pin holds the friction pads in position pertaining to the outer housing of the caliper.
Two anti-rattle springs, one on each friction pad, are used to damp the vibrations and noise
generated due to rubbing of pads with the disc. The bleeding valve becomes essential and
helps to remove air bubbles from the brake lines during maintenance. Components and their
functions of remain same when single acting caliper is used at rear end. Figure 11.10 shows
construction of such caliper.
Figure 11.10 Single Acting Caliper—Rear.
11.6.2 Double Acting Caliper—Front and Rear

Many high performance motorcycles use double acting caliper at both the ends. Double acting
calipers can deliver sufficient braking force to stop these high speed vehicles. The disc is forced
from both sides with equal force in accordance to the hydraulic pressure behind each piston.
The double acting caliper does not require any lateral movement. Therefore, bridge pins are
replaced with the bridge bolts which firmly hold the inner and outer housings of the caliper.
Figure 10.11 shows construction of double acting caliper with two pistons which is generally
used at front end. Unlike the single acting caliper, components like sealing rings and pistons
are evenly mounted on both the housings. The outer housing of the caliper embraces bleeding
valve and banzo bolt. The inner and outer housings of caliper, together, are mounted on the
front forks through mounting bolts. Therefore, no lateral movement takes place between outer
and inner housings of the caliper. The pad pin holds the friction pads in position pertaining to
the outer housing of the caliper. Only one anti-rattle spring is used to damp the vibrations and
Braking System 237
Figure 11.11 Double Acting Caliper—Front.
noise generated due to rubbing of pads with the disc. The bleeding valve helps to remove
air bubbles from the brake lines during maintenance. Components and their functions remain
same when double acting caliper is used at rear end. Figure 11.12 shows construction of
such caliper.
Figure 11.12 Double Acting Caliper—Rear.

11.7 MECHANICAL BRAKE CONTROL SYSTEM

Mechanical brake controls are operated by means of levers, pivots, adjusters, cables, springs
and cams. Each of these items plays an important role in stopping the motorcycle. Generally,
front brake is actuated with hand operated lever and rear brake is operated with foot operated
lever. More or less, in all scooters with CVT, both brakes are actuated with the help of hand
operated levers.
11.7.1 Hand Operated Mechanical Brake

Figure 11.13 shows hand operated mechanical brake generally used for the single leading
drum type front brake. A lever assembly helps the rider to gain mechanical advantage over
the braking system of a vehicle. About a 6-to-1 mechanical advantage is gained at the lever.
It is important to keep the pivot of hand lever lubricated to easy operation. The adjustor at
the back plate side provides a quick, easy way to compensate for stretch that develops in the
cable and wear of shoes over the time.
Figure 11.13 Hand Operated Mechanical Brake.
The cable is basically a steel wire inside of a flexible rubber covered steel tube. It provides
a flexible coupling between the rider and the brake. If the outer tube is held stationary at the
ends, motion can be transmitted via the inner cable. The cable is attached to a brake lever
that is splined to the brake activating cam shaft. Once again, mechanical advantage of about
6-to-1 is gained between the lever and the cam. As stated earlier, strong retracting springs
are connected between the brake shoes to return the brakes to a disengaged position. Lighter
springs are used to return the levers and pedals to their ready positions. The lateral movement
of the cable is restricted by the stopper embossed on the backing plate. The backing plate is
also provided with embossed guide-ways for the front fork. The guide-ways restrict the backing
plate movement during braking.
Braking System 239
11.7.2 Foot Operated Mechanical Brake

Figure 11.14 shows foot operated mechanical brake generally used for the single leading drum
type rear brake. A foot lever assembly helps the rider to gain required mechanical advantage.
The foot lever is pivoted on the frame. The adjustor at the back plate side provides a quick,
easy way to compensate for wear of shoes over the time. The cable is replaced by a solid
rod which links the foot lever with the brake operating lever. The rod is attached to a brake
lever that is splined to the brake activating cam shaft. As stated earlier, strong retracting
springs are connected between the brake shoes to return the brakes to a disengaged position.
Lighter springs are used to return the levers and pedals to their ready positions. The lateral
movement of the rod is restricted by the stopper embossed on the backing plate. Sometimes,
the backing plate is also provided with embossed guide-ways for the swing arm. The stopper
rod is attached between the swing arm and the backing plate which restricts the backing plate
movement during braking.
Figure 11.14 Foot Operated Mechanical Brake.
11.8 HYDRAULIC BRAKE CONTROL SYSTEM

In hydraulic brake control system, levers, master cylinders, brake fluid and brake lines are
used to perform the braking action. Just as lever can be used to increase mechanical advantage,
a hydraulic system can accomplish the same task. In a hydraulic system, a force applied to
a small piston over a long distance can be converted to a much stronger force on a larger
piston to cover a short distance. This increase in force takes place when the original force
from a smaller piston is applied through a liquid medium to a larger piston. A two-wheeler
braking system uses this principle to increase hand or foot pressure on a lever to the great
energy required to clamp two pads together on a disc. To accomplish this, the hydraulic brake
system uses a master cylinder, brake line, and a slave cylinder in the caliper assembly. Just
like mechanical brake control system, hydraulic systems also differ with method of actuation.
Generally, hand operated system is used for the front brake while foot operated system is used
for the rear brake.
11.8.1 Hand Operated Hydraulic Brake

Figure 11.15 shows the hydraulic circuit generally used in two wheelers for front disc brake.
The master cylinder is the central unit in which hydraulic pressure is developed. Pressure from
the rider’s hand on the lever is transmitted to the master cylinder piston. This small piston is
enclosed in the cylinder full of brake fluid. The brake hose connects the master cylinder with
the caliper. The entire passage is filled with the brake fluid kept airtight. Since the brake line
and caliper piston are filled with fluid, the column of fluid forces the caliper piston towards the
disc. As hand lever pressure increases, pressure on the caliper piston increases. This results as
increased pressure of the pads against the disc. These pressures build up uniformly throughout
the system and results in quicker stopping. The construction of caliper is already explained in
Section 11.6. Another important component of the hydraulic braking system is a master cylinder.
Detail construction of the master cylinder is explained in next section.
Figure 11.15 Hand Operated Hydraulic Brake.
11.8.2 Foot Operated Hydraulic Brake

Figure 11.16 shows the hydraulic circuit generally used in two wheelers for rear disc brake.
The master cylinder is directly attached to the foot lever. Orientation of master cylinder varies
Figure 11.16 Foot Operated Hydraulic Brake.

Braking System 241
according to space availability and also with different manufacturer. The caliper is mounted on
the swing arm. Just like front brake, as foot lever pressure increases, pressure on the caliper
piston increases. This results as increased pressure of the pads against the disc. These pressures
build up occurs uniformly throughout the system and results in quicker stopping.
11.9 MASTER CYLINDER

Figure 11.17 illustrates details of front master cylinder. There are mainly two chambers in master
cylinder: fluid reservoir and compression cartridge. The fluid in the reservoir compensates for
any change in the fluid volume in the brake lines due to temperature variations and due to
leakage. Compression cartridge forms a close chamber in which the fluid is pressurized due
to reciprocating motion of the piston. O rings and washers at various locations are used to
prevent leakage of brake fluid. O rings also serve the purpose of cleaning the piston during
each stroke. Piston cap and push rod, together, transmit the force of hand lever to the piston.
A spring loaded fluid check valve is used to control the flow of pressurized fluid to the brake
line. It also maintains the pressure in the brake line even when the brake is released.
Figure 11.17 Front Master Cylinder.
Two holes connect the fluid reservoir to the compression cartridge. The smaller one
is known as bypass or compensation port and the second hole is called the intake or the
recuperation port. The push rod and piston cap are operated by the lever force. As the lever is
pressed, push rod and piston cap move the piston to left against the force of the spring, till it
covers the bypass port. Further movement of the push rod causes building up of pressure in the
compression cartridge. Finally, when sufficient pressure has built up, the fluid check valve is
deflected, forcing the fluid under pressure in the lines. The fluid enters the caliper and moves
the pistons thereby applying the brake.
When the brake lever is released, the spring pressure in the compression cartridge moves
the piston to the right extreme position. This same force of the spring keeps the fluid check valve
pressed on its seat for sometimes and thereby delays the return of fluid from the lines into the
compression cartridge again. This produces a vacuum in the compression cartridge and unless
this is destroyed immediately, there are all chances of air leaking into the system. This problem
is solved by having intake port. As soon as some vacuum is formed, the fluid from the reservoir
is forced through the intake port due to pressure difference between compression cartridge and
reservoir. The fluid enters the compression cartridge through the reduced diameter region of the
piston, destroying the vacuum. Some pistons consist small holes to transfer the fluid form reservoir
to the cartridge. By the time this vacuum is destroyed, the fluid form the brake line comes back
into the compression cartridge. This extra fluid now has to be accommodates somehow, because
compression cartridge is already full. If this is not done, the pressure in the lines will not be
relieved fully and there are all chances of brake pads rubbing with the disc. This extra fluid
is compensated through the bypass port. The extra fluid coming from the lines passes back to
the fluid reservoir because of pressure difference between compression cartridge and reservoir.
In case brake pads are worn so that there is excessive clearance between pad and disc,
a quick release of brake pedal will draw extra fluid from the reservoir into the compression
cartridge and thereafter a quick pressing of the pedal will send this extra fluid into the brake
lines, thus taking up the excessive clearance. In this way a quick pumping up of the brake
lever helps compensate for the wear of the brake pads. Figure 11.18 shows actual assembly
of front master cylinder.
Figure 11.18 Front Master Cylinder Assembly.
Figure 11.19 shows construction of rear master cylinder. Components and working of
rear master cylinder, more or less, remains same as the front master cylinder. Few additional
components like rubber boot, auxiliary spring, push rod with ball joint etc. are necessarily
added to the rear master cylinder. The force from the foot lever is transmitted to the piston
Braking System 243
Figure 11.19 Rear Master Cylinder.
through the push rod and the ball joint. The ball joint facilitates force transmission even with
the inclined push rod. The auxiliary spring helps to return the push rod and ball joint to their
initial position. A rubber boot protects the ball joint and push rod assembly from dust, mud
and water contamination. The rubber boot is essential on rear master cylinder as it is mostly
located nearer to road surface. Reservoir on the rear master cylinder may be located remotely.
Figure 11.20 shows actual assembly of the rear master cylinder.
Figure 11.20 Rear Master Cylinder Assembly.

11.10 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Operating the brakes on most two wheelers is much more complicated than on four wheel
vehicles. Most two wheelers have separate controls for the front and rear brakes, with the
front brake usually controlled by a lever on the right handlebar and the rear brake controlled
by a pedal operated by the rider’s right foot. During braking, a rider must decide how much
force to apply to each control.
As stated earlier, two wheelers are inherently less stable than four-wheel vehicles and
rely on riders’ skills to remain upright during demanding manoeuvers such as hard braking.
If the braking force exceeds the adhesion force, the wheel immediately gets locked and starts
slipping on the road surface. The wheel and thus the vehicle slip till the kinetic energy is
dissipated in the form of friction between road and tyres. Apart from the rapid tyre wear, this
slipping and skidding also results as steering difficulties. Generally, the braking force exceeds
the adhesion force during heavy braking. Braking too hard and locking a wheel creates an
unstable situation. Locking the front wheel is particularly dangerous, with falling down being
almost certain. A locked rear wheel is more controllable but still can lead to loss of control if
the rider simultaneously tries to steer the motorcycle, as in an emergency avoidance manoeuver.
In such situations, riders concerned about wheel lock may be reluctant to apply full force to
the brakes, particularly to the front brake, resulting in braking that is not adequate to avoid
or mitigate impact. ABS has been adapted and tuned for two wheelers to help riders solve
this dilemma. Antilock braking systems monitor wheel speed and reduce brake pressure when
impending wheel lock is detected. Brake pressure is increased when traction is restored, and
the system evaluates and adjusts brake pressure many times per second. These systems allow
riders to apply brakes fully in an emergency without chance of wheel lock. The operation of
the ABS brakes is the same as conventional brakes on other vehicles, with a brake lever for
operating the front brake and a brake pedal for operating the rear brake. When wheel lock is
detected during emergency braking, hydraulic control is performed by the hydraulic system on
the front and rear brakes independently.
The rotation speed of the front and rear wheels are called wheel speed. The braking force
applied to reduce the wheel speed during braking. When the brakes are applied, wheel speed
and chassis speed are reduced. However, the chassis travels forward by its inertia even though
the wheel speeds are reduced. A condition that occurs when the rotation of one or both of the
wheels has stopped, but the vehicle continues to travel is known as skidding.
In braking as explained before, the brake lever is directly connected with caliper. The force
applied by the rider on brake lever is directly exerted on the caliper and the disc without any
interrupt. In the case of ABS, this braking force is exerted through ECU and Hydraulic valve.
The ECU calculates the wheel speed of each wheel according to the rotation signal received
from the front and rear wheel sensors. In addition, the ECU calculates the vehicle chassis speed
and the rate of speed reduction based on the wheel speed values. The difference between the
chassis speed and the wheel speed calculated gives the value of the wheel slip. When the wheel
speed is suddenly reduced, the wheel has a tendency to lock. When the wheel slip and the
wheel speed reduction rate exceed the preset values, the ECU determines that the wheel has a
tendency to lock. If the slip is large and the wheel has a tendency to lock, the ECU reduces
the brake fluid pressure in the brake caliper. Once the ECU determines that the tendency of the
Braking System 245
wheel to lock has diminished after the brake fluid pressure is reduced, it increases the hydraulic
pressure again. This in turn again applies the brake. This cycle takes place approximately 15
times per second. Figure 11.21 shows the layout of ABS used for two wheelers.
Figure 11.21 Layout of ABS.
11.10.1 Components of ABS

Figure 11.22 illustrates the hydraulic circuit for front brake in which major components of ABS
are shown. Each component has to perform its function accurately and within fraction of second.
Figure 11.22 Hydraulic Circuit of ABS.

WHEEL SENSORS AND WHEEL SENSOR ROTORS: Wheel sensors detect the wheel
rotation speed and transmit the wheel rotation signal to the ECU. Each wheel sensor contains
a Hall IC. The wheel sensors are installed in the sensor housing for each wheel as shown in
Figure 11.23. Sensor rotors are installed on the inner side of the front and rear wheel hubs
and rotate with the wheels.
Figure 11.23 Wheel Speed Sensor and Wheel Sensor Rotor.
The front and rear sensor rotors each have magnetic poles and are installed close to the
wheel sensors. As the sensor rotor rotates, the Hall element in the Hall IC installed in the
wheel sensor generates pulses. The pulse frequency, which is proportional to the magnetic flux
density, is converted into a wave in the Hall IC so that it can be output. The ECU calculates
the wheel rotation speed by detecting the pulse frequency.
HYDRAULIC UNIT ASSEMBLY: The hydraulic unit assembly is composed of hydraulic
control valves, buffer chambers, hydraulic pumps, an ABS motor, and ECU. Figure 11.24 shows
a complete hydraulic unit assembly. The hydraulic unit adjusts the front and rear wheel brake
fluid pressure to control the wheel speed according to signals transmitted from the ECU. The
pressure monitoring is accomplished with the help of hydraulic control valves.
Figure 11.24 Hydraulic Unit Assembly.
The hydraulic control valve is composed of an inlet solenoid valve and outlet solenoid
valve. The electromagnetic force generated in the inlet solenoid valve varies proportionally with
Braking System 247
the duty cycle control voltage that is supplied to it. Since this voltage is continuously variable,
the solenoid valve moves smoothly and the hydraulic pressure is adjusted linearly. When the
brakes are operated normally (without ABS), the inlet solenoid valve is opened and the outlet
solenoid valve is closed. The brake line between the brake master cylinder and brake caliper is
open. When the ABS is activated, the inlet solenoid valve closes and the outlet solenoid valve
opens using the power supplied from the ECU signals. This reduces the hydraulic pressure
in the line. When the ECU sends a signal to stop reducing the hydraulic pressure, the outlet
solenoid valve closes and the brake fluid is pressurized again. The inlet solenoid valve controls
the hydraulic pressure difference between the brake fluid in the upper brake lines (brake master
cylinder side) and the brake fluid in the lower brake lines (brake caliper side).
BUFFER CHAMBER: The buffer chamber accumulates the brake fluid that is depressurized
through the outlet solenoid valve while the ABS is operating. The accumulated fluid is circulated
again through pump.
ECU: The ECU is integrated with the hydraulic unit to achieve a compact and lightweight
design. The ECU receives wheel sensor signals from the front and rear wheels and also receives
signals from other monitor circuits. The necessary actions are confirmed using the monitor
circuit and control signals are then transmitted to the hydraulic unit assembly.
11.10.2 ABS Operation

The ABS hydraulic circuit consists of two systems: the front wheel, and rear wheel. The
following describes the system for the front wheel only. Similar actions are simultaneously
performed for the rear wheel also.
NORMAL BRAKING (WITHOUT ABS): When the ABS is not activated, the inlet solenoid
valve is open and the outlet solenoid valve is closed because a control signal has not been
transmitted from the ECU. Therefore, when the brake lever is squeezed, the hydraulic pressure
in the brake master cylinder increases and the brake fluid is sent to the brake caliper. At
this time, the inlet and outlet check valves of the hydraulic pump are closed. As a result of
eliminating the orifice, the brake master cylinder directly pressurizes the brake caliper during
normal braking. When the brake lever is released, the brake fluid in the brake caliper returns to
the brake master cylinder. Figure 11.25 shows the normal braking condition on hydraulic circuit.
Figure 11.25 Normal Braking Condition.

EMERGENCY BRAKING (WITH ABS): When the front wheel is about to lock, the outlet
solenoid valve is opened by the “depressurization” signal transmitted from the ECU. When
this occurs, the inlet solenoid valve compresses the spring and closes the brake line from the
brake master cylinder. Because the outlet solenoid valve is open, the brake fluid is sent to
the buffer chamber. As a result, the hydraulic pressure in the brake caliper is reduced. The
brake fluid stored in the buffer chamber is pumped back to the brake master cylinder by the
hydraulic pump linked to the ABS motor. This phase is known as depressurizing phase and
shown in Figure 11.26.
Figure 11.26 Depressurizing Phase.
The outlet solenoid valve is closed by the “pressurization” signal transmitted from the
ECU. At this time, the ECU controls the opening of the inlet solenoid valve. As the inlet
solenoid valve opens, the brake line from the brake master cylinder opens, allowing the brake
fluid to be sent to the brake caliper. This phase is known as pressurizing phase and shown in
Figure 11.27.
Figure 11.27 Pressurizing Phase.

Braking System 249
These two phases take place approximately 15 times in a second, i.e. wheel under braking
is clamped and released by the caliper 15 times in a second. This high frequency braking action
allows easy control of vehicle even during turns. The braking force is appropriately distributed
and exerted on the wheels which results as safe and straight-line braking on a wet surface
also. Therefore, the ABS features a compact and lightweight design to help maintain the basic
manoeuverability of the vehicle. Modern ABS also includes a highly developed self-diagnosis
function. The ABS detects any problem condition and allows normal braking even if the ABS
is not operating properly.
Review Questions
1. Explain importance of braking system.
2. How braking action is applied to a moving vehicle? Explain.
3. How rear wheel plays vital role in maintaining the directional stability during
braking?
4. Explain design consideration for braking system.
5. Explain construction and working of a drum brake. Also state difference between
single leading and double leading drum brakes.
6. How disc brake is more efficient than a drum brake? Explain.
7. Explain various components of a disc brake.
8. Explain the hand operated mechanical brake.
9. Describe the arrangements for foot operated mechanical brake.
10. Explain the hand operated hydraulic brake.
11. Describe the arrangements for foot operated hydraulic brake.
12. Explain with neat sketch construction and working of front master cylinder.
13. Explain with neat sketch construction and working of rear master cylinder.
14. State various features of ABS. why it is favourable to use ABS?
15. Explain layout of ABS used for two wheelers.
16. Draw a hydraulic circuit used in ABS. Which are the different components of
ABS? Also explain their functions.
17. Describe operation of ABS.
12
Wheels and Tyres
Contents
YY Spoked Wheel
YY Pressed Steel Wheels
YY Alloy Wheels
YY Functions of Tyres
YY Requirements of Tyre
YY Designation of Tyre
YY Cross-ply and Radial-ply Tyres
YY Tyre with Tube, Tubeless Tyres
The importance of wheels and tyres in the two wheeler is obvious. Without engine the vehicle
may be towed, but even that is not possible without wheels and tyres. The wheel, along with
the tyre had to take the vehicle load, provide a cushioning effect and cope with the steering
control. The various requirements of a wheel are:
It must be strong enough to perform the above function.
It should be balanced both statically and dynamically.
It should be lightest possible so that the unsprung mass is least.
It should be possible to remove or mount the wheel easily.
Its material should not deteriorate with weathering and age.
Figure 12.1 shows various components and dimensions of a wheel. There are three types of
wheels, viz., the spoked wheels, the pressed steel wheels and the alloy wheels. Each type of
wheel consists of two components—a rim and a hub. The wheel is then classified according to
the way in which these both components are assembled, i.e. either by spokes, steel disc or alloy
rib. The rim is used to grab the tyre while hub is used to transit the power and torque through
the cush drive. Hub is also incorporated either with mounting holes for the disc or engraved
with the drum to accommodate brake shoes. The rim is particularly designed to comply with
the tyre bead profile. When the bead of the tyre resting in the well, it is possible to pass the
tyre over the opposite edge of the rim. Without the well it would not be possible to mount or
250
Wheels and Tyres 251
Figure 12.1 Wheel Dimensions.
remove the tyre from the wheel. The seat of the rim where the tyre rests usually has a 5 degree
or 15 degree taper so that as the tyre is inflated, the breads are forced up for the taper to give
a wedge fit and to make a good seal.
The spoked wheel is the earliest types of wheel but presently its use is limited to certain
economic, cruiser or custom made motorcycles. It is lighter, heat dissipation is better and it can
be fitted and removed very easily. However, tubeless tyre cannot be fitted over spoked wheels.
The pressed steel wheel is mostly used on scooters due to its simplicity, robust construction,
lower cost of manufacture and ease of cleaning. They required negligible maintenance and are
easy to produce. The alloy wheel is most recent type, whose use is ever increasing in each
type of two wheelers. The use of light alloy makes it possible to use wider rim, which allows
low aspect ratio tyres to be fitted, thus improving road adhesion, especially on corners. Further,
light alloys being good heat conductors, dissipate heat more efficiently that steel. However,
these are relatively costly and more prone to corrosion.
12.1 SPOKED WHEEL

The spoked wheel has a separate hub, which is attached to the rim through a number of wire
spokes. Each spoke is individually hooked at one end of the hub while its other end is pushed
through a hole in the wheel rim, where a nut is screwed down pulling the spoke tight. If a
spoke is too loose or too tight, the rim would have tendency to distort.
The spoke carry the weight, transmit the driving and braking torque and withstand the
side forces during cornering. Spokes are long and thin rod and as such these cannot take any
compressive or bending stresses. All types of loads are sustained by the spoke in tension. The
spokes are mounted in complicated criss-cross manner in all the three planes. Figure 12.2 shows
Figure 12.2 Spoked Wheel.
a spoked wheel. The initial tension in the spoke can be adjusted with the help of nipple nut
which also serve to secure the spokes to the rim. The advantages of this type of wheel are light
weight and high strength, and above all it provides much better cooling of the drum brake. It
is very easy to change the wheel when required. However, spoked wheels are expensive due
to their intricate construction. Further, it is not possible to fit tubeless tyres on spoked wheels
because the rim of a spoked wheel has holes.
12.2 PRESSED STEEL WHEELS

This type of wheel uses a steel disc to assemble the rim with the hub. The rim and the hub
may be integral, permanently attached or attachable, depending upon the design. The steel disc
performs the functions of the spokes. Generally, two wheelers use zeroset pressed steel wheel
in which the rim centre line coincides with the attachment face of the disc. Figure 12.3 shows
a pressed steel wheel used on a cruiser motorcycle. The advantages of this type of wheel are
simple construction, high strength, and above all, tubeless tyre can be fitted to the pressed
steel wheel. It is very easy to change the wheel when required. However, pressed steel wheels
are expensive due to their fabrication. Further, they are heavier and provide less cooling when
used with the drum brake. The unsprung mass considerably increases due to which cornering
difficulties also increases. The suspensions are also required to be heavier with the extra laden
mass of the pressed steel wheel.
Figure 12.3 Pressed Steel Wheel.

12.3 ALLOY WHEELS

The latest trend in case of two wheelers is the use of wheels made from aluminium or magnesium
alloys. The hub and rim is permanently attached through the ribs or arms. The number and
design of arms comes in huge variety. The main advantage of the light-alloy wheels is their
reduced weight which reduces unsprung weight. Moreover, light alloys are better conductors
of heat which helps the wheels dissipate any heat generated by the tyres or brakes and thereby
run cooler. Further, wider rims are possible in their case, which improves stability on cornering.
Through machining, alloy wheels help to maintain close tolerances and also produce better
appearance. They have high impact and fatigue strength so that they can stand vibrations and
shock loading better. The protective coating is essentially applied on these wheels as alloys
are prone to corrosion. Higher cost is perhaps the only disadvantage of light alloy wheels.
Figure 12.4 shows the modern alloy wheel.
Figure 12.4 Alloy Wheel.
12.4 TYRES
The tyre is a flexible casing which contains air. The friction (traction) between the tyre and
the road determines the handling characteristics of any vehicle. The compounding, construction,
and condition of tyres are some of the most important aspects of the steering, suspension,
alignment, and braking systems of any vehicle. A vehicle that handles poorly or that pulls, darts,
jumps, or steers abnormally may be suffering from defective or worn tyres. Understanding the
construction of a tyre is important to identify tyre failure or vehicle handling problems. Tyres
are mounted on wheels that are bolted to the vehicle to provide the following:
Shock absorber action when driving over rough surfaces
Friction (traction) between the wheels and the road
All tyres are assembled by hand from many different component parts consisting of various
rubber compounds, steel, and various types of fabric material. Tyres are also available in many
different designs and sizes. Tyres are manufactured from reinforced synthetic rubber. The tyre
is made of an inner layer of fabric plies, which are wrapped around bead wires at the inner
edges. The bead wires hold the tyre in position on the wheel rim. The fabric plies are coated
with rubber, which is moulded to form the side walls and the tread of the tyre. Behind the
tread is a reinforcing band, usually made of steel, rayon, or glass fiber. Figure 12.5 shows
construction of tyre.
Figure 12.5 Construction of Tyre.
Figure 12.6 shows important parts of a tyre. It includes treads, rib, grooves, side wall
and bead. Following are the brief description about each part.
Figure 12.6 Parts of a Tyre.
TREAD: Tread refers to the part of the tyre that contacts the ground. Tread rubber is
chemically different from other rubber parts of a tyre, and is compounded for a combination
of traction and tyre wear. Wear indicators given on the treads are also called wear bars. When
tread depth is down to the legal limit, bald strips appear across the tread.
GROOVES: Grooves are large, deep recesses molded in the tread and separating the tread
blocks. These grooves are called circumferential grooves or kerfs. Grooves running sideways
across the tread of a tyre are called lateral grooves. Grooves in both directions are necessary
for wet traction. The trapped water can actually cause the tyres to ride up on a layer of water
and lose contact with the ground.
SIDEWALL: The sidewall is that part of the tyre between the tread and the wheel. The
sidewall contains all the size and construction details of the tyre.
BEAD: The bead is the foundation of the tyre and is located where the tyre grips the inside
of the wheel rim. The bead is constructed of many turns of copper- or bronze- coated steel
wire. The main body plies (layers of material) are wrapped around the bead.
BODY PLY: A tyre gets its strength from the layers of material wrapped around both beads
under the tread and sidewall rubber. This creates the main framework, or “carcass,” of the
tyre; these body plies are often called carcass plies. A 4-ply tyre has four separate layers of
material. If the body plies overlap at an angle (bias), the tyre is called a bias-ply tyre. If only
one or two body plies are used and they do not cross at an angle, but lie directly from bead
to bead, then the tyre is called radial ply.
BELT: A tyre belt is two or more layers of material applied over the body plies and under
the tread area only, to stabilize the tread and increase tread life and handling.
INNER LINER: The inner liner is the soft rubber lining (usually a butyl rubber compound)
on the inside of the tyre that protects the body plies and helps provide for self-sealing of small
punctures.
12.5 REQUIREMENTS OF TYRE

The tyres are vital functional elements for the transmission of all forces between the vehicle and
road. The tyre properties should be as constant as possible and hence must be predictable by the
rider. The forces that occur between the ground and the tyres determine the dynamic behaviour
of the vehicle. Tyres really perform such diversified tasks and their apparent simplicity hides the
degree of engineering complexity that goes into their design and fabrication. The requirements
for tyres can be subdivided into the following six groups.
DRIVING SAFETY: To ensure driving safety it is essential that the tyre sits firmly on the
rim. This is achieved by a special tyre bead design and the rim. Not only is as great a degree
of tyre-on-rim retention as possible required, but the tyre must also be uniformly sealed. On
the tubeless tyre this is the function of the inner lining. Its job is to prevent air escaping from
the tyre, i.e. it stops the tyre from losing pressure. In order to assure driving safety, the aim
is also to ensure that tyres are as unaffected to overloading and as puncture-proof as possible.
Moreover, tyre should have emergency running properties which make it possible for the rider
to bring the vehicle safely to a halt in case of tyre failure.
HANDLING: Handling characteristics include many factors in which friction coefficient is
primarily considered. High friction coefficient in all operating conditions is always a desirable
property of any tyre. Moreover, the variation in friction coefficient should minimum and must
be within safe limits. Gradual and steady increase in lateral forces also helps to achieve good
handling characteristics. Sudden change in lateral forces leads to instability like wobble and
weave. The strength of sidewalls plays vital role in deciding the behaviour of the tyre under
lateral forces. The lateral forces even become more important area to concentrate when vehicle
commutes through the turns. The tyre must possess good cornering stability by achieving
appropriate lateral movement according to the speed of vehicle during turning. The same lateral
movement must be immediately removed as soon as vehicle comes out of turn. The direct and
immediate response to steering movements helps to restore straight ahead directional stability
after completing the turn.
RIDING COMFORT: The riding comfort apparently comes with good suspension and
damping properties of tyre. Just like suspension spring, softer tyre gives more pleasant ride
but provides less damping. On the other side, harder tyre damps the vibrations quickly but
consequently generates a jumpy ride. This necessitates a compromise while designing a tyre
and selecting appropriate material accordingly. Riding comfort is also affected by run-out and
imbalance of tyre. Unbalanced tyre generates wavy ride and becomes difficult to handle the
vehicle. The steering also becomes hard while vehicle runs with unbalanced tyre. It is always
desirable to have minimum steering effort required during driving. The friction between tyre
and road surface generates heat and noise. The noise increases with increase in speed. Low
running noise is also a deciding factor when riding comfort is concerned.
SERVICE LIFE: The tyre is probably the first component which remains loaded even when
vehicle is parked. Moreover, during dynamic condition, each minute length of tyre tread endures
a cyclic stress. The inflation pressure also plays vital role during this cyclic loading conditions.
Together, these all factors finally affect the service life of the tyre. A prolonged durability is
always an essential characteristic of tyre. Frequent damage to the tyre may lead to disaster which
also deteriorates the reputation of manufacturer. Particularly for high capacity two wheelers,
the high speed stability is also needed to increase the service life of tyre.
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPATIBILITY: With increasing importance in environmental
compatibility, the tyre manufacturers also have to concentrate on their manufacturing facilities.
The very first consideration comes with the carbon footprint and energy consumption during
manufacturing. The raw material must be easily disposable without affecting environment.
Nowadays, re-moulding and re-treading is been adopted to attain the lowest possible
environmental issues.
ECONOMY: Economic efficiency of tyre is essentially determined by the purchase cost,
travel range, wear rate, rolling resistance and load rating. These all factors collectively determine
the changeover time for the tyre. It is but obvious that the longer changeover time gives
maximum economy from customer point of view.
12.6 DESIGNATION OF TYRES

Two-wheeler tyres are generally measured in mm by width/aspect ratio and rim diameter.
Figure 12.7 shows an example how to designate a tyre.
The first digit indicates the width of the tyre in mm. second digit indicates the aspect
ratio. The aspect ratio is the ratio of height of the sidewall to the width of the tread. The next
letter indicated the type of carcass construction, i.e. either radial-ply or cross-ply. The next digit
indicated the rim diameter in inches. The next two terms are covered in the bracket indicating
the load index and speed rating respectively. In high performance tyres, the extra digits are
added at the last to indicate the maximum speed above which the tyre should not be used.
Figure 12.7 Tire Designation.
Most manufacturers use this method of designation. The speed rating may be indicated before
the carcass construction. Many manufacturers nowadays also indicate the type of tyre, i.e. either
tyre with tube (TT) or tubeless tyre (TL).
12.7 CROSS-PLY AND RADIAL-PLY TYRES

Tyres are divided in two classes: radial and non-radial, depending on the angle between carcass
metallic cords and the tyre-plane. Each type of tyre construction has its own set of characteristics
that are the key to its performance.
The radial tyre is constructed with reinforcing steel cable belts that are assembled
in parallel and run side to side, from one bead to another bead at an angle of 90° to the
circumferential centreline of the tyre. This makes the tyre more flexible radially, which reduces
rolling resistance and improves cornering capability. Figure 12.8 shows the interior structure
and the carcass arrangement of a radial tyre.
Figure 12.8 Radial Tyre.

The non-radial tyres are also called bias-ply and cross-ply tyres. The plies are layered
diagonal from one bead to the other bead at about a 30° angle, although any other angles may
also be applied. One ply is set on a bias in one direction as succeeding plies are set alternately
in opposing directions as they cross each other. The ends of the plies are wrapped around the
bead wires, anchoring them to the rim of the wheel. Figure 12.9 shows the interior structure
and the carcass arrangement of a non-radial tyre.
Figure 12.9 Cross-ply Tyre.
The most important difference in the dynamics of radial and non-radial tyres is their
different ground sticking behaviour when a lateral force is applied on the wheel. This behaviour
is shown in Figure 12.10. The radial tyre, shown in figure, flexes mostly in the sidewall and
keeps the tread flat on the road. The bias-ply tyre has less contact with the road as both tread
and sidewalls distort under a lateral load. The radial arrangement of carcass in a radial tyre
allows the tread and sidewall act independently. The sidewall flexes more easily under the
weight of the vehicle. So, more vertical deflection is achieved with radial tyres. As the sidewall
flexes under the load, the belts hold the tread firmly and evenly on the ground and reduces
tread scrub. In a cornering manoeuvre, the independent action of the tread and sidewalls keeps
the tread flat on the road. This allows the tyre to hold its path. Radial tyres are the preferred
tyre in most applications today.
Figure 12.10 Ground Sticking Behaviour of Radial and Cross-ply Tyres.

The cross arrangement of carcass in bias-ply tyres allows it act as a unit. When the
sidewalls deflect or bend under load, the tread squeezes in and distorts. This distortion affects
the tyre print and decrease traction. Because of the bias-ply inherent construction, sidewall
strength is less than that of a radial tyre’s construction and cornering is less effective.
12.8 TYRE WITH TUBE

A tubed tyre is conventionally used on two wheelers because of the low manufacturing and
operating cost. This type of tyre consist a rubber tube inside. The rubber tube contains the
air under pressure and provides cushioning effect. The tube being very thin and flexible,
takes up the shape of the tyre cover when inflated. A valve stem is attached to the tube for
inflating or deflating the same. The tyre takes all loads during dynamic condition while tube
with pressurized air provides suspension effect. A protective strip has to be used when this
conventional type tyre is used on the spoked wheel because the hooked end of the spokes inside
the rim can severely damage the thin tube. In these conventional tyres, the cross-ply type carcass
construction is used because the bead of this tyre is made to withstand the lateral loads only.
In case of tubed tyre, heat in the compressed air has to be pass through the tube material, which
is not a good conductor of heat. The unsprung mass increases due to the tube type construction
which also promotes wheel bounce. Figure 12.11 shows construction of tubed tyre.
Figure 12.11 Tubed Tyre on Spoked Wheel.
With the tubed tyre, even a small puncture also causes a sudden loss of the air pressure
from the tube. A sudden loss of pressure in one of the tyre sources drastic increase of friction
between that particular tyre and road. If this happens with the front tyre, steering becomes
much harder and vehicle will be pulled towards either direction. If this happens with the rear
tyre, it causes increase in traction and vehicle becomes highly unstable at high speed. This
considerably affects the safety during dynamic condition. Furthermore, during repairing, the
complex method of removing and inserting the tube in the tyre demands skills and extra time.
12.9 TUBELESS TYRES

This type of tyre does not require a separate tube. the air under pressure is filled in the tyre
itself for which purpose a non-return valve is fitted to the rim. the inner construction of the
tyre is almost same as that of tubed tyre, except that it is lined on inside with a special air
retaining liner made up of a soft rubber. this rubber can spread when kept under pressure and
also provides high heat and weather resistance. In tubeless tyres, the bead area also serves
to maintain the air pressure within therefore almost all tubeless tyre use radial type carcass
construction. As tube is eliminated, the tubeless tyre possesses much lesser weight than the
tubed tyre, i.e. the unsprung weight reduces considerably. Figure 12.12 shows arrangement on
tubeless tyre.
Figure 12.12 Tubeless Tyre on Alloy Wheel.
In case of tubeless tyre, since there is no tube, heat can be passed on to the atmosphere
directly, resulting in better cooling thereby increasing the tyre life. The rolling resistance in
tubeless tyre is lower than the tubed tyre. This is due to the fact that tubeless tyre sidewall is
more flexible as there is no internal tube to generate friction. This also helps the tyre to run
cooler by eliminating heat generation caused by internal shuffling of the tube. Since the inner
liner of the tubeless tyre is not stretched like tube, it retains the air better resulting in its slower
leakage. In case of any hole being caused in the tyre, a tubeless tyre retains the air pressure
for long periods. Thus chances of sudden tyre puncture leading to accident are reduced and
any tyre damage shows up only as a slow leak.
Review Questions
1. Which are the various requirements of a wheel? Also explain various components
and dimensions of wheel with neat diagram.
2. Explain construction of spoked wheel.

3. Explain construction of pressed steel wheel and alloy wheel.
4. Compare various types of wheels used in two wheelers.
5. State functions of a tyre. Also explain various parts of a tyre.
6. Which are the basic requirements of a tyre? Explain.
7. Explain the structural difference between cross-ply and radial-ply tyres using
suitable diagrams.
8. Why radial tyre is more suitable than the cross-ply tyre?
9. Explain various arrangements and features of a tubed tyre.
10. Explain various arrangements and features of a tubeless tyre.
11. Compare tubed and tubeless tyres.
13
Frame and Body
Contents
YY Load on the Frame
YY Components of Frame
YY Mounting Provisions on Frame
YY Tubular Frame
YY Engine-based Frame
YY Pressed Steel or Twin-spar Frame
YY Vibration Dampers
YY Frame Material
YY Body Work
YY Ergonomic Considerations
YY Sidecars
The frame is a very important part of the vehicle and requires extreme engineering behind it. The
two-wheeler frame provides a strong, rigid structure on which all the systems and components
are attached. The size, weight, type and geometry of frame determine the vehicle’s handling
characteristics. A light weight frame helps to achieve better overall balancing of the vehicle
and improves the mileage. Also, the type of construction is a critical factor affecting frame
stability and rigidity. The frame rigidly holds the wheels in straight line and also allows relative
motion as and when required. Above all, the frame holds the power plant which generated
maximum vibration on the vehicle. Moreover, the engine is also retained aligned to the power
transmitting train.
The shocks coming from the road surface is finally taken and damped by the frame. The
lateral forces due to cornering and air resistance are also not exception from this fact. Therefore,
the frame is likely to be robust and lightweight at the same time. Failure of frame rarely results
from the normal operating loads. Rather it is due to either excessive loading (such as a crash,
which may result in breakage and/or permanent deformation) or fatigue, which ultimately leads
to breakage. If frame is subjected only to normal operating loads, fatigue will be the most
262
Frame and Body 263
likely cause of failure. The modern design practices in this respect ensure that fatigue failure
would only occur long after the expected life of the vehicle.
13.1 LOAD ON THE FRAME

The frame is the basic unit which withstands major loads acting on the vehicle during dynamic
condition. Following are the various load which likely to produce deflection in the frame.
Weight of the vehicle and the rider, which causes vertical bending of the frame. Pillion
passenger or luggage also adds up in this force.
Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in
longitudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted with other wheel at the usual road level.
Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking turn, which result
in lateral bending of the frame.
Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to
remain obstructed while other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame in
longitudinal direction.
Engine torque and braking torque to bend the frame in vertical plane.
Sudden impact loads during collision, which may result in a general collapse.
13.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The primary functions of frame, as explained above, must be accomplished at all times. In the
event of failure, the same functions must also be performed to keep the vehicle in a condition
to tow. Following are some fundamental design considerations for frame.
FATIGUE: Fatigue loading results from repeated reversing of stress, i.e. component is
subjected to cyclic compression as well as tensile stress. An example of fatigue loading is
the fracture of a piece of metal by bending it back and forth several times. In practice, many
millions of reversals are required to cause a breakage in a frame. Fatigue characteristics vary
from metal to metal. Some metals, such as steel for example, have an endurance limit below
which they will not fail no matter how many stress cycles they sustain. Other metals, such
as aluminium and its alloys, will ultimately fail as a result of stress reversals, no matter how
small the stress. At low stress levels the number of reversals required to produce failure will
be extremely large while at high stress levels, the number of reversals required will be less.
Consequently, excessive attention is essentially required when considering a frame design using
aluminium, since failure is almost unavoidable if it is used for long period. Stress reversals in
a two-wheeler frame can be caused both by road irregularities and by engine vibration, which
can give rise to very large forces.
BENDING AND TORSIONAL STIFFNESS: Bending of frame takes place because of
forces acting in vertical plane. These forces include weight of vehicle, weight of rider and
passenger, engine and braking torque. Bending of frame also takes plane laterally because
of cornering force, side wind force and road camber. Longitudinal torsion of frame results
due to one wheel lifted with other wheel at the usual road level. Moreover, load due to
wheel impact with road obstacles may cause distortion of the frame in longitudinal direction.
Above all, sudden impact loads during collision, which may result in a partial or full collapse.
Vehicle frame is not fully rigid as it is supported on the wheels through suspensions. Therefore,
internal resistance or stress is induced to balance external forces. These stresses should be
kept to acceptable limits in conjunction with the material properties. When bending stiffness
and torsional stiffness are kept low, handling becomes very difficult due to frame deflection.
Stiffness depends on the second moment of the cross-section about the neutral axis. This in
turns, make possible to use metal tubes with large diameter and with small walls thickness.
Such thin tubes would buckle and collapse under load therefore a compromise must be made
between wall thickness and tube diameter. The buckling is prevented by bulkheads and many
stiffening ribs supporting the frame at various junctions.
LAW OF TRIANGULATION: To understand the law of triangulation, consider the two
simple structures illustrated in Figure 13.1. If their bases are fixed while a force is applied
as shown, then the four-sided frame may distort to a diamond shape, with complete collapse
prevented only by the tubes’ resistance to bending at the corners. In contrast, the triangular
frame can distort only by a change in length of any or all three sides.
Figure 13.1 Law of Triangulation.
A two-wheeler frame may comprise several such triangles, and, if designed correctly,
should be very efficient. Of course, the four-sided frame may be stiffened tremendously by
adding one or two diagonals, so converting it to two or four triangles. If only one bracing
strut is added, it must be of sufficient diameter to resist compression loads if the direction
of the applied force can be reversed. But if two diagonals are added even with thin wall
thickness, one or the other will be subject to tension under any type of loading, and this one
will complete the structure. In designing a triangulated frame, simple considerations of space
and shape may present difficulties, since some engines don’t give room to accommodate in
that type of construction. This problem can be resolved using either external triangulation or
internal triangulation.
STRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY: If the components of a frame are designed to be sufficiently
rigid then strength will not usually be a problem. Hence, a good frame is derived with the
help of structural efficiency which is its stiffness to weight ratio. However, in today’s era of
mass production, cost is closely related to weight and so a major manufacturer might rather
measure structural efficiency by the ratio of stiffness to cost. There are two basic means to
achieve better structural efficiency. One is to use many small diameter tubes in a triangulated
frame; the other is to use few large section tubes with higher torsional and bending stiffness.
Frame and Body 265
AERODYNAMIC AND STYLE: Modern two wheelers are built with an aesthetic appeal
along with the performance. The load bearing elements are likely to be visible externally.
Therefore, along with the primary functions, frame also has to accommodate body panels
and styling if vehicle manufacturers want to achieve good sales. However, styling must be
achieved along with the requirements to maintain strength and safety. The frame design and so
as the body style are also influenced by the need to achieve good aerodynamic characteristics.
Especially for high performance two wheelers, an aerodynamic shape help to achieve improved
performance and better handling characteristics. It also helps to distribute the side wind force
evenly throughout the frame.
MOUNTING OF SYSTEMS: The primary function of a frame is to provide mountings
for all necessary systems and components such as engine, transmission and suspensions. The
type of vehicle will decide the size and weight of the various systems and frame is designed
accordingly. A small economic street two wheelers uses small engines and systems which
requires lightweight tubular frame and it helps to achieve better power output. On the other
side, racing machines usually have bulky engine and advanced systems which demands for
optimized twin-spar frame.
WEIGHT: All vehicles nowadays are manufactured with weight as a major consideration.
Heavier vehicle needs more power to achieve the required performance. Moreover, it also
includes more materials and huge manufacturing as well as maintenance costs. It consumes
more fuel to produce sufficient power. As a result, fuels consumption and emissions increases.
Increased weight of the vehicle also increases wear and tear of various components. On the
other side, reduced vehicle weight helps to reduce wear on components such as tyres. All the
systems of vehicle will be under less stress and strain. This in turns facilitates manufacturing of
lightweight components. Lightweight components include less manufacturing and maintenance
costs. Overall weight reduction further reduces fuel consumption and emissions.
SAFETY: Although safety was not a major issue in the earlier days of two-wheeler design,
modern vehicles must pass many safety checks. Riders also expect safety to be a fundamental
design consideration. In the past, two wheeler frames depended on strong materials to provide
safety in accidents. However, modern two-wheeler frames rely on clever design to achieve
suitable results. Some parts of the frame are designed to collapse or deform in accidents,
thus absorbing some of the impact energy. The essential parts, however, are designed to
maintain original shape thus providing adequate safety. In this way, modern designs achieve
high levels of safety protection with a much lower weight of materials than was the case with
older vehicles.
13.3 COMPONENTS OF FRAME

A conventional two-wheeler frame can be divided into two parts: front frame and rear frame.
The front frame includes head tube, main tube, down tube and floor tube which are the
major load bearing members of the frame. The rear frame includes seat rails, rear down tube,
swing arm bracing plate, swing arm pivot and cross members. The front and rear frames are
connected and supported through middle bracing tube. Mounting plugs and mounting clamps
are permanently welded at various locations. Construction of a conventional two-wheeler frame

is shown in Figure 13.2 with all necessary parts.
Figure 13.2 Construction of Frame.
HEAD TUBE: The head tube is the tube at the top of the frame where front fork assembly
is attached. Inside the head tube, seats are provided for two sets of ball bearings and adjusting
nut. The angle of head tube is decided in conjunction with the steering geometry. The angle
of head tube is important as it affects the high speed stability and low speed manoeuverability.
The head tube angle is first set and fixed on the fixture during manufacturing and the rest part
of the frame is fabricated accordingly.
MAIN TUBE: The main tube, fundamentally, tolerates majority loads during dynamic
condition, therefore also known as back bone. It is essentially fabricated with larger diameter
tube to provide sufficient bending and torsional stiffness. Modern frame also includes pressed
steel plates which either replaces or reinforces the main tube.
HEAD TUBE RIB: The head tube rib is inserted and welded between the head tube and
the main tube. It increases stiffness and keeps the head tube at decided angle. It also provides
clamping point for the front wiring harness.
DOWN TUBE: Just like the main tube, the down tube also tolerates the various forces. It goes
down from the head tube to support further structure of the frame. The diameter of the down
tube is more or less same like the main tube. It also incorporates front mounting points for the
engine. The tubular frames, actually, are classified with respect to the number of down tube.
FLOOR TUBE: The floor tubes are intended to support engine and transmission from
the bottom and therefore the frame splits into two at the point where floor tube starts. The
floor tubes also welds a bottom cross bracing plate on which front foot pegs and stands are
mounted.
Frame and Body 267
FRONT BRACING TUBE: The front bracing tube is welded between the main tube and the
down tube to accomplish the law of triangulation. The frame is stiffened tremendously by adding
this diagonal bracing. It may be fabricated with smaller diameter tube or with pressed steel bar.
SEAT RAILS: Seat rails fall under the rear frame and tolerates forces those generated because
of weight. Therefore, the diameter of seat rail tubes is kept smaller. The seat rails mounts
various components like seat, battery, seat latch, rear body panels and rear fender.
CROSS MEMBERS: Cross members at various locations are sued to sustain lateral forces.
These cross members avoids buckling and bending of frame in lateral direction. They may be
fabricated with tubing or with steel bars.
REAR DOWN TUBE: The rear down tube connects the seat rails with the floor tubes by
completing the triangular structure. It supports the cantilever seat rails welded from one end.
They may have mounting points for the rear foot pegs, rear brake lever and gear shifting lever.
MIDDLE BRACING TUBE: The middle bracing tubes are used between the main tube
and the floor tubes to complete the triangular structure. Modern frames use the middle bracing
tubes or plates as a replacement of the rear down tube. This facilitates use of small rear down
tube with reduced diameter which further helps to shift the COG nearer to the engine. This
design shifts the mountings of rear foot pegs, rear brake lever and gear shifting lever on the
middle bracing tubes.
SWING ARM BRACING PLATE: The swing arm bracing plate is inserted on the rear
down tube or on the middle bracing tube. It incorporates a pivot point for the swing arm. It
also provides a rear mounting point for the engine and transmission. It is probably, second
stiffest part on the frame.
MOUNTING PLUGS AND CLAMPS: Mounting plugs and mounting clamps are permanently
welded at various locations to mount various systems and components. Necessary damping
elements are inserted in these mountings plugs to damp the vibrations.
13.4 MOUNTING PROVISIONS ON FRAME

As stated earlier, one of the fundamental functions of the frame is to provide mountings for
various systems and components. The way in which the mounting is done, purely depends on
the function of that particular system. Following are some common type of mounting provisions
which are provided on a conventional frame.
ENGINE AND TRANSMISSION MOUNTING: Engine and transmission, together, are
generally attached to the frame in at least three places, and sometimes as many as at six places.
The front bracing tube, down tube, floor tubes and middle bracing tube are used to mount the
engine. Some bigger machines also utilize the main tube for engine mounting. The floor tube
generally welds one or two bottom cross bracing plate on which the engine and transmission
is kept on rest. Figure 13.3 shows how the engine is mounted between three tubes. Instead of
bolting the engine directly to the frame, there are metal tabs or mounts either bolted or welded
to the frame. Usually the mounting bolts pass completely through the engine casing, adding
stability to both engine and frame.
Figure 13.3 Engine Mounting on Frame.
CONTROLS, PEGS AND STANDS: Another important set of mounts found on the two-
wheeler frame are those for the foot pegs, rear brake lever and gear shifting lever. Often the
front foot peg mounts are adjustable on the bottom cross bracing plate or independently mounted
directly on the frame. This helps to adjust the foot pegs according to rider’s height. The rear
brake lever and the gear shifting levers are also mounted right onto the cross bracing plate to
added strength to this important section of the frame. Modern approach for the brake lever and
gear shifting lever use the lowest point of middle bracing tube to accomplish the mounting.
Generally, two wheelers are equipped with one or two stands. These stands are means of
support given to the vehicle while it is been parked. Both stands are parts of the frame which
are operated through spring force. The stand which holds the vehicle upright is known as the
main stand while the other which holds the vehicle inclined is known as side stand. Normally,
the main stand is used when vehicle is been parked for longer time and the side stand is used
when the vehicle is been parked for short period of time. Both stands are fabricated with help
of steel tubing. Bottom end is kept flat to support the vehicle weight. The retaining springs
hold the stand either in “UP” position or in “DOWN” position. These springs therefore avoid
middle position, thus prevents accident during dynamic condition. Necessary extensions are
provided at lower ends of the stands to reduce the rider’s fatigue. The effort and operation
required for the side stand is much easier than the main stand. However, parking of the vehicle
with side stand also has few drawbacks like bending of side stand mounting bracket, overflow
of fuel in the carburetor, trapping of fuel in corners of the tank, imbalance of electrolyte in
Frame and Body 269
the battery, falling of vehicle if parked on soft surface etc. Figure 13.4 shows the main stand
and the side stand assemblies.
Figure 13.4 Main Stand and Side Stand Assemblies.
REAR SUSPENSION: There are two important mounting points on the rear frame for the
rear suspension system. They are swing arm pivot and the top suspension strut mount. The
suspension struts are mounted on the seat rails when twin-shock with regular swing arm is
used. In the case of mono-shock suspension, cross member is used to mount the upper end
of the strut. This cross member is either located between seat rails or between middle bracing
tubes. The swing arm mount is provided on the swing arm bracing plate. The mount is usually
bushed with a bronze, iron, or special rubber bushing, but some manufacturers use tapper roller
bearings. This mount is very important because rear wheel stability is totally dependent on the
condition of the swing arm mount. Dangerous handling will result if the swing arm is free to
wander laterally and flex on its pivot.
TANK, FENDER AND SEAT: Usually, the fuel tank is mounted with two or three points
on the main tube. The seat is mounted on the seat rails. The front end of the seat is hooked
near the fuel tank while other end is locked with the frame through key operated latch. The
rear fender is mounted below the seat between seat rails and rear down tube.
BATTERY, ELECTRICALS AND WIRING HARNESS: The frame is usually the base
mount for the electrical components and serves the purpose of grounding. The battery is
generally mounted under the rider’s seat nearer to engine. Modern approach with heavier
engine mounts the battery under the passenger’s seat. A numerous of engineering approaches
are used to mount the electrical components.
13.5 TUBULAR FRAME

The tubular frames are conventionally used on smaller capacity two wheelers. These frames
make use of metal tubes with different diameters to achieve sufficient structural efficiency.
Their triangular layout is determined primarily by space availability. The tube diameter varies
with the bending and torsional stiffness required at particular sections. Moreover, the tubes are
either supported or replaced with the pressed steel plate as and where required. Many vehicles
also use square or rectangular tubes instead of circular. With tubular frame, it is possible to
attain better rigidity along with excellent handling characteristics by using modern design and
fabrication techniques. Small capacity vehicle uses single main tube configuration while high
capacity vehicles with bigger engines demand for double main tubes configuration. Though
numerous variations and designs are used, fundamentally, following types of tubular frames
are generally used on various two wheelers.
BACKBONE TYPE FRAME: This frame uses a single large diameter tube which connects
the steering head with the rear suspension pivot, serving the purpose of spine and therefore
known as backbone frame. This type of construction allows added freedom in the overall
design of the vehicle and relatively economical production. Many times, the main tube is
also supported by pressed steel plates. Figure 13.5 shows a backbone type frame used for a
motorcycle. The engine is supported between main tube, down tube and floor tubes. Fabrication
of backbone type frame is very easy and required less skill. This frame is used on some early
as well as current custom motorcycles. Moreover, this frame is best suitable for vertical and
inclined single cylinder engines.
Figure 13.5 Backbone Frame.
DOUBLE BEAM TYPE FRAME: The double beam frame includes two main tubes which
wrap around the engine from the top. The multi-cylinder engine, when arranged transversely,
occupies more space and requires proper mounting. Therefore, in beam frame, the engine is
covers and supported more or less from all sides. Increased number of cross members also
increases lateral stiffness of the frame. Consequently, the structural efficiency of this frame is
far better than the backbone type frame. This frame is suitable for inline multi-cylinder engines.
Frame and Body 271
SINGLE CRADLE FRAME: Irrespective of configuration of the main tube, this frame
includes only one down tube to connect the steering head with the floor tubes. Figure 13.2
illustrates a single cradle frame. This construction gives extremely economic manufacturing
cost when produced in mass. The diameter of the down tube is nearly similar to the main
tube as it is the only connecting tube between the steering head and floor tubes. This frame is
generally used on small capacity mass produced motorcycles and provides ease during engine
maintenance. Moreover, this frame is best suitable for vertical single cylinder engines.
Figure 13.6 Beam Frame.
DOUBLE CRADLE FRAME: The double cradle design is similar to the above mentioned
single cradle frame, but has two down tubes, resulting in increased rigidity. On some frames, a
part of the down tube can be removed to facilitate easy engine removal. This frame is mainly
used on large capacity mass produced motorcycles. Figure 13.7 shows a double cradle frame.
Moreover, this frame is best suitable for horizontal and inclined single cylinder engines.
Figure 13.7 Double Cradle Frame.

TRELLIS FRAME: The latest trend for mounting a bigger engine in a tubular frame is to
make use of the trellis frame. The trellis frame uses wrapping tubes around the engine however
these tubes are more of like girders. These girders are formed with the help of necessary
triangulations. This design eliminates use of down tube and floor tubes; therefore, engine is
necessarily suspended through the tubed girders. The tubed girders, on the other ends, are either
welded or bolted to presses steel plates. The same plates are also used to support the rear frame
structure. This frame gives extremely lightweight and evenly rigid construction. The structural
rigidity of the engine also plays vital role in overall stiffness of the frame. Being lightweight,
the trellis frame gives extraordinary cornering characteristics. Figure 13.8 illustrates a trellis
frame. Moreover, this frame is best suitable for V twin engines.
Figure 13.8 Trellis Frame.
STEP-THROUGH FRAME: This type of frame is a combination of pressed steel plates

and steel tubing. This basic frame design
is mainly used on scooters. The name is
given according to its special feature. This
frame does not include any straight tube like
backbone. Instead, the tube from the steering
head is curved downward and welded to the
main steel plate structure. This arrangement
is specially designed for the female riders
to facilitate easy step-up and step-down to
drive the vehicle. The engine is mounted at
rear under the seat rails. The main structure
supports the whole vehicle and fabricated
from pressed steel plates. Front tubing is
welded to this main structure for mounting
the steering system and front body panel.
Figure 13.9 illustrates a step-through type
tube frame which is used on scooter. Figure 13.9 Step-through Frame.
Frame and Body 273
13.6 ENGINE-BASED FRAME

Potentially, this is the most efficient way to build a two wheeler with a large engine. The
principle behind this frame is to use the integral stiffness of the engine gearbox unit to provide
the major support between the steering head and the swing arm pivot. If that pivot is incorporated
in the rear of the gearbox casting, then a simple lightweight structure will usually be sufficient
to join the steering head to the top of the engine. The swing arm pivot is either clamped
between aluminium alloy plates or mounted at the back of the gearbox. The engine cylinder
heads are either attached to the backbone or mounted on the wrapping tubes. Figure 13.10
shows an engine-based frame. Surprisingly, the most complicated part of this structure is the
rear frame for mounting the seat and rear suspension unit. Often both the tubular and pressed
steel frames rely on the engine as a frame member instead of additional frame to add rigidity
to the structure. This design helps to reduce machine’s weight and cost.
Figure 13.10 Engine-based Frame.
13.7 TWIN-SPAR FRAME

Modern large engines and their huge air boxes present a great challenge to the frame designer
and the twin-spar offers considerable packaging advantages. It comprises of two beams running
each side of the engine and gearbox unit, joining the steering head to the swing arm pivot
mountings. These side beams may be extruded tubes, fabricated from steel or casted with
aluminium alloys. Castings of aluminium alloys have often been used for the head stock area
and the swing arm and rear engine mounting plates. These castings are welded to the side
spars. The rear frame is usually bolted to the front frame, which is either made of steel tube
or casted from the aluminium alloys. This type of frame allows much easier access to work on
the engine, in particular, removal and replacement of carburetors or FI system and access to
spark plugs. The elimination of down tubes and the lower cradle also facilitates space in the
area needed by exhaust and cooling systems. Figure 13.11 shows twin-spar frame with casted
side spars while 13.12 shows a frame with tubed side spars.
Figure 13.11 Casted Twin-spar Frame.
Figure 13.12 Tubed Twin-spar Frame.
13.8 MONOCOQUE FRAME

This unique design uses a structure which provides necessary rigidity and smooth outer shape.
There is no separate frame kind of construction to support the engine and other systems. The
engine and other systems are directly mounted on the load bearing structure like a car. The
structure may be fabricated from metal sheets or casted from aluminium alloys. Latest technique
Frame and Body 275
for racing motorcycles uses lightweight carbon fiber structure to serve the purpose. Figure 13.13
shows latest motorcycle with carbon fiber monocoque frame.
Figure 13.13 Monocoque Frame.
13.9 VIBRATION DAMPERS

The frame is used to mount the necessary components as well as to damp the vibrations
generated due to engine and road irregularities. However, vibrations due to road regularities
are mainly taken care by the suspensions therefore, frame has to absorb the engine vibrations.
Moreover, these vibrations should not be felt at the handlebar and seats to avoid rider’s fatigue.
Thus two-wheeler frame uses numerous variety of damping elements in the form of rubber
molded mountings or hydraulic dampers.
ENGINE MOUNTINGS: Fundamentally, major vibrations are generated due to the high
speed engine which runs the vehicle. Killing these vibrations with the help of rubber mountings
is been conventionally used on almost all vehicles. Generally, these rubber mountings are
fabricated either with natural rubber or with synthetic rubber molded to a piece of metal.
These anti-vibration mounts and pads are attached between the engine and the frame. When
mounted properly, they damp the vibrations, shocks and in some cases noise also, without even
affecting the performance of the engine. Figure 13.14 shows rubber molded engine mountings
used in a motorcycle.
Figure 13.14 Rubber Molded Engine Mountings.

It is important to select the appropriate mountings according to the application as the

wrong mountings can amplify the vibrations. Fixing an inappropriate mounting may condense
the high frequency vibrations or noise but probability of resonant conditions at lower frequencies
will be increased which leads to spasmodic ride and even failure of frame mountings.
HANDLEBAR MOUNTINGS: Few vehicles make
use of rubber mountings between the triple tree
bracket and handlebar as shown in Figure 13.15. This
arrangement prevents transmission of engine vibrations
and road shocks to the handlebar. However, softer rubber
mounts at this junction may generate difference in degree
of rotation between the handlebar and the triple tree,
resulting in steering error.
HANDLEBAR DAMPERS: Instead of attaching the
handle grips directly on the handlebar ends, some bigger
Figure 13.15 Handlebar Mountings.
vehicles like cruisers, use handlebar dampers. The handle
grips are mounted on these handle grips and then inserted into the handlebar ends as shown in
Figure 13.16. Handlebar dampers are combines the shock absorption capacity of rubber and metal
both. The rubber is molded on a stud which is attached to the handlebar end. The damper assembly
is inserted inside the handlebar end and bolted at one end. The plastic grip is then assembled
conventionally on the handlebar tube. The handlebar dampers considerably reduce the vibrations
which is favourable characteristics of long touring machines. Many two wheelers instead make
use of weights on both ends of handlebar which also help to minimize the vibrations. Figure 13.17
shows arrangement of handlebar end weight.
Figure 13.16 Handlebar Dampers.
Figure 13.17 Handlebar End Weight.

Frame and Body 277
STEERING DAMPER: The unwanted jolts and oscillations from the front wheel are reduced
by the steering damper. Fundamentally, construction and working of the steering damper is same
as used on the suspension system. The steering damper can either be reciprocating type or rotary
type. The reciprocating type steering damper is mounted between the lower bracket of triple tree and
the frame while the rotary type damper is mounted on the top of the upper bracket of the triple tree.
On high capacity bike, momentarily lifting of the front wheel at the time of acceleration is
commonly observed. When this wheel touches the ground, the self-aligning characteristic of the
steering causes the front wheel to return back in the straight ahead position very quickly. This
happens very rapidly causing the wheel to pass through the straight ahead position and swing
towards the opposite side. The same correcting torque again tries to set the wheel back on the
straight ahead position. Consequently, rapid swinging of the front wheel takes place from one side
to other. These oscillations can become so violent that handlebar no longer remains controllable.
Moreover, if controlled anyhow, these oscillation leads to reduced braking efficiency. The steering
damper attached between the steering assembly and the frame, dampens the unwanted oscillations
of the front wheel. Figure 13.18 shows a steering damper used on high speed motorcycles.
Figure 13.18 Steering Damper.
MOUNTINGS: Almost all basic systems and components are mounted on the frame through
rubber moldings or pads. The properties of rubber mold highly depend upon the function and
working of those particular components. Though suspension struts are principal components
which absorb majority shocks on the vehicle, they are also mounted through the rubber moldings
and metal bush arrangement. Figure 13.19 shows such rubber lining inside the mounting eye of
a suspension strut. Likewise, other components and systems are also mounted through rubber
lined fasteners as shown in Figure 13.20.
Figure 13.19 Rubber Molding on Suspension Strut.
Figure 13.20 Rubber Molded Fasteners.
13.10 FRAME MATERIAL

Steel is easily the most common material used for frame fabrication. Depending on design, the
frame is fabricated either as tube or sheet. There are several reasons for its choice:
Raw material cost is relatively low.
Well-developed operating and joining techniques are available.
Young’s Modulus is high, so the required stiffness can be obtained with small tube
sizes.
Aluminium has often been used for specials and racing machines in the form of monocoques and
large section backbones. However, components such as complete frames are rarely cast because
the minimum material thickness needed for the casting process usually results in excessively
heavy components. The tubular aluminium frames started to appear on racing motorcycles.
This trend started cautiously, when just the pivoted rear swing arm was made in light alloy,
before spreading to the complete chassis. In the development of aluminium frames, however,
it is interesting to note that tube sizes increased rapidly to compensate for the low stiffness.
Proper triangulation throughout the frame helps in this context and achieves better stiffness.
In racing now, the use of aluminium alloy fabricated twin-spar frames is almost universal,
and is also widely featured on expensive sports models for the street. It must be remembered
that the fatigue characteristics of aluminium are such that failure is inevitable eventually in
components subjected to alternating stress, hence limited life must be accepted. For touring
machines, where long life is always favourable, the steel frame greatly replaces the aluminium
even on the cost of weight.
Frame and Body 279
Tubular frames have also been tried with titanium. With its low weight and high strength,
titanium is probably used to best advantage in a triangulated design. Its chief disadvantages are
high cost and the sophisticated welding techniques required, but its corrosion resistance is excellent.
Magnesium, both cast and fabricated, has been used for backbone type frames. Besides high
cost and welding difficulties, however, it has the added disadvantage of limited life as a result
of both fatigue and corrosion. The use of composite materials, such as carbon fiber and Kevlar
reinforced plastics, is extensively used in Formula One racing. The monocoque style of chassis
construction lends itself to this approach to use composite materials but ingenious design and future
development in materials may alter the picture, though at present construction costs are very high.
Another form of composite material that has been tried is aluminium honeycomb, although
similar material is available made with carbon fiber reinforced plastic in place of the aluminium.
Two sheets of material are spaced apart by a light weight centre formed as a honeycomb shape.
Adhesive is used to bond the separate components. Slabs made in this way weigh little more
than the outer two sheets because the spacing structure is often of very thin material. However,
the depth given to the slab gives it much higher bending and torsion rigidity than that of an
equal weight plain sheet. Whilst this material has been used to make some frames, the designs
have to be composed of flat surfaces glued together. This means that it is only suitable for a
limited range of engine types and frames layouts.
Circular section tubing has long been the most common shape in frame production which
is not just because of its cheaper cost than other types. It is also the best section for resisting
torsional and compressive loads and is equally capable of resisting bending loads in whatever
direction. However, other sections are sometimes used, mainly oval, square and rectangular,
though occasionally tubing of taper section is also used. A tube’s resistance to bending is a
function of the second moment of area which depends on the tube shape and, except for a
round section, differs about the neutral axis according to direction. Therefore, if the bending
loads to which a frame member is subjected are known, the tubing shape to achieve the most
efficient structure can be easily tailored. Tube diameter and wall thickness are determined by
the size, weight and power of the machine, also by the design configuration of the structure,
e.g. triangulated, backbone etc.
13.11 BODY WORK

Particularly for two wheelers, there are very few parts and areas where designers can show their
potential and which impacts on customer’s mind at first momentary look. This includes front
fairing or body panels, fuel tank, tail fairing, headlights, side lights, tail lights, ORVMs and
sometimes exhausts, seats and wheels. Basic purpose of body panels is to create an attractive
aesthetics for a vehicle, to cover and protect various systems and components, to absorb part
of energy during collision and to provide aerodynamic shape for racing as well as touring
vehicles. Almost all two wheelers come with incredible curves and edges on body panels.
Basically, curves and edges are used to create visual pleasure and to define bold borders. Most
of the curves are designed to provide brawny look along with the ergonomic considerations.
The use of steel or aluminium for seats, mudguards, fairings etc. has been largely
outmoded in racing by reinforced plastics. Initially this was GRP or Glass Reinforced Plastic,
polyester being the plastic or resin most used. This has been over taken by the use of Carbon
Fiber Reinforced Plastic which has given way to the stronger and more stable epoxy resin.
Carbon fiber has the advantage of having a very high Young’s modulus therefore it is very
stiff. Some of this stiffness is given up when imbedded in the epoxy but the overall resulting
composite material is still stiffer than most other forms of construction. This enables thin and
hence light weight panels and shapes to be molded, without undue flexibility in the finished
component. Like GRP, carbon fiber parts can be made easily, but for the best results the work
needs to be done with specialist facilities. The final setting or hardening of the material is
done in autoclaves (ovens) and some form of pressure molding (such as vacuum bagging) is
best to ensure an even thickness and uniform matrix. It is important to eject any air trapped
in the liquid resin. Working with the resins used in composite materials can be hazardous and
appropriate precautions and protective clothing should always be worn.
On road machines, like scooters and small capacity motorcycles, metal is being replaced
for various components and body panels in order to save weight, but in this case thermoplastic
moldings are commonly used, some of which have greater flexibility, which reduces the chance
of permanent damage in a minor accident. A disadvantage, however, is their tendency to look
shabby in time as a result of scratching and other surface blemishes. Figure 13.21 shows
assembly of body panels on a motorcycle.
13.12 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

From perspective of automobiles, ergonomic refers to the ease with which the rider can operates
and drive the vehicle. Ergonomic considerations plays vital role to engineers when designing
different systems and their interface with the vehicle. As a result of good ergonomics, vehicle
can be operated with optimal interaction between rider and vehicle itself. The shaping and design
of the seat along with the width and shape of the fuel tank also falls under the ergonomics.
Optimum wind protection with a low level of wind noise is also important on long tours.
Since wind protection depends on the height of the rider, many touring motorcycles are fixed
with electrically operated height-adjustable windshields and thus provide increased comfort.
In the case of the sports touring motorcycles, the height and angle of the trim shield can also
be manually adapted. Though scooters do not offer much to do, many modern scooters are
also equipped with height-adjustable seat for the rider. The principles of ergonomic design are
considered in five different levels.
In the first level a vehicle must be safe for human beings.
In the second level a vehicle must not produce harmful effects on human beings over
longer periods.
In the third level a vehicle must be physically comfortable that is, it should not require
excessive efforts, both physical and mental or visual.
In the fourth level a vehicle should provide mental satisfaction, i.e. give a feeling of
pleasure to the human being using the same. This must also include the cost price
of the vehicle.
The fifth level is determining the degree of innovation of a vehicle in which ergonomic
considerations must constitute an essential factor.
Frame and Body 281
Figure 13.21 Body Panel Assemblies.

RIDING POSTURE: It includes the seating position of rider and passenger, in conjunction
with the height, texture and position of the handlebars and footrests. Fundamentally, there
are three types of riding posture which can be adopted to drive a two-wheeler: backward
leaning, upright position and forward leaning. Generally, minor backward leaning posture is
been preferred for touring machine. This posture gives more relaxed position if foot controls are
mounted at the front besides the engine, resulting in extended legs towards front. The upright
position of the rider is preferred for the street and endure machines. This position helps to
maintain the COG in the middle length of the vehicle, improving the handling characteristics
during frequent manoeuverability. Forward leaning, apparently, does not do much to provide
comfort. It only facilitates lesser drag and thus mostly used on sport and racing motorcycles.
Figure 13.22 illustrates three types of riding postures.
Figure 13.22 Three Types of Riding Postures.
Scooters generally use upright driving posture as they are meant for street commuting.
Modern two wheelers are equipped with a height-adjustable seat. The seating position can thus
be altered to the optimum height in relation to the handlebars and footrests to suit the size of
the rider. Many touring vehicles also compromise passengers’ height-adjustable footrest plates
for a relaxed leg posture.
DRIVER’S VISIBILITY: Rider’s visibility is the maximum distance at which the rider of
a vehicle can see and identify prominent objects around the vehicle. Visibility is primarily
determined by weather conditions and by vehicle’s design. The parts of a vehicle that influence
visibility includes the front fairing, huge fuel tanks and wind shield (If provided). Blind spots
may occur in the front of the vehicle when the fairing (also the windshield), rear-view mirrors,
helmet and tank block a rider’s view of the road. Behind the rider, there are pillion passenger
and goods that may reduce visibility. Blind spots, in the context of driving an automobile, are
the areas of the road and surroundings that cannot be seen while looking forward or through
the rear view mirrors. Blind spots can be eliminated by overlapping both the rear-view mirrors,
or checked by turning one’s head briefly. Detection of vehicles or other objects in blind spots
may also be aided by systems such as video cameras or distance sensors, though these are not
yet incorporated in two wheelers.
The area most commonly referred to as blind spots are the rear quarter blind spots, areas
towards the rear of the vehicle on both sides. These areas are shown in Figure 13.23. Vehicles in the
adjacent lanes of the road may fall into these blind spots, and a rider may be unable to see them using
only the rear view mirrors. Front-end blind spots are influenced by the following design criteria:
Distance between the driver and the fairing
Width of the fairing
Frame and Body 283
Figure 13.23 Blind Spot Area for a Two Wheeler.
Angle of the windshield if provided

Colour of the windshield in the case of sport bikes
Height of the driver in relation to the windshield
Generally, two wheelers with larger front fairing or body work have larger front blind
spots. These blind spots are generated on the road surface and under the projected area of the
fairing. Obstacles on the road are partly or sometimes completely covered by the huge fairings.
Scooters are also fall in the same category as they are provided with a front dome.
LOCATION OF CONTROLS: Location of controls includes the position of hand levers and
foot levers. These locations primarily depend upon the riding posture. Various adjustments are
provided depending upon the functional and space requirement. The handlebar, conventionally,
can be adjusted on the upper bracket risers which does not contribute much towards comfort.
Therefore modern technologies allow the vehicles to be fitted with adjustable handlebar halves.
The handlebar ends can be height-adjusted as per convenience of the rider. The handlebar
controls are designed according to ergonomic principles. The low level of force required and
individual adjustment facilities ease of operation at the hand levers for clutch and brake. This
in turns, facilitate fine tuning of brake and clutch which enables to generate fatigue-free ride.
Warm hands are also a part of feeling good on a motorcycle. They increase the rider’s capacity
to concentrate and thus also enhance active safety. This is why some motorcycles are available
with handlebar grips which can be adjusted to multiple levels and with automatic heating.
Location of foot pegs and foot levers should be decided according to riding posture and position
of handle grips. Riding posture other than the mentioned earlier may cause high stress level
and fatigue at various body parts. Minor adjustments are also provided at foot pegs for the
rider as well as the passenger.
SEAT: Vehicle ride comfort is one of the most prominent factors affecting purchase decision
and customer satisfaction. Meeting the customer comfort requirements, which is a popular
issue, plays an important role in terms of vehicle marketing. Normally rider feels different
vibrations from seat surface, feet region and handle bar during driving and due to such type
of vibration driver feels discomfort. The two-wheeler seat is characterized by having multiple
shape that provide a balance between the static seating comfort and the comfort required for
the various riding positions of the vehicle. In conventional seat development, design parameter
for example hardness, shape and materials have been directly manipulated based on subjective
filling evaluations. Body pressure distribution is influenced by personal attribute of the rider,
like seating area caused by, for example, differences in postural side and bone structure. Seats
are generally designed to fit at least 90 percentile of the population from small to large body
sizes. Static and dynamic geometry of the human body are used in seat design. Static geometry
is obtained from anthropometric studies of the population. Dynamic geometry is obtained with
a mechanical model of the human body. Mass-links are positioned to represent seated posture.
The human body is evolved in such a way that, when the body is seated, the primary weight
of the body can best be supported by the ischial tuberosities sometime called the sitting bone
of buttocks. The primary weight should be supported by these bones. The seat design should
be such that it should provide for a distribution of the weight over the entire buttocks, with
the pressure decreasing from these bones to the periphery of the buttocks. A major portion of
the vibration experienced by the rider and pillion of a motorcycle enters the body through the
seat. Whole body vibrations are in the vertical direction tends to affect the human body mostly.
These vibrations are transmitted to buttock and back of rider and pillion along the vertebral
axis via the base of seat. An ergonomic design approach plays a crucial role for improving
the riding comfort. Therefore to provide maximum ride comfort and to damper the vibrations,
two-wheeler seats are fabricated with different layers of foams. Figure 13.24 shows construction
of a two-wheeler seat.
Figure 13.24 Construction of Seat.
A hard plastic base forms the frame structure for the seat and used to hold the upper
structure. The variable density foam is attached to the plastic base. This form is used to provide
primary cushioning effect as the density of this foam can be changed according to loading
conditions. The shock absorbing synthetic gel absorbs the vibrations coming through the frame.
The gel is necessarily a mixture of chemical agents which do not react chemically with other
materials of seat. The heat resisting foam prevents the heat flow toward the shock absorbing
gel. The heat flow may take place from the atmosphere or from heating filament of the seat.
This whole bunch of foam and gel is then covered with the help of a soft cover which protects
the internal components as well as provides secondary cushioning effect.
Frame and Body 285
After all, the shape of seat also plays vital role in ergonomics because not only the
absolute height of the seat determines whether the rider reaches the ground comfortably with
both feet when standing, but also the shape and width, especially of the front section. This type
of ergonomically optimized design of the seat is adopted in many new vehicles which facilitate
shorter riders to stand securely. Moreover, some expensive models are providing heated seats
as a special accessory for both rider and passenger.
13.13 SIDECARS
The sidecar is a simple one wheel framework that may be readily clamped to the frame of two
wheelers and which carries a comfortable seat that will provide protection for the passenger.
Some sidecar also includes ample amount of storage space behind the passenger’s seat. The
frame of the sidecar may either be fixed to the parental frame, or it may be attached flexibly
so that the vehicle can lean in the same manner as it does without sidecar. In some designs, the
sidecar has a removable soft top cover. Some modified sidecars are used for carrying luggage.
A typical sidecar attached to a motorcycle is shown in Figure 13.25. This three wheeled
vehicle arrangement thus provides more comfort for the passenger. Due to the three-point
support, neither the rider nor the passenger need to concern themselves with maintaining
balance, as it is impossible for the machine to roll over. However, a sidecar makes the vehicle
asymmetrical. A vehicle with fixed mounted sidecar can go faster in left turns than in right
turns because the protracted support of the sidecar avoids its rolling over. In right turns, they
can roll over if curves are commuted with high speed.
Figure 13.25 Motorcycle with Sidecar.
Rider and passenger body position affect higher speed handling, especially on dirt or
other uneven surfaces. If the sidecar and vehicle geometry are not synchronized the vehicle
will be unstable, especially on high speeds. It is usual to experience shimmy when this vehicle
is accelerated or decelerated. To maintain the straight line stability, the vehicles is clamped to
the sidecar after tilting it by a few degrees opposite the sidecar. Moreover, the sidecar wheel
is kept with a few degrees of “toe-in” toward the centreline of the vehicle to provide better
balancing characteristics. Most sidecars are also fitted through various damping devices to
reduce the effects of sudden inputs from the vehicle.
Advantages of Sidecar
Stability increases
Reduced chances of wobble
Increases safety
Better storage capacity
Better comfort
Disadvantages of Sidecar
Increased fuel consumption
Increased wear and tear of components
Overall width increases
Requires more space for parking
Accessibility during maintenance decreases
Decreased manoeuverability
Review Questions
1. Why frame is necessary? Explain various loads acting on the frame.
2. Explain following design consideration for frame
(a) Fatigue
(b) Bending and torsional stiffness
(c) Structural efficiency
3. Explain law of triangulation. Also explain weight and safety consideration in
frame design.
4. Draw a neat diagram showing various components of a conventional frame. Also
explain their functions.
5. Which are the various mounting provisions provided on the frame? Explain.
6. Enlist various features of a tubular frame.
7. Explain various types of tubular frame.
8. Describe engine-based frame. Also state its advantages.
9. Explain construction of a twin-spar frame.
10. Explain various vibration damping devices used for a two-wheeler frame.
11. Why it is necessary to use a steering damper on high performance two wheelers?
Explain its constructional features.
12. Write a short note on various materials used for two-wheeler frames.
13. Why ergonomic considerations are important? Explain importance of riding
posture and driver’s visibility.
14. Explain construction of two-wheeler seat.
15. Explain sidecar.
14
Electrical Systems
Contents
YY Battery
YY Charging System
YY Ignition Systems
YY Lighting System
YY Horn
YY Handlebar Controls
YY Side Stand/Ignition Interlock System
YY Stepping Motor
YY Instruments & Indicators
Electrical and Electronics have been relatively slow in coming to the two-wheeler segment
primarily because of the relationship between the added cost and the benefits. However, electrical
and electronic systems are being widely used now in the two wheelers and probably will be
used even more in the future. Some of the present and potential applications for electronics are
Electronic engine control for minimizing exhaust emissions and maximizing fuel
economy
Instrumentation for measuring vehicle performance parameters and for diagnosis of
on-board system malfunctions
Driveline control
Vehicle motion control
Safety and convenience
Communication and navigation on touring machines
Most manufacturers are making incremental improvements to existing technology of electrical
systems. However, electrical and electronic systems can be divided into two different groups—
open loop systems and closed loop systems.
The desired output as a result of appropriate input applied to the system. A conventional
lighting system of a vehicle is an example of an open loop system. The headlights will be
287
lightened as an output when the switch is operated as an input. The basic characteristic of an
open loop system is that no feedback is collected and given to the system. Figure 14.1 shows
this example in block diagram form.
Figure 14.1 Open Loop System.
A closed loop system requires a constant or intermediate feedback for being operated.
The system takes corrective measures to match up with the required output. These corrective
measures are taken under action after deriving appropriate feedbacks. A fuel injection system
of any two-wheeler gives good example of a closed loop system. The amount of fuel to be
injected is determined by the output from the ECU. The ECU collects the various responses
from different sensors. The feedback loop is due to the fact that the output from the system,
i.e. amount of fuel, is also an input to the system. This is represented in Figure 14.2.
Figure 14.2 Closed Loop System.
Fundamentally, open loop system works with electrical components while closed loop
system essentially requires electronic components. Various open and closed loop systems work
simultaneously to achieve desired performance of the vehicle. The closed loop systems include
FI system, ABS system, DDC system and cooling system while open loop systems include
lighting system, ignition system, horn and various warning indicators. The closed loop systems
are already covered in respective chapters therefore this chapter covers various basic open loop
electrical systems which support the vehicle to achieve best possible performance under all
conditions. Precise and quick responses of these components make their usage more feasible
and admissible. Therefore, almost all systems of two wheelers are now functioning through
numerous electrical components. Figures 14.3 and 14.4 show arrays of electrical and electronic
components used on modern motorcycle.
14.1 BATTERY
The vehicle battery is used as a main source of electric energy in the vehicle when the engine
and the alternator are not working. The battery has following necessary requirements.
To provide sufficient power storage. Moreover, it should be supplied as quickly as
possible to operate the starter motor.
To allow the use of headlights for a long period of time.
To allow operation of various essential systems like fuel pump, ABS system etc.
Electrical Systems 289
Figure 14.3 Electric Components on Motorcycle.
To serve the purpose of a reservoir, this helps to recompense variations in system

voltage.
In case of high performance two wheelers, to allow ECU to remain active when the
vehicle is parked for a long period of time.
The first two requirements are most important and play a major part in selection of the
most appropriate battery for a given vehicle. The lead–acid battery, in one or other forms, is
conventionally used in almost all two wheelers. The primary reason of selecting lead–acid
battery is particularly the cost of the battery. The final requirement of the vehicle battery is
that it must be able to carry out all the above listed functions over a wide temperature range.
Figure 14.4 Electric Components on Motorcycle.
This can be in the region of –30° to 70°C. This also

include very cold starting conditions as well as potentially
high temperatures during race.
The battery powers major electrical systems which
include starting system, ignition system, charging system,
lighting system and accessories. A battery is a device
which works on electrochemical reactions to produce
voltage and to deliver electrical current. It is important to
recall that a battery does not store electricity, but rather
it stores a series of chemicals. Electricity is produced
through a chemical process between these chemicals. Figure 14.5 Lead–Acid Battery.
Basically, two different types of acid mixtures take part in chemical process to produce voltage.
This electrochemical reaction converts the chemical energy into electrical energy and is the
basis principle used for all automotive batteries. Figure 14.5 shows a lead–acid battery.
14.1.1 Battery Principle

A lead–acid cell works on a simple principle: when two different metals are submerged in an
acid solution, a chemical reaction takes place and voltage is generated through this reaction.
One metal is brown-coloured lead dioxide (PbO2). It has a positive electrical charge. The
other metal is gray coloured sponge lead (Pb) and it has a negative electrical charge. The acid
solution, which is known as electrolyte, is a mixture of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O).
Figure 14.6 illustrates the working principle of battery.
Figure 14.6 Working Principle of Battery.
Current will start flowing if a conductor and a load are connected between these two
metals. This discharging will continue until the metals become same and the acid is used up
in chemical reaction. The reaction can be reversed by supplying the current in the opposite
direction. This charging will continue until the cell materials are restored to their original
condition. There are four stages in discharging/charging cycle.
CHARGED: A fully charged battery contains of sponge lead (Pb) on negative plate, of lead
dioxide (PbO2) on positive plate, and mixture of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O) as
electrolyte.
DISCHARGING: As soon as the battery is connected with load, the electrolyte starts diluting
and the plates become sulphated. The electrolyte is separated into hydrogen (H2) and sulphate
(SO4). The positive plate omits the oxygen (O2). The hydrogen (H2) in the electrolyte combines
with oxygen (O) to form more water (H2O). The sulphate from the electrolyte combines with
the lead (Pb) on both plates to form lead sulphate (PbSO4).
DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged condition, both plates of the cell are layered with lead
sulphate (PbSO4) and the major amount of electrolyte is diluted into water (H2O).
CHARGING: During charging, the chemical reaction is inverted due to reversed flow of
current. Sulphate (SO4) is forced to leave the plates and combines with hydrogen (H2) to form
sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Lead dioxide (PbO2) is formed on the positive plate as free oxygen
(O2) combines with lead (Pb). Gas is emitted as the battery nears full charge, and hydrogen
bubbles come out at the negative plates while oxygen at the positive plate.
14.1.2 Battery Construction

To perform various functions, an automotive battery encloses few essential components.
Figure 14.7 shows construction details of a battery.
Figure 14.7 Battery Construction.
BATTERY CASE: The case is a container which holds and shields all battery components
including electrolyte. It helps to separate cells and provides space at the bottom for residue
materials. Partly transparent plastic case facilitates inspection of electrolyte level without
removing vent caps. Cover is permanently sealed to the top of the case. The cover provides
outlets for terminal posts, vent holes for venting of gases and for battery maintenance. The
battery case performs following functions.
Form a sealed container.
Protect the internal parts.
Keep the internal parts in proper alignment.
Prevent electrolyte leakage.
PLATES: Positive and negative plates have a grid framework of antimony and lead alloy.
Active material is pasted to the grid—brown-coloured lead dioxide (PbO2) on positive plates,
gray-coloured sponge lead (Pb) on negative plates. The current capability is determined by the
number and size of the plates. Batteries with large plates or many plates produce more current
than batteries with small plates or few plates. It is important to note that only the surface layers
on both plates take part in the chemical reaction. The current capacity of the battery increases
as the surface area of the plates increases. Surface area is determined by the size of each plate,
as well as the total number of plates in a battery. Generally speaking, the larger battery has
higher current capacity. However, surface area has no effect on battery voltage.
SEPARATORS: The positive and the negative plates must be installed alternately next to
each other without touching. Non-conducting separators are used, which allow room for the
reaction of the acid with both plate materials, yet insulate the plates to prevent shorts. These
separators are porous (with many small holes) and have ribs facing the positive plate. Separators
can be made from resin-coated paper, porous rubber, fiberglass, or expanded plastic. Many
batteries use envelope-type separators that encase the entire plate and help prevent any material
that may shed from the plates from causing a short circuit between plates at the bottom of
the battery.
CELLS: Cells are constructed of positive and negative plates with insulating separators
between each plate. Most batteries use one more negative plate than positive plate in each cell;
however, many newer batteries use the same number of positive and negative plates. A cell
is also called an element. Each cell is actually a 2.1 volt battery, regardless of the number of
positive or negative plates used. The greater the number of plates used in each cell, the greater
the amount of current that can be produced. Typical batteries contain four positive plates and
five negative plates per cell. A 12 volt battery contains six cells connected in series, which
produce 12.6 volts (6 × 2.1 = 12.6) and contain 54 plates (9 plates per cell × 6 cells). If the
same 12 volt battery had five positive plates and six negative plates, for a total of 11 plates
per cell (5 + 6), or 66 plates (11 plates × 6 cells), then it would have the same voltage, but
the amount of current that the battery could produce would be increased.
VENTING SYSTEM: It is normal for some water in the form of hydrogen and oxygen
gases to escape during charging as a result of the chemical reactions. The escape of gases
from a battery during charging or discharging is called gassing. On some batteries, vent caps
allow a controlled release of hydrogen gas. Various types of venting system include individual
filler plugs, strip-type, or box-type. When removed, they permit checking electrolyte and, if
necessary, adding water.
PARTITIONS: Each cell is separated from the other cells by partitions, which are made
of the same material as that used for the outside case of the battery. Electrical connections
between cells are provided by lead connectors that loop over the top of the partition and
connect the plates of the cells together. Many batteries connect the cells directly through the
partition connectors, which provide the shortest path for the current and the lowest resistance.
ELECTROLYTE: Electrolyte is the term used to describe the acid solution in a battery. The
electrolyte used in automotive batteries is a solution (liquid combination) of 36% sulphuric acid
and 64% water. This electrolyte is used for both lead-antimony and lead-calcium (maintenance-
free) batteries. Electrolyte is sold premixed in the proper proportion and is factory installed
or added to the battery when the battery is sold. Additional electrolyte must never be added
to any battery after the original electrolyte fill. Only pure distilled water should be added to a
battery. If distilled water is not available, clean drinking water can be used.
14.1.3 Capacity Ratings

The battery must be capable to supply required current to crank the engine. Moreover, it
should also provide sufficient storage capacity. Its capacity is determined by the amount of
electrical energy the battery can deliver in fully charged condition. Capacity is also resolute by
the number of cells, the size and number of plates and the strength and volume of electrolyte.
The most commonly used ratings are:
Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)
Reserve Capacity (RC)
Amp-Hours (AH)
Power (Watts)
COLD-CRANKING AMPERES (CCA): As stated earlier, primary function of battery is to
provide huge amount of current required to crank the engine. This demands for large amount
of current discharge in a very short time. The CCA Rating is denoted in amperes. It specifies
the discharge load a fully charged battery at 0˚F (–1 7.8˚C) can deliver for 30 seconds while
maintaining a voltage of at least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts total for a 12-volt battery).
RESERVE CAPACITY (RC): In case of sudden failure of a charging system, the battery
must provide alternative current for various systems like ignition, lights, and accessories.
Therefore, at normal temperatures, battery must have sufficient reserve capacity for a certain
amount of time. The RC Rating is denoted in minutes. It specifies the length of time a fully
charged battery at 80˚F (26.7’C) can be discharged at 25 amps while maintaining a voltage of
at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery).
AMP-HOURS (AH): The amount of active materials on the plates should not fall under
specified limits. It helps to maintain an ample amount of lasting power under light-load
conditions. This method of rating batteries is also called the 20-hour discharge rating. The
Amp-Hour Rating specifies, in amp hours, the current the battery can provide for 20 hours at
80˚F (26.7˚C) while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for
a 12-volt battery).
POWER (WATTS): The cranking power available from the battery may also be measured
in watts. The Power Rating, in watts, is multiplication of the current available by the battery
voltage at 0˚F (–1 7.8˚C).
The processes in lead–acid batteries are very similar, even with variations in design.
However, batteries using a gel rather than liquid electrolyte are now universally adopted. These
batteries are known as “maintenance-free battery”. Some types of batteries is using thixotropic
solid-gel type electrolyte. This means that, due to a high viscosity, the gel will remain steady
even if the battery is inverted. A further advantage of a solid gel electrolyte is that a network
of porous paths is formed through the electrolyte. If the battery is overcharged, the oxygen
produced at the positive plate will move to the negative plate, where it combines with the
lead and sulphuric acid to form lead sulphate and water. This reforming of the water means
the battery is truly maintenance free. The recharging method is similar to the conventional
batteries. These batteries have many advantages in that they do not leak and are more resistant
to poor handling. The one main problem with using a gel electrolyte is low speed of the
chemical reaction. Whilst this is not a problem for some types of supply, the current required
by a vehicle starter is very high for a short duration. The cold cranking amps (CCA) capacity
of this type of battery is therefore often lower than the equivalent-sized conventional battery.
14.2 CHARGING SYSTEM

The ‘current’ demands made by modern two wheelers are considerable. The charging system
must be able to meet these demands under all operating conditions and still ‘fast charge’ the
battery. The charging system must meet the following criteria when the engine is running.
Supply the current demands made by all loads.
Supply whatever charge current the battery demands.
Operate at idle speed.
Supply constant voltage under all conditions.
Have an efficient power-to-weight ratio.
Be reliable, quiet, and have resistance to contamination.
Require low maintenance.
When the voltage from the charging system is less than the battery (engine slow or not running
for example), the direction of current flow is from the battery to the vehicle loads. The charging
circuit diodes prevent current flowing into the alternator. When the charging circuit output is
greater than the battery voltage, current will flow from the generator to the vehicle loads and the
battery. Therefore, the charging system output voltage must be greater than the battery voltage
at all times when the engine is running. The main consideration for the charging voltage is the
battery terminal voltage when fully charged. If the charging system voltage is set to this value
then there can be no risk of overcharging the battery. This is known as the constant voltage
charging technique. The other areas for consideration when determining the charging voltage
are any expected voltage drops in the charging circuit wiring and the operating temperature of
the system and battery. The voltage drops must be kept to a minimum, but it is important
to note that the terminal voltage of the alternator may be slightly above that supplied to the
battery.
14.2.1 Components of Charging System

Almost all two wheelers use permanent magnet type charging system. Figure 14.8 shows circuit
containing major components of a charging system while Figure 14.9 shows actual locations
of major three components of the charging system.
Figure 14.8 Charging System Circuit.
Figure 14.9 Actual Locations of Charging System.
IGNITION SWITCH: When the ignition switch is in the ON position, battery current
energizes the alternator.
ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR/DYNAMO: Mechanical energy is transferred from
the engine to the alternator either directly or through a gear drive arrangement. Through
electromagnetic induction, the alternator converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The rectifier is used to convert the generated alternating current into direct current. It is
accomplished by a set of diodes which permits current to pass in only one direction.
REGULATORS/RECTIFIER: Without a regulator, the alternator always operates at its
maximum output. This causes damage to certain components and may overcharge the battery.
The regulator is sued to control the alternator output which finally helps to prevent overcharging
or undercharging. On some economical two wheelers, this is a separate electromechanical
component which uses a coil and contact breaker points to open and close the alternator circuit.
On most models today, this is a built-in electronic device.
INDICATORS: The charging indicator device most commonly used on is a simple ON/OFF
warning lamp. It is normally off. It lights when the ignition is turned “on” for a check of the
lamp circuit. And, it lights when the engine is running if the charging system is undercharging.
FUSING: Fusible links as well as separate fuses are used at various locations to protect
circuits in the charging system.
BATTERY: The battery supplies current to energize the alternator. During charging, the
battery changes electrical energy from the alternator into chemical energy. The battery’s active
materials are restored. The battery also acts as a “shock absorber” or voltage stabilizer in the
system to prevent damage to sensitive components in the vehicle’s electrical system.
VEHICLE LOAD: It includes all electrical and electronic components other than the battery.
These all components consume electrical power from the battery while engine is not running
and diverted to alternator power as soon as engine starts.
14.2.2 Alternator/Dynamo/Generator/Magneto
All electrical alternators use the principle of electromagnetic induction to generate electrical
power from mechanical power. Electromagnetic induction involves the generation of an electrical
current in a conductor when the conductor is moved through a magnetic field. The amount of
current generated can be increased by the following factors.
Increasing the speed of the conductors through the magnetic field
Increasing the number of conductors passing through the magnetic field
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
As shown in Figure 14.8, an alternator is located under the left side cover of the engine. As
two wheelers do not offer much from space point of view, the construction of an alternator
includes use of only three components. The permanent magnet is attached with the crankshaft
and rotated either directly or through gear pair. The stator contains coils of wire and remains
stationary with the engine cover. It also incorporates necessary cabling to extract voltage from
the stationary stator. Figure 14.10 shows the actual assembly of an alternator.
A magnetic field rotating around a coil of wire produces an alternating current. This current
is produced with a frequency dependent on how fast the coil turns, one cycle being produced
per revolution. Therefore, small capacity economic two wheelers use a commutator which acts
as a mechanically switch between stationary windings and electrical systems to produce direct
current. The three separate stationary windings of the typical alternator produce three-phase
alternating current. Rather than using a commutator to convert AC to DC mechanically, the
modern two wheelers use six diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit. Principally, diodes
act like solid state switches without any moving parts. This makes them maintenance-free and
explosion proof. To summarize, the alternator generates electricity through these steps:
Engine drives the alternator rotor directly or through a gear drive
The alternator rotor spins outside the windings of the stator
Figure 14.10 Alternator Assembly.
The stator windings generate an alternating current

Rectifier diodes are used to change the alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC)
The old vehicles were equipped with a generator which contains a wound stator which produces
a constant magnetic field. This generator consists of a revolving coil of wire, called an armature.
A commutator on one end of the armature passes the generated current to the outside circuit
through carbon brushes. The commutator is made up of many individual brass segments because
commutator segments must be electrically insulated from one another, i.e. they cannot be
fabricated from a single-block of metal. Moreover, each commutator segment must be separately
attached to the armature shaft. This creates a source of mechanical weakness. When the armature
is rotated at high RPM, centrifugal force can cause the commutator to explode, throwing
segments in all directions. To prevent damages, the generator is usually rotated at lesser speed
than the engine. An engine may turn at 5000 RPM, but the generator must be operated to a
maximum 2500 RPM. As a result, at low engine RPM, the generator revolves so slowly that
it produces little or no current.
14.2.3 Rectifier
In order for the output of the alternator to charge the battery and run other vehicle components
it must be converted from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). The component most
suitable for this task is the silicon diode. If single-phase AC is passed through a diode, its
output is half-wave rectified as shown in Figure 14.11. The diode will only allow the positive
half cycles to be conducted towards the positive of the battery, i.e. the negative cycles are
blocked.
Figure 14.11 Rectification through Diode.
Figure 14.12 shows a four-diode bridge rectifier to full-wave rectify single phase AC. A
diode is often considered to be a one-way valve for electricity. While this is a good analogy
it is important to remember that while a good quality diode will block reverse flow up to a
pressure of about 400 V, it will still require a small voltage pressure of about 0.6 V to conduct
in the forward direction. In order to full-wave rectify the output of a three-phase machine, six
diodes are required. These are connected in the form of a bridge, as shown in Figure 14.13.
The ‘bridge’ consists of three positive diodes and three negative diodes.
Figure 14.12 Four-diode Bridge Rectifier.
Figure 14.13 Rectifier Bridge.

14.2.4 Regulator
The regulator system voltage should be kept below the gassing voltage of the lead–acid battery
to avoid the vehicle battery from being overcharged. A figure of 14.2 ± 0.2 V is used for
all 12 V charging systems. Accurate voltage control is required with the increasing use of
electronic systems. It has also enabled the wider use of sealed batteries, as the possibility of
overcharging is minimal. Voltage regulation is a difficult task on a vehicle alternator because
of the constantly changing engine speed and loads on the alternator. The output of an alternator
without regulation would rise linearly in proportion with engine speed. Alternator output is also
proportional to magnetic field strength and this, in turn, is proportional to the field current. It
is the task of the regulator to control this field current in response to alternator output voltage.
Regulators can be mechanical or electronic, and the latter are now almost universal on
modern two wheelers. The mechanical type uses a winding connected across the output of the
alternator. The magnetism produced in this winding is proportional to the output voltage. A set
of normally closed contacts is attached to an armature, which is held in position by a spring.
The supply to the field windings is via these contacts. When the output voltage rises beyond a
pre-set level, say 14 V, the magnetism in the regulator winding will overcome spring tension
and open the contacts. This switches off the field current and causes the alternator output to fall.
As the output falls below a pre-set level, the spring will close the regulator contacts again and
so the process continues. Figure 14.14 shows a simplified diagram of a mechanical regulator.
Figure 14.14 Mechanical Regulator.
The problem with mechanical regulators is the wear on the contacts and other moving
parts. This has been overcome with the use of electronic regulators which, due to more accurate
tolerances and much faster switching, are far superior, producing a more stable output. These
regulators are also known as point-less regulators. Due to the compactness and vibration
resistance of electronic regulators they are now fitted almost universally on the alternator,
reducing the number of connecting cables required. The key to electronic voltage regulation
is the Zener diode. This diode can be constructed to break down and conduct in the reverse
direction at a precise level. This is used as the sensing element in an electronic regulator.
Figure 14.15 shows a simplified electronic voltage regulator.
Figure 14.15 Electronic Voltage Regulator.
When the alternator first increases in speed the output will be below the pre-set level.
Under these circumstances transistor T2 will be switched on by a feed to its base via resistor.
This allows full field current to flow, thus increasing voltage output. When the pre-set voltage
is reached, the Zener diode will conduct. Resistors R1 and R2 are a simple series circuit to set
the voltage appropriate to the value of the diode when the supply is, say, 14.2 V. Once ZD
conducts, transistor T1 will switch on and pull the base of T2 down to ground. This switches
T2 off and so the field current is interrupted, causing output voltage to fall. This will cause
ZD to stop conducting, T1 will switch off, allowing T2 to switch back on and so the cycle will
continue. The conventional diode, D1, absorbs the back EMF from the field windings and so
prevents damage to the other components. Electronic regulators can be made to sense either
the battery voltage, voltage of alternator, or a combination of the two.
14.3 IGNITION SYSTEMS

The function of the ignition system is to provide a spark inside the cylinder, at correct time
with correct strength near the end of the compression stroke, to ignite the compressed fresh
charge. Under standard atmospheric pressure, 2 to 3 kV voltage is required for a spark to jump
across an air gap of 0.6 mm. Under the 8:1 compression ratio, approximately 8 kV is required
for a spark to jump across a similar gap. A voltage up to 20 kV may be necessarily required
when higher compression ratios and leaner mixtures is used. Therefore, the ignition system
has to convert the normal battery voltage of 12 V to approximately 8 to 20 kV. Moreover, it
has to deliver this high voltage to the right cylinder at the right time.
Conventional mechanical ignition is now becoming absolute as the more advanced systems
are being used with electronic controls. However, the fundamental operation of most ignition
systems is very similar. They make use of mutual induction; one winding of a coil is switched
on and off causing a high voltage to be induced in a second winding. A coil ignition system
is composed of various components and sub-assemblies; the actual design and construction
of these depend mainly on the engine with which the system is to be used. A smooth and
consistent functioning of an ignition system is essential for consistent working of an engine.
The requirements of an ignition system are:
It should provide a spark with sufficient strength

It should not miss the correct timing to produce spark
It should be light
It should be compact and easy to maintain
It should function efficiently over the entire range of engine speed.
There are mainly three types of ignition systems used on two wheelers. This includes magneto
ignition system, battery ignition system and electronic ignition system.
14.3.1 Components of Ignition System

There are mainly two circuits working together to produce spark at correct cylinder and at
correct time. The first one is known as primary circuit and other is known as secondary circuit.
Primary circuit contains ignition switch, battery, and primary resistor. The secondary circuit
contains spark plugs, distributor, contact breaker, capacitor and coil. Vehicle frame is used for
grounding all circuits. Each component in ignition system plays vital role during operation as
this system works at high speed. Figure 14.16 shows location of various components. Functions
and importance of each component is been described below.
Figure 14.16 Components of Ignition System.
BATTERY/MAGNETO: The battery supplies current to energize the system. The direct
current required to power the primary circuit is either extracted from the battery or generated
through the magneto. The battery power is required when engine is not working; the power is
shifted to the alternator as soon as the engine starts.
BALLAST RESISTANCE: It is an additional resistance introduced in series with the primary
coil. Its main purpose is to regulate the current flowing in the primary winding. It also limits
the rate of battery discharge if the ignition switch is left on when the engine has stopped.
This resistance is made of a nickel alloy or iron wire having a high resistance temperature
coefficient. Its resistance is about two to three times more when hot than when cold. The
resistance of the primary circuit, thus, is lower when the current is smaller than when it is
large. Hence, without the resistance during slow speed running when the primary current is
relatively large, the heating effect increases the resistance and thus reduces the current. By the
use of suitable resistance, a heavier primary current can be employed and hence greater spark
energies produced over the operating range.
IGNITION COIL: All ignition systems use electromagnetic induction to produce a high-
voltage spark from the ignition coil. Electromagnetic induction means that a current can be
created in a conductor or winding by a moving magnetic field. Many ignition coils contain two
electrically connected windings of copper wire. Other coils are like transformers in which the
primary and secondary windings are not electrically connected. The centre of an ignition coil
contains a core of laminated soft iron. This core increases the magnetic strength of the coil. A
small fine wire, smaller than a human hair, surrounds the laminated core with approximately
20,000 turns. This winding is called the secondary coil winding. A heavy wire surrounds the
secondary windings with approximately 150 turns. This winding is known as the primary coil
winding. The secondary winding has about 100 times the number of turns of the primary
winding. In older coils, these windings are surrounded with a thin metal shield and insulating
paper and placed into a metal container filled with transformer oil to help cool the coil windings.
Current flowing through the primary winding of the coil produces the magnetic field in an
ignition coil. An ignition coil is able to increase battery voltage to 40,000 volts or more in
the following way.
Battery voltage is applied to the primary winding.
A ground is provided to the primary winding.
Current flows in the primary coil creating a magnetic field.
When the ground is opened by the point cam, the primary circuit is turned off and
the built-up magnetic field in the secondary winding collapses.
The movement of the collapsing magnetic field induces a voltage of 250 to 400 volts
in the primary winding and 20,000 to 40,000 volts or more in the secondary winding
with a current of 0.02 to 0.08 amperes (20 to 80 mA).
The high voltage created in the secondary winding is high enough to jump the air
gap at the spark plug.
The electrical arc at the spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber of the engine.
For each spark that occurs, the coil must be charged with a magnetic field and then
discharged.
POINT CAM: The point cam assembly performs a function of switch to turn the primary
circuit “ON” and “OFF”. It contains a shaft, cam, breaker points, and condenser, together
performs this task. Contact or breaker points are used as the primary circuit activation
mechanism. It consists of a fixed contact point, movable contact point, pivoted arm, pivot,
and returning spring. The fixed contact point is used as a grounded end through the housing,
and the movable contact point is attached to the negative terminal of the primary winding. As
the cam is integrated part of camshaft and rotated by the camshaft, the pivot arm “opens” and
“closes” which connects and disconnects the primary circuit in the coil. When the points are
closed, primary current flows through the coil and generated magnetic field. When the points are
opened, primary current stops flowing through the coil and the magnetic field subsides, resulting
in high voltage to be generated in the secondary winding. A condenser/capacitor is used in
parallel to a coil to reduce the resulting voltage spike that occurs when the circuit is opened. The
energy stored to the magnet field of the coil is rapidly released at this time. The condenser acts
to absorb the high voltage produced and stop it from interfering with other circuit components.
SPARK PLUG: The simple requirement of a spark plug is that it must allow a spark to
form within the combustion chamber, to initiate burning. In order to do this the plug has to
withstand a number of severe conditions. These severe conditions include high temperature,
high pressure, vibration and a harsh chemical environment. Finally, but perhaps most important,
the insulation properties must withstand voltage pressures up to 40 kV.
14.3.2 Magneto Ignition System

An ignition system that uses a magnetic induction generator for the primary current source is
called a magneto ignition system. Figure 14.17 shows the arrangement of magneto ignition
system which is similar like battery ignition system. The major difference is that the primary
current is supplied by the action of the magnet rotating past the primary coil, causing a high
induction voltage in the primary coil. The primary current develops a strong magnetic field
around the primary coil. The ignition points are opened by the cam causing a rapid collapse of
the magnetic field. The condenser prevents current from arcing across the points by providing
an alternate place for it to go. Simultaneously, a very high voltage is induced in the secondary
winding by mutual induction when self-induction occurs in the primary winding. The high
secondary voltage jumps the spark plug gap to complete its circuit and fires the plug. Older
models of scooters and some motorcycles use magneto ignition system. Some models have an
external self-contained magneto added to replace the original ignition system.
Figure 14.17 Magneto Ignition System.

Advantages of Magneto Ignition System

1. A battery and separate generating system are not necessary.
2. It has a simple construction of high reliability.
3. It provides a small engine with additional inertia at low speeds for smooth running.
4. Less maintenance cost.
Disadvantages of Magneto Ignition System

1. During starting, quality of spark is poor due to low speed.
2. Efficiency of the system improves as the engine speed rises.
14.3.3 Battery Ignition System

Figure 14.18 shows circuit layout for the battery ignition system. Battery voltage is applied to
the primary winding. A ground is provided to the primary winding through capacitor. Current
(approximately 2 to 6 amperes) flows in the primary coil which creates magnetic field. When
the points are opened by the cam, the primary circuit is turned off and the built-up magnetic
field in the secondary winding collapses. The condenser prevents current from arcing across the
points by providing an alternate place for it to go. The movement of the collapsing magnetic
field induces a voltage of 250 to 400 volts in the primary winding and 20,000 to 40,000 volts
or more in the secondary winding with a current of 0.02 to 0.08 amperes (20 to 80 mA).
The high voltage created in the secondary winding is high enough to jump the air gap at the
spark plug. The electrical arc at the spark plug ignites the air–fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber of the engine. For each spark that occurs, the coil must be charged with a magnetic
field and then discharged.
Figure 14.18 Battery Ignition System.

Advantages of Battery Ignition System

1. Starting is much improved.
2. It transmits equal power without excessive voltage drop.
3. A good spark is available at the spark plug even at low speed.
Disadvantages of Battery Ignition System

1. Difficult to start when battery is discharged.
2. More maintenance due to battery.
3. Occupies more space.
14.3.4 Electronic Ignition System

In Electronic Ignition (EI) systems, the coil is wired directly to the spark plug. An ignition
control module, tied into the vehicle’s ECU, controls the spark timing and advance. In
EI systems, a crank sensor located at the front of the crankshaft is used to trigger the ignition
system. Since the point cam is eliminated in EI systems, ignition timing remains more
stable over the life of the engine, which means improved economy and performance
with reduced emissions. The ECU, ignition module, and position sensors combine to
control spark timing and advance. The ECU collects and processes information to determine
the ideal amount of spark advance for the operating conditions. The ignition module uses
crank/cam sensor data to control the timing of the primary circuit in the coils. Primary current
is controlled by transistors in the control module. There is one switching transistor for the
ignition coil in the system. The transistors complete the ground circuit for the primary, thereby
allowing for a dwell period. When primary current flow is interrupted, secondary voltage is
induced in the coil and the coil’s spark plug(s) fire. Figure 14.19 shows circuit diagram for
electronic ignition system.
Figure 14.19 Electronic Ignition System.

Advantages of Electronic Ignition System

1. Fewer moving parts, therefore less friction and wear.
2. Flexibility in mounting location. This is more important from two-wheeler point of
view.
3. Less required maintenance; there is no rotor or point cam to service.
4. Elimination of a common cause of ignition misfire.
5. Elimination of mechanical timing adjustments.
6. Places no mechanical load on the engine in order to operate.
7. Increased available time for coil saturation.
8. Increased time between firings, which allows the coil to cool more.
14.3.5 Spark Plug

Figure 14.20 shows a standard and a resistor spark plug. The centre electrode is connected
to the top terminal by a stud. The electrode is made up of a nickel-based alloy. Silver and
platinum are also used for some applications. Copper core is also used to improve the thermal
conductivity. The insulating material is fabricated with high grade ceramic-based material. The
resistor in the form of an electrically conductive glass seal between the electrode and terminal
stud is also used. This resistor performs two functions. First, it prevents burn-off of the centre
electrode, and secondly it reduces radio interference.
Figure 14.20 Spark Plug.
The diversity of temperature range in which a spark plug works can change considerably
with varied constructional characteristics of an engine. The operating temperature of the centre
electrode plays vital role during combustion. If the temperature increases above higher limit
then knocking may occur as the fresh mixture may be auto-ignited. On the other side, carbon
and oil deposition can take place if the electrode temperature decreases below lower limit.
These carbon deposits on the plug nose can cause adverse effects like shunt. The heat range
of a spark plug is denoted by its capacity to dissipate the heat from the electrode to cooling
water through cylinder walls. The following factors regulate the thermal loading capacity of
a spark plug.
Length of insulator nose
Material of electrode
Length of thread
Electrode projection
All these factors depend on each other. The position of the spark plug in the cylinder also
requires tremendous attention as it has a particular effect on combustion efficiency. The material
selected for the plug electrode must have the following properties:
High thermal conductivity
High corrosion resistance
High resistance to burn-off
For normal applications, nickel alloys are used for the electrode material. Chromium, manganese,
silicon and magnesium are used as the alloying elements because these alloys have unique
properties with respect to corrosion and burn-off resistance. Electrodes with compound materials
are used to increase the thermal conductivity. These additions permit a better nose projection
for the variety of working temperature range.
The empty distance between the central electrode and the earth electrode on the spark plug
is known as the electrode gap. The ignition spark must jump this gap. As the gap increases,
the voltage required to generate the spark also increases. Moreover, a larger gap with higher
voltage results in a shorter duration spark. A smaller gap allows a longer duration spark. The
duration of spark becomes critical when engine is started in cold or supplied with reach mixture.
Moreover, the plug gap must be as large as possible to permit easy admittance for the mixture
to avoid quenching of the flame. The final choice for plug gap is a compromise provided with
the help of testing and improvement which is in the region of 0.6–1.2 mm. Maximum precision
in maintaining the electrode gap is important since an incorrect gap can have a considerable
detrimental effect on the functioning of the spark plug and consequently the engine performance.
If the electrode gap is too small this may cause misfiring, noisy action and poor
exhaust levels.
If the electrode gap is too large then a higher ignition voltage is required to enable
the spark to jump the gap: this may lead to misfiring.
14.4 LIGHTING SYSTEM

Vehicle lighting systems are very important, particularly where road safety is concerned.
Modern wiring systems of any vehicle use separate fuse for each bulb filament. This allows
dim-dip light to work even if the main supply to the headlights fails. The vehicle lights must
allow the rider to:
See various obstacles and other vehicles in the dark.

Be seen in the dark by other vehicles (or conditions of poor visibility).
While talking about lighting system of the vehicle, sidelights, tail light, brake lights and others
do not offer major work to do while headlights needs careful design along with the solutions
for most problems. On dipped beam, headlights must provide suitable light for the driver but
without dazzling other road users. Many methods have been tried over these years and great
advancements have been achieved, but the conflict between seeing and dazzling is very difficult
to overcome. One of the latest developments is the use of LED lighting.
14.4.1 Lighting System Circuits

The components of a lighting system can include a lighting switch, a dimmer switch, the head
light, shock mounting for the headlight, the taillight, turn signals, brake lights and grounding
either through wire or through the frame. All the components are associated via single circuit
but here all the systems are branched out for simple understanding. Figure 14.21 shows a
complete wiring diagram of modern motorcycle while Figure 14.22 shows wiring diagram for
modern scooter.
HEADLIGHT AND TAILLIGHT CIRCUIT: The headlight circuit starts from the positive
battery terminal through the fuse to the, ignition switch, main switch, on the lighting beam
switch, to the low filament of the main beam, and returns to the battery negative terminal by
the ground wire or through frame. Headlights may be either sealed beam or semi-sealed with
a replaceable bulb. The taillight follows the same path to the switch, goes to the taillight by
wire, through the taillight filament to an indicated ground. This means the circuit is completed
through the vehicle frame back to the negative battery terminal.
TURN SIGNAL CIRCUIT: The parts of a turn signal system usually are the turn signal
switch, the flasher relay, and four lights and grounds. Some newer vehicles have warning
buzzers and switches to remind the rider that turn signal lights are ON. Use of a condenser
type flash relay on turn signal wiring circuit is conventionally followed. The flasher relay
consists of a two coil and electromagnet, contact points and a capacitor. When the turn signal
is closed, current flows through the coil in both directions, to the capacitor and through the
signal bulbs. As long the current flows both ways through the coil, the electromagnetic field
are self-cancelling and the points are not opened; the signal lights remain lighted. When the
capacitor becomes fully charged, current flows only one way through the coil, opening the
points, which remain open until the capacitor discharges fully. This discharge current holds the
points open, but it is not sufficient to light the bulbs. When the capacitor discharged, the cycle
repeats. Heat type of relays is also very common. They use a bimetallic strip that bends when
heated. The heat is developed by current flow through the flasher, which causes the bending
strip alternately to make and break the circuit. The turn signal lights flash in relation to the
alternate operation of the relay.
BRAKE LIGHT CIRCUIT: Most vehicle brake light systems have three major components—
the stop light switch, the light bulb, and the ground system. A separate fuse just for the
taillight is also found in some systems. Many new vehicles have switches for both front and
Figure 14.21 Wiring Diagram of Modern Motorcycle.

Figure 14.22 Wiring Diagram for Modern Scooter.

rear brakes to light the taillight; older vehicles often have only a switch controlled by the rear
brake operation. The rear brake switch is usually mechanical in both action and connection to
the rear brake linkage. Adjustment should be so set the bulb lights with only a small amount
of brake linkage travel. With the front brake going to discs and hydraulic operation, hydraulic
brake switches, which do not require adjustment, are bound to become more common.
INDICATOR CIRCUIT: Most modern two wheelers are equipped with several indicator
lights to inform the rider of special conditions. Some of them are used to provide information
while some are used to warn the rider about critical situations. These lights can include:
Neutral indicator
Low oil pressure warning
Charging system warning
High beam indicator
Ignition ON indicator
Low fuel level indicator
Engine malfunctioning indicator
High RPM indicator
Side stand indicator
SWITCHES: Most of the electrical systems operate through the action of switch that
completes the circuit to ground. Various switches and their functions are already specified in
the respective circuits. These switches are not often repairable if they become defective and
must be replaced. The location of some switches may make them difficult to check, because
they may be inside the remote location on frame. Figure 14.23 shows locations of various
switches on a motorcycle.
Figure 14.23 Locations of Various Switches.

14.4.2 Bulb
Most bulbs for vehicle lighting are generally either conventional tungsten filament bulbs or
tungsten halogen. In the conventional bulb the tungsten filament is heated to incandescence
by an electric current. In a vacuum the temperature is about 2300°C. Tungsten is a heavy
metallic element and has the symbol W; its atomic number is 74; and its atomic weight 2.85.
The pure metal is steel grey to tin white in colour. Its physical properties include the highest
melting point of all metals: 3410°C. Pure tungsten is easily forged, spun, drawn and extruded,
whereas in an impure state it is brittle and can be fabricated only with difficulty. Tungsten
oxidizes in air, especially at higher temperatures, but it is resistant to corrosion and is only
slightly attacked by most mineral acids. Tungsten or its alloys are therefore ideal for use as
filaments for electric light bulbs. The filament is normally wound into a ‘spiralled spiral’ to
allow a suitable length of thin wire in a small space and to provide some mechanical strength.
If the temperature mentioned above is exceeded even in a vacuum, then the filament will
become very volatile and break. This is why the voltage at which a bulb is operated must
be kept within tight limits. The vacuum in a bulb prevents the conduction of heat from the
filament but limits the operating temperature. Gas-filled bulbs are more usual, where the glass
bulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon under pressure. This allows the filament to work
at a higher temperature without failing and therefore produce a whiter light. These bulbs will
produce about 17 lm/W compared with a vacuum bulb, which will produce about 11 lm/W.
Almost all vehicles now use tungsten halogen bulbs for their headlights as these are able
to produce about 24 lm/W (more for some modern designs). The bulb has a long life and will
not blacken over a period of time like other bulbs. This is because in normal gas bulbs, over a
period of time, about 10% of the filament metal evaporates and is deposited on the bulb wall.
The gas in halogen bulbs is mostly iodine. The gas is filled to a pressure of several bars. The
glass envelope used for the tungsten halogen bulb is made from fused silicon or quartz. The
tungsten filament still evaporates but, on its way to the bulb wall, the tungsten atom combines
with two or more halogen atoms forming a tungsten halide. This will not be deposited on to
the bulb because of its temperature. The convection currents will cause the halide to move
back towards the filament at some point and it then splits up, returning the tungsten to the
filament and releasing the halogen. Because of this the bulb will not become blackened, the
light output will therefore remain constant throughout its life. The envelope can also be made
smaller as can the filament, thus allowing better focusing. Following are some common types
of bulb used at various locations on two wheelers.
FESTOON: The glass envelope has a tubular shape, with the filament stretched between
brass caps cemented to the tube ends. This bulb was commonly used for number plates on
touring machines.
MINIATURE CENTER CONTACT (MCC): This bulb has a bayonet cap consisting of
two locating pins projecting from either side of the cylindrical cap. The diameter of the cap is
about 9 mm. It has a single central contact (SCC), with the metal cap body forming the second
contact, often the earth connection. It is made with various power ratings ranging from 1 to 5 W.
CAPLESS BULB: These bulbs have a semi-tubular glass envelope with a flattened end,
which provides the support for the terminal wires, which are bent over to form the two contacts.
The power rating is up to 5 W, and these bulbs are used for panel lights and sidelights. They
are now very popular due to the low cost of manufacture.
SINGLE CONTACT, SMALL BAYONET CAP (SBC): These bulbs have a bayonet cap
with a diameter of about 15 mm with a spherical glass envelope enclosing a single filament. A
single central contact (SCC) uses the metal cap body to form the second contact. The size or
wattage of the bulb is normally 5 W or 21 W. The small 5 W bulb, is used for side or tail lights.
DOUBLE CONTACT, SMALL BAYONET CAP: It is similar in shape and size to the
large SCC 15 mm SBC bulb, as described above. It has two filaments, one end of each being
connected to an end contact, and both of the other ends are joined to the cap body forming a
third contact, which is usually the earth. These caps have offset bayonet pins so that the two
filaments, which are of different wattage, cannot be connected the wrong way around. One
filament is used for the stop light and the other for the tail light.
14.4.3 Headlight Reflectors

Light from a source, such as the filament of a bulb, can be projected in the form of a beam
of varying patterns by using a suitable reflector and a lens. Reflectors used for headlights are
usually parabolic, bifocal or homifocal. Lenses, which are also used as the headlight cover
glass, are used to direct the light to the side of the road and in a downward direction.
The object of the headlight reflector is to direct the random light rays produced by
the bulb into a beam of concentrated light by applying the laws of reflection. Bulb filament
position relative to the reflector is important, if the desired beam direction and shape are to be
obtained. A reflector is basically a layer of silver, chrome or aluminium deposited on a smooth
and polished surface such as brass or glass.
PARABOLIC REFLECTOR: A parabola is a curve similar in shape to the curved path
of a stone thrown forward in the air. When a light source is placed at the focal point of a
parabolic reflector, it has the characteristics of reflecting light rays parallel to the principal axis,
irrespective of where the rays impose on the reflector. Therefore, parabolic reflector produces
a bright parallel reflected beam with constant light intensity. With a parabolic reflector, most
of the light rays from the light-bulb are reflected. Very small amount of direct rays scatters
as stray light. The intensity of redirected light is strongest near the beam axis, except for light
cut-off by the bulb itself. The intensity drops off towards the outer edges of the beam.
BIFOCAL REFLECTOR: The bifocal reflector as its name suggests has two reflector
sections. These reflector sections have different focal points. This arrangement helps to take
advantage of the light which strikes the lower area of reflector. The parabolic section in the
lower area is designed to reflect this light down. It improves the illumination in near field area
just in front of the vehicle. This technique is not suitable for twin filament bulbs. With the
help of powerful design programs, variable focus reflectors can be made with non-parabolic
sections to produce a smooth transition between each area.
HOMIFOCAL REFLECTOR: A homifocal reflector is made up of a number of sections
each with a common focal point. This design allows a shorter focal length and hence, overall, the
light unit will have less depth. The effective luminous flux is also increased. It can incorporate
twin filament bulb arrangement to provide dip and main beam. The normal long range lightning
is provided from the main reflector section and the auxiliary reflectors improve near field and
lateral lighting.
14.4.4 LED Lighting

Light emitting diode (LED) displays were first produced commercially in 1968. Almost from
this time there has been speculation as to possible vehicle applications. Such LEDs have
certainly found applications in the instrument panels of two wheelers. However, recently, some
manufacturers have started the use of LEDs for exterior lighting.
The advantages of LED lighting are clear, the greatest being reliability. LEDs have a
typical rated life of over 50000 hours, compared with just a few thousand for incandescent
lamps. The environment in which vehicle lights have to survive is hostile to say the least.
Extreme variations in temperature and humidity as well as serious shocks and vibration have
to be endured. LEDs are more expensive than bulbs but the potential savings in design costs
due to sealed units being used and the greater freedom of design could outweigh the extra
expense. A further advantage is that they turn-on quicker than ordinary bulbs. This turn-on time
is important; the times are about 130 ms for the LEDs, and 200 ms for bulbs. If this is related
to a vehicle brake light at high speeds, it is potentially a major contribution to road safety.
Most of the major manufacturers are undertaking research into the use of LED lighting.
Much time is being spent looking at the use of LEDs as high-level brake lights. This is because
of their shock resistance, which will allow them to be mounted on top of the tail. Use of LEDs
on front also facilitates designing of smaller headlights. These smaller headlights can be easily
accommodated in the front fairing which provides huge benefit in aerodynamic characteristics.
14.5 ELECTRIC HORN

Almost all two wheelers use electric type horn to produce a uniform sound. Most horns draw
a large current, so are switched by a suitable relay. The standard horn operates by simple
electromagnetic switching. As current flow causes an armature that is attached to a tone disc
to be attracted to a stop, a set of contacts is opened. This disconnects the current allowing the
armature and disc to return under spring tension. The whole process keeps repeating when the
horn switch is on. The frequency of movement and hence the fundamental tone is arranged
to lie between 1.8 and 3.5 kHz. This gives good penetration through traffic noise. Twin horn
systems, which have a high and low tone horn, are often used. This produces a more pleasing
sound but is still very audible in both town and higher speed conditions. Figure 14.24 shows
a typical horn together with its associated circuit.
Pressing the horn switch completes the circuit that energizes the electromagnet and this
action draws the armature towards the electromagnet causing the metal diaphragm to deflect.
At the same time, the contacts open to break the circuit and this de-energizes the electromagnet
so that the diaphragm springs back. Making and breaking the circuit causes the diaphragm to
vibrate, thus setting up the sound. The resonator that is attached to the diaphragm acts as a
tone disc in order to give the horn a suitable sound. The diaphragm is normally made from
high-quality carbon or alloy steel, the thickness and hardness being factors that give the required
Figure 14.24 Electric Horn Circuit.
sound properties and ensure a long working life. The contact points that make and break the
circuit are made from tungsten alloy and are designed to be maintenance free.
14.6 HANDLEBAR CONTROLS

As mentioned earlier, handlebar is provided with various control switches on both ends. The
front brake lever is attached with right side handle grip while the clutch lever is attached
with left side handle grip. In case of scooters with CVT, the clutch lever is replaced by the
rear brake lever. Various switches given on handle grips are used to operate various electrical
components and circuits as and when required.
RIGHT HANDLEBAR CONTROLS: Figure 14.25 shows right handlebar controls. It
includes engine stop switch, start switch, accelerator and front brake lever. The operation of
front brake lever is already discussed in Chapter 11.
Figure 14.25 Right Handlebar Controls.
Engine Stop Switch is kept nearer to the throttle grip. When the switch is turned to the (RUN)
position, the engine can be cranked. When the switch is turned to the (OFF) position, the
engine cannot be cranked. This switch is incorporated as an emergency switch and should be
normally kept in the (RUN) position. The overall circuit is designed such that even if the
vehicle is stopped with the ignition switch ON and the engine stop switch (OFF), the headlight,
position lights, taillight and license light will still remain ON. This results as a quick battery
discharge.
Start Switch is generally located below the engine stop switch. The start switch is used for
starting the engine. When the start switch is pushed, the starter motor cranks the engine and
the headlight, position lights, taillight and license light stays on.
The most important control found on the right handlebar is the accelerator. The accelerator
is used to decide the speed of the engine which finally in turn, decides the speed of the vehicle.
The accelerator cable is used to connect the butterfly valve(s) of the carburetor or the throttle
body with the grip. It opens the butterfly valve(s) in accordance with the handle grip by
transmitting the rotational motion of the grip. Figure 14.26 shows general arrangements used
to operate the accelerator cable.
Figure 14.26 Accelerator Assembly.
The cable adaptor is mounted either horizontally or rigidly connected with the handle grip.
The horizontally mounted cable adaptor is operated through bevel gear as shown in Figure 14.26.
This arrangement gives greater flexibility in locating the accelerator cable lock. The adaptor
works as a cam which pulls the cable while operated through the handle grip. The nipple
end of the accelerator cable is inserted into the groove provided on the adaptor. The adjusting nut
helps to retain appropriate tension in the accelerator
cable.
LEFT HANDLEBAR CONTROLS: Figure 14.27
shows left handlebar controls. It includes headlight
dimmer switch, passing light switch, side light
switch, horn switch and rear brake lever or clutch
lever.
Headlight Dimmer Switch is used to select high
beam or to low beam.
Passing Light Control Switch is used to flash the
headlight momentarily to signal approaching cars or
when passing. Figure 14.27 Left Handlebar Controls.
Turn Signal Switch is used to signal a left turn or to signal a right turn. It is simply pressed
to turn the signal off.
Horn Switch is used to blow the horn.
14.7 SIDE STAND/IGNITION INTERLOCK SYSTEM

The side stand/ignition interlock system prevents the vehicle from being started with the side
stand down. The system is operated through electric circuit provided between the battery and
the ignition coil. Figure 14.28 shows circuit of side stand/ignition interlock system.
Figure 14.28 Side Stand/Ignition Interlock System.
The circuit consists of the turn signal/side stand relay, neutral indicator light, gear position
switch and side stand switch. The ignition coil sends voltage to the spark plug depending on
what gear the transmission is in and weather the side stand is either up or down. The gear
position switch and side stand switch work together in this system. The gear position switch
comes to ON condition when it finds neutral condition while the side stand switch comes to
ON condition when stand is kept in up condition. The engine can be started only after putting
the engine stop switch to ON condition. The relay works as mentioned below.
Side stand in up condition and gear in neutral: This is the safest condition to start the
engine. Both gear position switch and side stand position switch, together, close the operating
circuit. The relay allows the current to pass towards the ECU and the ignition coil and as a
result, firing of spark takes place.
Side stand in down condition and gear in neutral: The side stand switch remains open and
the gear position switch indicates the neutral condition. The relay redirects the current through
the gear position switch and allows the current to pass towards ignition coil and ECU, and as
a result, spark is generated. This happens only when the gear is in neutral condition. The relay
will not allow the current to pass towards the ignition coil if gear is shifted to other than the
neutral. Furthermore, the ECU then will check for the clutch switch condition. The engine can
only be started after pressing the clutch lever, i.e. by disengaging the clutch.
Side stand in up condition and gear is shifted to other than the neutral: The relay will
allow the current to pass towards the ignition coil through the side stand switch. Furthermore,
the ECU will check for the clutch switch condition. The engine can only be started after
pressing the clutch lever, i.e. by disengaging the clutch.
Side stand in down condition and gear is shifted to other than the neutral: This is
probably the most dangerous condition to start the engine. As both switches remain in OFF
condition, the current flow does not take place and as a result, the engine does not start.
14.8 STEPPING MOTOR

Modern technologies have made drastic change in responsive electric systems of two wheelers.
The instruments and indicators are also not exception here. Older vehicles were using analog
type separate meters to provide information to the rider. Nowadays, use of combination meters
in a single console panel is common. These panels incorporate stepping motors, in one form
or other, to operate various indicators. This can be easily seen while turning the ignition key
to ON position. All meters move to the full scale immediately after the ignition key is turned
ON to enable the self-calibration. Figure 14.29 shows circuit associated with a stepping motor.
The stepping motor consists of the stator, coils, rotor, angle position sensor, exciter circuit and
distribution circuit. The stator has 6 poles and the rotor has 4 poles. 6 coils are installed in
each poles of stator and connected in series. The rotor can be turned freely to any position by
changing electric current set through the coils. The rotor angle position is constantly monitored
by the angle position sensor, which then feeds back signal to the distribution circuit so as to
control exciter circuit current.
STEPPING MOTOR OPERATION: When current is sent only through circuit B, the
magnetic force is equilibrated and causes the rotor to stay at position “b” as shown in
Figure 14.30(a). when the same amount of current as circuit B is sent also through circuit
A, the rotor turns 15° counterclockwise by the same amount of magnetic force both from
“a” and “b”. This condition is shown in Figure 14.30(b). When cut off the circuit B current
and sending the current only through the circuit A, the magnetic force is equilibrated and
causes the rotor to turn 30°. Figure 14.30(c) represents this condition. When sending the
same amount of current both through circuit A and C, the rotor turns 15° more to the
above. Figure 14.30(d) shows the position of the rotor. Thus, the rotor can smoothly turn
and stay at any position by electronically controlling the current through the circuits A, B
and C.
14.9 INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATORS

A modern combination meter plays a role of a communication media between the rider and the
vehicle. This combination meter consists various instruments and indicators. These instruments
and indicators are used to intimate the rider about necessary and critical conditions. It comes
with numerous designs to provide aesthetic and ergonomic appeal. Use of LCD screen for
displaying the required information has become common nowadays. Depending upon the
Figure 14.29 Stepping Motor Circuit.
Figure 14.30 Operation of Stepping Motor.

configuration, the meter can be recognized either as analog, partly analog, partly digital or full
digital meter. Proper illumination and warning buzzers are provided to make them noticeable
as and when required.
14.9.1 Functions of Instruments and Indicators

Figure 14.31 shows a combination meter of a high performance motorcycle. This meter
includes a LCD screen which is used to display the information in digital form. Current sensor
technologies and actuator technologies help to maintain constant feedback in the form of exact
digits. The colour of illumination provided to particular indicator differs with its function and
its importance with respect to safety. Proper illumination is accomplished with the help of LED
lights. Functions of various instruments and indicators are explained below.
Figure 14.31 Combination Meter.
Functions of Instruments
Tachometer: The tachometer allows the rider to monitor the engine speed and keep it within
the ideal power range. When the key is turned to “ON”, the tachometer will sweep across the
r/min range and then return to zero r/min in order to test the electrical circuit.
Clock: The clock displays when the key is turned to “ON”.
Fuel Meter: The fuel meter indicates the amount of fuel in the fuel tank. The display segments
of the fuel meter disappear towards “E” (Empty) as the fuel level decreases. When the last
segment and fuel level warning indicator start flashing, the fuel tank must be refilled as soon
as possible.
Eco Indicator: This indicator comes on when the vehicle is being operated in an environ-
mentally friendly, fuel-efficient manner. The indicator goes off when the vehicle is stopped.
Transmission Gear Display: This display shows the selected gear. The neutral position is
indicated by N and by the neutral indicator light.
Multi-Function Display: The multi-function display provides necessary information as and
when required. The rider can visualize the required information with one push of a button. The
multi-function display is equipped with the following:
An odometer
Two tripmeters (which show the distance traveled since they were last set to zero)
A fuel reserve tripmeter (which shows the distance traveled since the left segment of
the fuel meter started flashing)
A coolant temperature display
An air intake temperature display
An instantaneous fuel consumption display
An average fuel consumption display
Functions of Indicators
Turn Signal Indicator Light: This indicator light flashes when the turn signal switch is
pushed to the left or right.
Neutral Indicator Light: This indicator light comes on when the transmission is in the
neutral position.
High Beam Indicator Light: This indicator light comes on when the high beam of the
headlight is switched on.
Oil Level Warning Light: This warning light comes on if the engine oil level is low.
Coolant Temperature Warning Light: This warning light comes on if the engine overheats.
If this occurs, stop the engine immediately and allow the engine to cool.
Engine Trouble Warning Light: This warning light comes on or flashes if a problem is
detected in the electrical circuit monitoring the engine.
ABS Warning Light (For ABS Models): In normal operation, the ABS warning light
comes on when the key is turned to “ON”, and goes off after traveling at a speed of 10 km/h
or higher.
14.9.2 Construction
Fundamentally, a combination meter is constructed with the help of three components: Cover,
Meter Unit and Meter case. The cover gives aesthetic appeal to the meter console and protects
the meter unit from environmental impact. The meter unit holds all electronic components
necessarily required to operate the various instruments and indicators. The mother board,
stepping motors, pointers, LED lights and LCD screen are the major components of the meter
unit. The meter unit is mounted on the meter case which forms a rigid base for the whole
unit. The meter unit is screwed to the case while the cover is press fitted with the case. The
case is also used to mount the meter console on the frame. Figure 14.32 shows few designs
for state-of-the-art combination meters.
Figure 14.32 Construction Details of Combination Meter.
Review Questions
1. Why electrical and electronic components are important? Explain two different
groups of electrical systems.
2. Explain importance of a battery.
3. Explain working principle of battery.
4. Draw neat diagram showing various components of a battery. Also explain
function of each component.
5. Which are the various systems used for capacity rating of battery? Explain.
6. Which are the basic requirements of a charging system? Explain components of
charging system with necessary circuit.
7. Explain construction and working of an alternator.
8. How regulator works? Explain two types of regulator used for two-wheeler
charging system.
9. Why ignition system is important? Which are the requirements of a good ignition
system?
10. Explain necessary components of an ignition system.
11. Describe magneto ignition system.
12. Explain battery ignition system.
13. Explain electronic ignition system.
14. Explain spark plug.
15. Which are the various circuits fall under the lighting system? Explain.
16. Draw a neat wiring diagram for a scooter.
17. Write a short note on bulb.

18. Explain about headlight reflectors.
19. How does electric horn work? Explain.
20. Explain handlebar controls with necessary diagrams.
21. Why side stand/ignition interlock is important? How it works? Explain.
22. Explain construction and working of a stepping motor.
23. Draw a meter console showing all necessary instruments and indicators. Also
explain function of each instruments and indicators.
15
Two Wheeler Dynamics
Contents
YY Linear and Angular Motions
YY Handling Characteristics
YY Road Holding
YY Vehicle Stability
YY Aerodynamics
YY Squat & Dive
YY Performance Measurements
It is also important to understand the imperative theories behind the two-wheeler dynamics,
which finally help the rider:
To improve handling characteristics
To retain the road holding
To increase the vehicle stability
The actual two-wheeler dynamics is very complex subject and also includes extensive
mathematical expressions. Many researchers have tried to resolve various dynamic equations
related to two wheelers. These vehicles create challenging job when it comes to exploration
of combined equations which include above said three dynamic conditions of a two-wheeler.
From many decades, momentous experimental works have been used to prove fundamental
aspects of two-wheeler dynamics. These experimental researches also help to resolve many
issues related to two-wheeler dynamics. Therefore, this chapter will cover only fundamental
theories to explain the two-wheeler dynamics.
15.1 LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOTIONS

A two-wheeler, on road surface, can have six linear and six angular movements. These
movements are known as degrees of freedom. The six linear motions include forward motion
due to engine, up and down motion due to road irregularities and side by side motion due to
325
side wind forces. The more important is to understand the six angular motions which a vehicle
can have while moving on a road surface. Figure 15.1 shows various possible movements of
vehicle in moving condition. The overall angular movements can be completely described by
considering the motions about three separate axes. These axes are at right angles to each other
and are known as roll, pitch and yaw.
Figure 15.1 Vehicle Motions.
Roll is probably the most familiar of the three and is the most obvious motion that occurs
when the vehicle is tilted over for cornering. Figure 15.1 shows the roll axis passing through the
COG. Yaw is the movement about a vertical axis and occurs as the vehicle is steered around
a bend; it can also be caused by various disturbances such as side winds. Pitch is the motion
about a horizontal axis that passes sideways through the vehicle. Pitch is mostly caused by
braking and acceleration, as well as from road irregularities.
15.2 HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS

Handling characteristics defines the ease and feel with which a two-wheeler tries to perform
rider’s command. It depends mainly on overall geometry, chassis stiffness, weight and its
distribution, tyre type and size. The rider has a major influence on the handling characteristics
of a two-wheeler. Rider responses have a large effect on the overall interaction of the dynamic
forces that control the motion of the vehicle. The handling characteristics of bike involve
balancing and steering. While in double track vehicles the driver normally uses the steering
wheel to control the vehicle direction of motion, the rider of a two-wheeler has two or three
quantities to his disposal to steer and stabilize the vehicle. These are the steer angle or
the steer torque and the lean angle. Therefore, being a single track vehicle, a two-wheeler is
more difficult to balance and steer than the double track vehicle and poses a great challenge
to the rider.
Two Wheeler Dynamics 327
15.2.1 Balance
Being a single-track vehicle, a two-wheeler lacks intrinsic static balance characteristics. It falls
over if left to its own balance when stationary. However, above a certain speed, the vehicle
appears properly balanced and supportive to itself. Fundamentally, balancing plays vital role
when vehicle moves with very low speed or very high speed. Therefore, it becomes necessary
to distinguish two aspects of the balancing process: first includes balancing at low speed and
second includes balancing at higher speed.
At lower speeds, to keep the vehicle in upright position, it becomes necessary to move the
handlebars from side to side. It is only possible when the combined centre of gravity (COG)
of the system (vehicle and rider) remains vertically above the line joining the front and rear
tyre contact patches. As a result, the vehicle remains in perfect balance position. However,
this becomes an unstable situation when the COG moves sideways by any small disturbance
such as a light wind. The proper balance can be again achieved by either of two methods or
a combination of both; one is to move the tyre contact patch line back under the new position
of the COG. The vehicle can be easily steered to place the position of the tyre contact patch
line wherever it is needed, and this is one reason why it is easier to balance when moving.
The other way to maintain low speed balance is by moving the combined COG of both
the rider and vehicle back above the line joining the tyre contact patches. This can only be
done to a limited amount by moving the handlebars if the vehicle is stationary. The falling over
moment highly depends on the elevation of the rider’s COG. This moment increases as the
distance between road surface and rider’s COG increases. Moreover, it also improves control
over the position of the vehicle’s COG. Therefore, low speed balancing greatly depends on
the individual skill of the rider. In addition, some vehicle parameters can also affect the ease
of maintaining balance, which are:
A low COG height, as observed in cruiser motorcycles, helps to improve balancing.
A small trail, as observed in endure bikes, does not change the position of the tyre
line more for a given handlebar movement, thus provides better balancing.
A small rake angle, as observed in endure bikes, avoids rapid fall of the steering
head when the handlebar is turned from side to side. This in turn helps to improve
the balancing.
The balancing process at higher speeds is more complex, but it is largely self-balanced and
independent of rider’s ability. Let us say for example, while travelling along at a normal
speed, a two-wheeler starts to fall to the right under the influence of some external force. The
gyroscopic couple of the front wheel tends to steer it to the right. Also, as shown in Chapter 10,
trail will also cause a right steering effect when the vehicle leans right. This arranges the vehicle
on a curved path (to the right) and creates a centrifugal force (to the left). This centrifugal
force neutralizes the lean and helps to restore the vehicle to the vertical. As a consequent, the
gyroscopic reactions are also reversed and help to restore the steering to the straight ahead
position. In practice, a straight line forward movement of a two-wheeler is actually a series
of balance correcting curves. If the actual paths generated by the centre lines of the wheels
are studied closely, it can be seen that the front wheel path repeatedly crosses the path of the
rear wheel.
15.2.2 Steering
It is now clear that the steering is much more important for balancing the vehicle rather than
to select the direction. The steering state can be distinguished into two different phases:
Initiating a turn
Maintaining a turn
INITIATING A TURN: There are mainly two possible methods of initiating a turn. In both
methods, rider’s physical effort is in the opposite direction to that is actually required in the
direction of turn. Both methods are quick and the required action becomes automatic. When
learning a two-wheeler, most of riders initially experience the wobble and gradually learn the
fact that counter-steering and counter-leaning is the way to balance the vehicle. The art of
balancing or steering becomes natural and usual after sufficient practice and then never been
erased from the brain.
The first method to initiate turn is the use of “counter-steering”. The handlebar when
turned in the desired direction, both centripetal force on tyre and gyroscopic reaction of the
front wheel would cause the bike to tip over on opposite direction. Therefore, for a fraction
of moment, if the handlebar is turned in the opposite direction, then the centripetal force on
tyre and the gyroscopic reactions will cause the vehicle to tilt to the correct side. Therefore,
a turn can be commenced by quickly steering the vehicle in the “opposite” direction. This
phenomenon is known as “counter-steering”.
Contrasting to counter-steering, second method adopts weight transfer phenomenon which
can be experienced while taking a turn with “hands-off”. For example, to lean the vehicle to
the left, rider must initially move his body weight to the right. The left leaning vehicle now
generates camber forces from the tyres. The camber forces have a tendency to lean both rider
and vehicle over to the right. The roll rate again causes a gyroscopic steering torque which
helps ensure correct balance. The initial vehicle lean to the left might be considered as a
‘counter-lean’.
In practice, both methods are combined sub-consciously, i.e. turn can be initiated with
some steering and some body motion. The comparative amounts by which this combination
of the two methods takes place, depends on riding style, speed and vehicle characteristics.
MAINTAINING A TURN: It is not possible to steer a two-wheeler through a corner in
an upright position because the centripetal force generated by the tyres would cause it to fall
outward. Hence, it is essential to tilt the vehicle inward so that this leaning is countered by
the vehicle’s weight. The gravitational force exerted by the vehicle’s weight tends to fall it
towards inward. Equilibrium during turn is achieved when the angle of lean balances the two
moments—one moment due to centrifugal force which acts outward and the other because of
gravitational force acting inward. Following are the various forces acting on the vehicle + rider
system while moving through a turn.
Gravitational force Fw is the downward force which acts at COG point. This force is
a result of weight of the rider + vehicle system. No doubt, line of action of this force
totally depends on the ability of the rider. This line of action enormously affects the
stability of the vehicle at the time of turning.
Centrifugal force Fc is another horizontal force which acts at COG point. For simplicity,
gyroscopic forces and restoring forces of each wheel are included in Fc only. Rider
+ Vehicle system acts as a rotating mass with respect to imaginary centre of turning
radius. The magnitude of Fc purely depends on the square of the speed of the vehicle
at the time of turning.
Next is the traction force exerts at contact patch of the rear tyre.
Last force is the friction force or “grip” generated at the contact patches of both the
tyres.
A perfect turn at some speed is a neutralization of these four forces. The neutralization is
carried out through a tilt of the vehicle in desired direction. The actual tilt angle depends on
the cornering or lateral acceleration, which in turn depends on the radius of the turn and the
speed of the vehicle.
15.3 ROAD HOLDING

The road holding includes the ability of the vehicle to maintain contact with the road through
its tyres. It depends mainly on tyre type and size, suspension characteristics, weight and its
distribution, and stiffness between the wheels to maintain their correct relationship to each other.
In the older days of relatively narrow tyres, road holding and handling generally were used as
interchangeable terms. However, nowadays the requirements are sometimes contradictory and a
compromise must be made, depending on the proposed use of the vehicle. A tyre grip and hence
road holding is influenced by the dynamic variations in the vertical load at the road interface.
There are many factors that contribute to such variations. Moreover, suspension parameters
are also important as a means of providing control over these variations. Following are some
major factors which affect the road holding characteristics.
TYRE STIFFNESS: The tyre stiffness is largely affected by the tyre inflation pressure. Other
factors which affect the springing properties and the contact patch properties of tyre include
carcass material, construction and tread pattern of the outer layer of rubber. Under and over
inflated tyres are likely to deform to a non-optimum cross-sectional shapes. Additionally, the
inflation pressure also influences the lateral flexibility of a tyre.
The spring rate of a tyre is added with the suspension springs and plays an important part
in the overall suspension system. Just like other suspension elements, tyre rubber also possesses
a property of hysteresis. The hysteresis is that when compressed and released, the tyre rubber
does not return exactly to its original position. This effect reasons a loss of energy which
causes heating of tyre. Furthermore, this effect also serves the purpose of suspension damping.
CONTACT AREA: The tyre must provide its support to the vehicle through a small area of
rubber in contact with the ground. The contact patch surface pressure is not however, the same as the
inflation pressure. They are related but there are at least four factors which modify the relationship.
Carcass stiffness, carcass shape, surface rubber depth and softness, and road surface compliance.
The carcass rigidity can reduce the contact surface area. On the other hand, the surface
rubber gives more contact with the road when tyre width and diameter is increased, but this
must be balanced against the opposing effects of the carcass stiffness.
The properties of the road surface are also important, a soft surface, mud and sand for
example, will give support over a wider area of the tyre and so reduce the contact pressure.
On a hot day with softened tarmac, even a normal road will deflect significantly enough to
affect the contact patch.
FRICTION (GRIP): The tyres are important in providing the grip to transmit driving, braking
and cornering forces. The amount of grip depends on the weight supported by each tyre,
increasing the weight increases the grip. The ratio between the maximum possible grip and
the vertical load is called the coefficient of friction. However, this coefficient is not constant
but usually decreases with vertical load.
The forward weight transfer increases the pressure on the front contact patch and reduces
that on the rear, so reducing the coefficient at the front and increasing it at the rear. Therefore,
the tyre with the reduced coefficient of friction is carrying most of the weight and less grip.
Hence, the total frictional force available for stopping is less than it would be on a vehicle
with a smaller weight transfer.
The use of larger tyre sections is due to the persistent growing weight and power of the
vehicles, which would otherwise cause excessive tread wear and high temperatures. To balance
the grip forces with the individual loads, different tyre sections are used on the front and rear
wheels. Since a vehicle with the rider usually has a rearward weight bias, a larger tyre section
is used at the rear. To maintain proper grip, compromise is unavoidable here, because a change
in throttle opening or in wheel loading can drastically change the front/rear requirement.
BRAKING: As the brake is applied a torque is transmitted through the wheel to the contact
patch, which is in the form of a linear horizontal force at the road surface. The road pushes
backward on the tyre and with equal intensity the tyre pushes forward on the road. Under
acceleration, the situation is similar except that the directions of the forces are reversed.
15.4 VEHICLE STABILITY

The ability of vehicle to maintain the planned manoeuver without an inherent tendency to
deviate from the chosen path is known as stability. This implicitly includes motion of vehicle
through continue straight line or continue round corner in the absence of wobbles and weaves.
The stability is also referred as the ability of vehicle to return to the intended manoeuver after
temporarily disturbed by external forces.
Stability is a subjective matter and means different things to different riders. Stability is the
tendency to return to an equilibrium position after being disturbed from that same equilibrium
state. A vehicle can have more than one stable state of equilibrium, for example travelling in
a straight line is such state but a motorcycle leant over in a steady turn is also in a stable trim
state. Control is closely related to stability because the purpose of control is generally to change
from one stable state to another. For example, when travelling straight the rider exerts some
control input to change into a stable cornering state. The greater the straight line stability the
greater will need to be the control input to overcome it. Two wheelers are mainly concerned
with directional and balance stability. Under some conditions pitch stability is also taken into
account because when a bike is in a wheelie state there is a pitch angle beyond which the
machine will fall over backwards. A similar consideration occurs when performing a “stoppie”.
Aerodynamic force or side wind force creates disturbing influence on balance and
directional stability. Braking can also create disturbing moments that principally affect
directional stability. When subjected to a side force, a two-wheeler, through its trail, creates a
steering effect but it is not always appreciated that the point of application of such a side force
has a large influence over the magnitude and even direction of the steering torque.
To keep the two-wheeler vertically stable during steering, it is essential to balance all
the other internal and external forces with the help of ground reaction forces. The internal
and external forces include gravitational force during leaning, inertial or centrifugal force
during turn, gyroscopic couple when steered, and aerodynamic forces in cross direction. As
discussed earlier, the steering must be applied by a rider to have a stable ride but under certain
circumstances, the vehicle itself creates self-stable motion. This self-stability is generated by
a combination of several effects. The self-stability depends on the vehicle geometry, mass
distribution of vehicle and rider system, and forward speed of the vehicle. Moreover, tyre
properties, suspension characteristics, steering damping, and frame flexibility can also affect
the self-stabilizing characteristics of the vehicle.
Two wheelers may experience multiple longitudinal forces and resultant motions that
generate instability. Some of them are:
Depending on the amount of rack angle and trail, the entire rear structure of the vehicle
pitches forward a little when the front wheel is steered to one side or the other.
The longitudinal load on the two wheels also varies with centre of mass location. This
location varies with the amount and placing of passengers and luggage. Furthermore,
it is also shifted from the original position with acceleration and deceleration.
The net aerodynamic drag forces acts on the imaginary point known as the centre of
pressure. At high speeds, the drag force creates a moment about this pressure point
and results in a net transfer of load from the front wheel to the rear wheel.
Depending on the shape of the vehicle and the shape of any bodywork that might be
installed, aerodynamic lift may be present that either increases or further reduces the
load on the front wheel.
Likewise there are many more cases which affect the stability of vehicle but mostly the rider
has to balance the vehicle in moving and braking conditions.
15.4.1 Factors Affecting Stability

There are so many factors which affect the balancing of two wheelers in steady as well as
in moving conditions. While balancing a two-wheeler, if the steering is locked, practically it
becomes impossible to balance the vehicle during ride. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic
effect of rotating wheels is countered by adding counter-rotating wheels, it becomes easy to
balance while riding. The factors affecting the stability of vehicle are discussed below.
ACCELERATION/DECELERATION: Though longitudinally stable when stationary, a
two-wheeler may become longitudinally unstable under sufficient acceleration or deceleration.
Acceleration and deceleration may be resulted as instability is applied beyond the limits. Modern
powerful engines can generate enough torque at the rear wheel to lift the front wheel off the
ground in a manoeuver called a wheelie. Likewise, highly effective braking system can also
lift the rear wheel off the ground in a manoeuver called a stoppie. However, lifting of either
wheel depends on other factors also which include wheelbase, location of COG (vehicle +
rider), and coefficient of friction between respective tyre and road surface.
BRAKING: Most of the braking force of a two-wheeler comes from the front wheel. If the
brakes themselves are strong enough, the rear wheel is likely to skid, while the front wheel
often can generate enough stopping force to flip the rider and vehicle over the front wheel.
This is called a stoppie if the rear wheel is lifted but the vehicle does not flip. On vehicles
with long wheelbase, such as cruiser motorcycles, the front tyre skids instead of stoppie which
causes a loss of balance. In the case of a front suspension, especially telescoping fork tubes,
the increase in downward force on the front wheel during braking may cause the suspension
to compress and the front end to lower. This is known as brake diving. Front brakes on many
economic two wheelers are not strong enough which can generate stoppie. In wet conditions
they are even less effective. Front wheel slides are more common on mud, water, and loose
stones; reduces the friction between the tyre and trail. Front wheel slides are also common
during turning. Moreover, centripetal acceleration also added to the forces on the tire-ground
contact, and when the friction force is exceeded the wheel slides.
VIBRATION: The vibrations in two wheelers are generated from many sources as engine,
road irregularities, ground surface, aerodynamics forces, faulty geometry etc. An important
factor in any vibration analysis is a comparison of the natural frequencies of the system with the
possible driving frequencies of the vibration sources. Equal magnitudes of these frequencies cause
mechanical resonance that can result in large amplitudes. A challenge in vibration damping is to
create compliance in certain directions (vertically) without sacrificing frame rigidity needed for
power transmission and handling. Another issue with vibration for the vehicle is the possibility of
failure due to material fatigue. Effects of vibration on riders include discomfort, loss of efficiency,
hand-arm vibration syndrome, a secondary form Raynaud’s disease, and whole body vibration.
FORWARD SPEED: The next factor affecting the stability is forward speed of the vehicle.
While commuting through turns, the rider has to apply necessary torque to the handlebars in
order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At higher speeds,
small response to the steering quickly moves the ground contact points laterally. At lower
speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of
time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds.
CENTRE OF MASS LOCATION: If the centre of mass of the combined vehicle and rider
is located closer to the front wheel, then the front wheel has to move less in order to maintain
balance. Conversely, if the centre of mass is located closer to the rear wheel, the front wheel
need more lateral movement to maintain balance. This can be noticeable on long-wheelbase
cruiser bikes. It can also be an issue for touring bikes with a heavy load of gear over or even
behind the rear wheel. A tall two-wheeler with a high centre of mass can be easier to balance
when ridden than a short one because its lean rate will be slower. However, a rider can have
the opposite impression of a vehicle when it is stationary. A tall heavy vehicle requires more
effort to keep upright, when stopped in traffic, than a vehicle which is just as tall but with a
lower centre of mass.
TRAIL: As explained earlier, the distance that the front wheel ground contact point trails
behind the steering axis ground contact point is known as trail. The steering axis is the axis
about which the entire steering mechanism (fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) is pivoted. In
traditional bike designs, with a steering axis tilted back from the vertical, trail causes the front
wheel to steer into the direction of a lean, independent of forward speed.
The stability of the vehicle increases with increase in trail. Vehicles with negative trail
feel very unstable even though they are ridable. Vehicles with too much trail feel difficult to
steer. Less trail allows more accurate path selection and also allows the rider to recover from
obstacles. Touring bikes are provided with small trail to facilitate easy control of a bike loaded
with luggage. As a result, an unburdened touring motorcycle can feel unstable.
The amount of trail may vary with time for several reasons. On vehicles with telescopic
forks, compressing the front suspension, due to heavy braking, can decrease the steering axis
angle and reduces trail. Trail also varies with lean angle, and steering angle, usually decreasing
from a maximum when the vehicle is straight upright and steered straight ahead. The profile
of the front tyre can also influence how trail varies as the vehicle is leaned and steered.
STEERING MECHANISM MASS DISTRIBUTION: Another factor that can also
contribute to the self-stability of traditional designs is the distribution of mass in the steering
mechanism, which includes the front wheel, the fork, and the handlebar. If the centre of
mass for the steering mechanism is in front of the steering axis, then the pull of gravity will
also cause the front wheel to steer in the direction of a lean. This can be seen by leaning a
stationary vehicle to one side. Additional parameters, such as the fore-to-aft position of the
centre of mass and the elevation of the centre of mass also contribute to the dynamic behaviour
of a vehicle.
GYROSCOPIC EFFECTS: The role of the gyroscopic effect in most two wheelers is to help
steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean (tilt). This phenomenon is called precession and
the rate at which an object precesses is inversely proportional to its rate of spin. The slower a
front wheel spins, the faster it will precess when the bike leans, and vice-versa. At low forward
speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, which increases vehicle’s tendency to
over-steer. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, which increases vehicle’s
tendency to under-steer. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for
most riders to counteract. Thus a fast vehicle may feel stable even though it is actually not
self-stable and would fall over if it is left uncontrolled.
15.4.2 Types of Instabilities

There are generally three basic modes of instability inherently happen with the two wheelers.
These are fundamental to all two wheelers. Sometimes it only needs some wear or lack of
proper adjustment at critical components, like swing-arm pivots and steering head bearings,
for dangerous instabilities to occur. These three modes are known as:
Capsize
Wobble
Weave
CAPSIZE: This instability is rather insignificant and obvious case that a stationary
two-wheeler simply falls over unless held upright. This happens with the slow speed vehicle
where the vehicle starts to turn and lean to one side in a gradually tightening curve until it
falls over also. This can be observed by gently pushing and releasing a two-wheeler, as it slows
down it turns to one side. The vehicle eventually falls as the curve radius reduces.
WOBBLE: Trail is generally thought to provide a stabilizing influence to the steering, but
in some extreme cases, it can be the cause of an oscillating, or wobbling, type of instability.
This happens when the front wheel is displaced by some road irregularity. The restoring torque
created by the trail happens to be strong enough to over-correct for the initial disturbance. The
wheel then swings beyond the straight-ahead position and steered in the opposite direction.
This in turn creates another but opposite restoring force, which repeats the whole process,
and the wheel moves side-to-side creating a steering wobble. This instability occurs mostly at
high speed. Wobble can be easily resolved by regulating speed, driving position, or grip on
the handlebar. It can generate lethal injuries if left uncontrolled.
The force which builds up a wobble on a two-wheeler results from unavoidable
imperfections in the vehicle. A small unevenness in a tyre or a slight buckle in a rim gives a
rise to the unbalance at each revolution of the wheel. The frequency of this force is that of the
RPM of the wheel and if speed of vehicle is such that this coincides with the natural wobble
frequency, then the vehicle may develop a bad wobble at this speed. Several factors contribute
to the wobble. Damping is an important one which is provided by a steering damper, friction
in the steering bearings, wiring and control cables, tyre friction and internal tyre damping etc.
It usually occurs between 40 and 65 KMPH and is felt most strongly, sometimes violently,
while slowing through this range with the hands removed from the bar. A most important point
is that the fundamental mechanism for causing this sort of wobble is inherent in the layout of
a conventional two-wheeler. The only way to prevent it is to damp or tune it out of the system
and the following measures may be helpful:
Increased lateral fork stiffness
Reduced trail; there are limits to this approach as it may spoil directional stability
Reduced mass of the front wheel and fork, so reducing their moment of inertia about
the steering axis
Use of hydraulic steering damper
WEAVE: As wobble is an oscillation of the front steered mass about the steering axis,
weave is considered as an oscillation of the rear steered mass about the steering axis. It is a
much more complex form of instability, because there is a lot more cross coupling between
the various degrees of freedom of possible motions.
The weave frequency is lower which allows for a greater roll response, which in turn causes
greater gyroscopic steering torques on both wheels. The whole motion is a complex combination
of yaw, roll, suspension and steering displacements. It is generally more dangerous than wobble
because it occurs at higher speeds although the oscillating frequency is lower. Moreover, the
weave frequency is not dependent on the rotational frequency of the wheels, but this is a result
of the gyroscopic influence. Weave can represent extremely violent manoeuvers and structural
compliance can be a significant parameter affecting the onset and severity of the instability.
15.5 AERODYNAMICS
In common with all medium to high speed vehicles, the study of effects of wind pressure on
stability and controllability is known as aerodynamics. Surprisingly, this becomes very complex
on a two-wheeler compared to self-balancing vehicles such as cars. Trail, gyroscopic reaction,
yaw and roll coupling and their interaction with the steering, are the cause of many stability
and control problems.
Air flowing past a vehicle, must be diverted from its original path, and such deflections
lead to changes in the speed of the air. Bernoulli’s equation shows that the pressure exerted
by the air on the vehicle is altered from that of the undisturbed stream. Also the viscosity of
the air leads to the existence of frictional forces tending to resist its flow. As a result of these
processes, the vehicle experiences a resultant aerodynamic force and moment. It is conventional
and convenient to separate this aerodynamic force and moment into three components each,
as follows.
DRAG: Drag is a horizontal component of aerodynamic force which tries to prevent forward
movement of a vehicle through the air. This force is generated through a difference in pressure
between the front and rear of the vehicle. This pressure difference acts on the frontal area of
the vehicle to give the drag force, and hence the larger the frontal area the greater is the drag.
Overall drag can be categorized into five different groups.
Profile drag
Friction drag
Interference drag
Induced drag
Air induction system and cooling system drag
Near to the surface of the vehicle and rider the air viscosity causes internal friction. Right
at the surface the air speed will be that of the moving machine and the internal friction will
tend to drag adjacent layers of air along with it. Farther from the surface, the air will be
largely unaffected, so there is a relatively thin layer of air near the surface which has a strong
velocity gradient. Therefore, at the surface the velocity of the air particles is equal to that of
the vehicle and outside of this layer their velocity will be that of the surrounding air. This
layer is known as the boundary layer and the behaviour of this layer is so important to the
aerodynamic properties of a vehicle.
When the airflow over part of a body is slow, the velocity gradient is small and adjacent
layers within the boundary layer slip over each other in an orderly fashion and the flow is
known as laminar. However, at higher velocities, the velocity gradient is likewise high and
the friction between layers causes them to trip over one another and create eddies. This type
of flow is known as turbulent. Except at very low speeds, vehicle always faces a mixture of
turbulent and laminar flow while moving. The frontal area of a vehicle is such that the air has
to follow the shape, but as the air passes the widest cross section the boundary layer becomes
thicker. Moreover, the air can no longer follow the shape and the boundary layer becomes
detached from the body when the shape of the body departs too much from the ideal. The
vehicle moving through the air then leaves a turbulent wake behind. The size and shape of
the vehicle and the speed are the most significant factors affecting the size of this wake. The
pressure within the wake tends to be constant and less than normal atmospheric pressure. The
point where the boundary layer detaches from the vehicle body is known as the separation
point vehicle should be designed so that this point remains closer to the rear and at the smallest
cross-section possible to reduce the size of the wake.
LIFT: Lift is the vertical component of net aerodynamic force acting upwards, perpendicular
to the direction of forward motion. Aerodynamic lift reduces the total load on the tyres, and so
is potentially dangerous, because it reduces the maximum possible grip of the tyres on the road.
If the lift is in front of the COG then this lift force will cause a greater reduction of
load on the front compared to the back, and vice versa. Even with a body shape that does not
produce lifting force (only drag) or any direct aerodynamic pitching moment, there is still a
tendency for load to transfer from the front wheel to the rear due to the effect of the drag force.
When the vehicle travels along the road the airstream moving over the upper surface of
the vehicle and rider has to move further than the underside airstream. Thus the slower moving
underside and the faster moving top side airstream produces a higher pressure underneath the
vehicle than over it, consequently the resultant vertical pressures generated between the upper
and under surfaces produce a net lift. The magnitude of lift mainly depends upon the styling
profile of vehicle body, ground clearance and vehicle speed. The positive lift tends to increase
with the square of the vehicle speed. If the uplift between the front tyre and rear tyre is different,
then the slip angles generated by the front and rear tyres will not be equal. Accordingly, this
will result in an under-steer or over-steer tendency instead of more neutral steer characteristics.
Thus uncontrolled lift will reduce the vehicle’s road holding and may cause steering instability.
CROSSWIND FORCE: This is the lateral component of aerodynamic force mutually
perpendicular to the lift and the drag. Crosswind forces result in rolling, pitching and yawing
moments which under extreme wind conditions might cause the vehicle to overturn. The exact
effect depends both on the vehicle and the nature of the wind. In strong crosswinds, the
side force is typically greater than the drag force, such that the angle of the overall wind
force is much greater. When the vehicle first encounters a crosswind condition on road, the
lateral force is first imposed on the front of the vehicle and may divert it in the downwind
direction. The aerodynamic shape of the vehicle and even the steering system characteristics
affect performance in this sense.
Crosswind sensitivity generally refers to the lateral and yawing response of a vehicle in
the presence of transverse wind disturbances which affect the driver’s ability to hold the vehicle
in position and on path. Crosswind sensitivity is dependent on more than just the aerodynamic
properties of the vehicle. The key elements that affect the crosswind sensitivity are:
Aerodynamic properties
Weight distribution
Tire properties
Suspension characteristics
Steering system characteristics
Rider’s response to the steering system
15.6 SQUAT AND DIVE

These are terms that refer to pitch and height changes of the sprung part of the vehicle. Dive
is a forward pitching motion caused usually by braking, whereas squat refers to a rearward
rotation normally due to acceleration and aerodynamic forces.
Without some mechanisms to oppose, the load transfer under acceleration will cause some
squat, i.e. the front will rise and the rear will sit down. In practice the amount of rear suspension
compression is partially or totally compensated by various reactions from the rear swing-arm,
chain and other geometric features. Depending on design, braking and driving forces and their
internal reactions may cause the suspension to either extend or compress.
There are two sources of dive associated with the front forks—one is the obvious effect
of load transfer, which is dependent on the COG height and the wheelbase. The other is a
less obvious effect due to the rearward rake of the fork legs. This rake means that the braking
force on the front tyre can be split into two components when fed into the forks, one in line
with the sliders which tends to compress the springs, the second component at right angles to
the forks which tries to bend the fork legs. In the absence of any anti-dive system, there are
two ways to accommodate this effect, use stiff fork springs to limit the movement or softer
springs with larger movement. But these parameters should be selected in accordance with road
holding, handling and comfort. The disadvantages of hard suspension are already discussed,
and the large fork movement associated with softer springs, allows undue pitch changes and
variations in steering geometry, to the detriment of comfort and stability.
Load transfer from both accelerating and braking give rise to attitude change tendencies,
front dive and rear rise for braking and rear squat and front rise when accelerating. The
horizontal forces from accelerating and braking react through the geometric features of a
particular vehicle to produce internal forces and moments that oppose or reinforce the squat
and dive suspension movements. These reactions are known as anti-squat and anti-dive. Except
for momentary transients and second order effects from raising or lowering the COG, these
reactions do not affect the load experienced by either tyre. During squat and dive, the suspension
parameters interact in very complex ways.
15.7 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS

Performance measurement tests of vehicle help to measure and analyze the characteristics of
that particular vehicle under different conditions. These data can be utilized to improve poor
design or to eliminate defects before a prototype needs to be constructed. During performance
tests, considerable attentions are paid to stability aspects of the overall handling, wobble and
weave. All aspects of vehicle are closely focused due to the safety implications. Over the past
decade, testing methods have been given a huge boost through the application of the track
data measurement and recording techniques. Various sensors measure some physical parameters
and store this information electronically so that it can be downloaded into a computer for
subsequent analysis. Sometimes instead of onboard data storage, the information is relayed
directly to computers by means of a radio link. In racing, these developments have proved to
be an invaluable tool to aid the detail tuning of engine, suspension and geometric parameters.
Following are various performance measurements carried out for two wheelers.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE: Mostly, engine performance tests are carried out in the
laboratory. The dynamometer is essential equipment which has been used conventionally to
measure engine power and torque produced under various operating conditions. Also cylinder
pressures, flow benches for gas flow and exhaust gas analyzers have long been used. Onboard
ECU of the engine has made this testing procedure easy and precise. It remains connected with
all the systems of engine and constantly provides all the necessary data even during working
condition of the engine.
WHEEL SPEEDS: Wheel speed is measured by means of optical or magnetic sensors which
get triggered through fixed number of times per wheel revolution. There are a variety of methods
that can be used for this, for example inductive pickups can be triggered by the heads of steel
bolts used to hold the brake disk to the wheel, Hall effect magnetic pickups need a small
magnet to pass and these can be inserted into the heads of these disk bolts also. The analysis
software will measure the elapsed time between each pulse and will calculate the tyre surface
speed depending on the specified tyre rolling radius. Rear wheel speed can be compared with
the front to provide information about tyre slip under power and braking.
FRONT AND REAR SUSPENSION MOVEMENTS: Front and rear suspension movements
are usually measured with linear potentiometers. At the front they are normally mounted to the
lower fork yoke and the slider near the axle, but at the rear there is a wide variety of locations
possible. Basically the sensor can be mounted between the main chassis and the swing-arm or
mounted across the suspension unit. The wheel movement potentiometers are made in a range
of lengths and available travel to suit different installation requirements. The signals fed into
the recording system are of the suspension displacement but can be processed by the analysis
software to give suspension velocity. Linear potentiometers are a very simple and cost effective
way of measuring suspension displacements.
THROTTLE RESPONSE: Throttle position is determined by means of a potentiometer
(normally rotary) fixed to the butterfly valve of throttle body. Principally used with engine
parameters it is useful nonetheless to correlate with suspension displacements, helping to
indicate areas of acceleration and braking.
STEERING AND LEAN-IN PERFORMANCE: Steering angle is relatively easy to measure
with the use of a rotary potentiometer. Steering torque could be measured in a variety of ways
depending on the manner of handlebar fixation. The most suitable method is probably by fitting
strain-gauges near the mounting to the forks. Strain-gauges produce a signal which is dependent
on the actual surface strain of the object to which they are attached. With prior calibration this
information can be converted into steering torque. Roll rate can also be measured by different
methods, the most direct being by gyroscopes. Lean angle is difficult to measure directly
but use of the roll velocity and time information to calculate the lean angle by mathematical
equations is conventionally used.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT: Temperature measurement has obvious applications
in relation to engine monitoring. However, there are three obvious applications for temperature
measuring of chassis related parameters which are suspension units, brake rotors and tyres. The
suspension units can be monitored by means of direct contact. Both the tyres and discs are
rotating, which makes the job somewhat harder. For these applications it is usual to employ
infrared detectors. A hot object radiates heat in the form of infrared radiation, the frequency
of which is dependent on the surface temperature. Therefore, detectors can be placed to look
the brake rotors and tyre surface without actually touching.
BRAKING PERFORMANCE: Braking performance includes measuring the effectiveness
of braking system on different road surface in different weather conditions with different road
irregularities. Testing of vehicle with cross-combinations between various affecting factors
finally provide the overall effectiveness of the braking system. These tests also provide
judgment about deceleration characteristics of that particular vehicle under different conditions.
Moreover, compression rate of front suspension under diving can also be measured by braking
performance.
Review Questions
1. What is the importance of two-wheeler dynamics? Also explain various linear
and angular motions two wheelers can have.
2. What do you mean by handling characteristics? Describe balancing.
3. Explain two phases of steering.
4. What do you mean by road holding? Explain various factors which affect road
holding characteristics.
5. What is vehicle stability?
6. Explain factors affecting vehicle stability.
7. Explain types of instabilities.
8. Define aerodynamics. Explain phenomena of drag.
9. Explain lift and crosswind force.
10. Describe squat and dive.
11. Which are the various performance measurements carried out for two wheelers?
Explain.
16
Racing Bike Requirements
Contents
YY Different Requirements: Engine
YY Air Suction and Throttle
YY Exhaust
YY Clutch and Gearbox
YY Frame
YY Brakes
YY Suspensions
YY Wheels and Tyres
YY Fairing, Electronics
The racing bike is optimized machine to get desired acceleration, speed, braking and stability.
Every effort made in racing bike is just to increase and maintain these parameters, of course
on the expense of comfort and fuel economy. Designers do many alteration and exploration to
generate the difference right the way through their designing, manufacturing, assembling and
testing. Figure 16.1 shows a bike specially designed and manufactured for racing.
ENGINE: It is but obvious that very first difference exists in the power producing heart
of these bikes. As a whole, these bikes make use of high capacity powerful engines. Racing
bike incorporates much lightweight engine which produces more power than a production
bike. Designers always try to decrease weight of the engine as much as possible which results
as a use of V-twins or V-fours and multicylinder inline engines. These engines can produce
20%–30% more power than a normal production engine, even with less capacity. Power output
can reach up to 200 HP.
Each and every part in the engine of racing bike gets a special considerations and
treatments from designers. Much lighter alloy castings have been used instead of common
aluminium alloy casting to match up with weight requirements. Steel parts get replaced by
much lighter titanium parts. Many racing bikes also make use of carbon fibre parts in engine
as a solution of weight reduction.
340
Racing Bike Requirements 341
Figure 16.1 Racing Bike.
Production cost for these engines also stays higher. Production bike parts get benefited by
their quantity and interchange ability where racing bike parts are specially produced with more
precise methods and without any liberation. This results in more production cost, no space for
any supposition and no room for any blunder.
AIR SUCTION AND THROTTLE: Air ducting in racing bikes plays imperative responsibility
in deciding bike’s performance. After all, it is the only means by which bike engine breaths
sufficiently and efficiently. Racing bike slots in a straight and simplest ducting to provide
adequate amount of fresh air and helps to increase volumetric efficiency.
Throttle response in racing bike remains much more advanced with respect to butterfly
opening position. Just a small twist of accelerator can open the butterfly wide which amplifies
bike’s acceleration tremendously. This also helps to avoid more twisting of rider’s wrist and
reduces his fatigue. No doubt, super bikes also come along with throttle response mechanism
but stay slightly less responsive than a GP bikes.
EXHAUST: Simplest but highly engineered and precisely manufactured exhaust contributes
a lot to gain and retain desired performance by increasing scavenging efficiency of the engine.
Though it is a free flow exhaust, sensors are integrated in the system to read out the amount
of gas temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This data is used to increase power output as
per requirements. This is done with the help of ECU and other electronics.
CLUTCH AND GEARBOX: Most of racing bike employ slipper type clutch. As discussed
earlier, it is a multiplate clutch which allows driver to avoid clutching at the time of cornering.
It also assists to shift up or down within a small fraction of time. Here again, difference exists
in materials used to manufacture this clutch. Racing clutches remain 10%–15% lighter than
normal clutches and can transmit 20%–25% more power.
Transmission box always acts as a deciding factor for bike’s acceleration. No one can
have greatest acceleration even with high speed engine if transmission chosen is erroneous.
In racing world, acceleration of the bike is only deciding factor of victory. Each crew
tries hard to have accurate gear box that provides highest acceleration and also helps to
save time during shifting up or down. Zeroshift and Xtrac are the best examples of optimized
gear box for racing bikes. Zeroshift incorporates constant mesh gear box with newly
designed tab locks instead of dogs allowing rider to shift the gear without killing time as well
as power.
FRAME: Frame is the second component on which designers always concentrate to have
much possible weight reduction. Many types of frames have been used in racing world which
include aluminium frames consisting mixture of cast, extruded and forged pieces. Pipe frames
are also incorporated along with engine-based frames. Nowadays, designers are inclined toward
carbon fibre chassis which offers greatest weight reduction with enough stiffness. Racing bike
frame stays 30%–35% lighter than other frame.
BRAKES: Plane carbon discs are now almost universally used on racing bikes which offer
less expansion under heating and greater heat dissipation. These discs also serve the purpose
of weight reduction considerably. ABS seems worthless in racing bikes as braking is not
frequent operation during and on race track but brakes are efficient enough to stop the bike
from 200+ KMPH speed.
Brake pads in racing bikes are heavy duty and long-lasting. Composite materials are used
together to manufacture brake pads and calipers. Composite materials provide highest resistance
to heat which helps to avoid any changes in braking properties under thermal stresses.
SUSPENSIONS: Almost all racing bikes use inverted telescopic forks at front and mono-
shock swing arm at rear. Just like braking, road cavities also remains at negligible level on
racing tracks. However, at the time of acceleration, weight transfer from front to rear needs to
be evaded. Suspension has to absorb various forces at the time of turning. For these reasons,
rear suspension of racing bike kept little stiffer. Same situations are also applicable to front
suspensions. As a result, Yamaha uses two different damping characteristics for two front
forks. One fork is used to damp elongation and other fork is used to damp compression. This
helps to customize the design of springs and damping valves which serves much well than a
normal suspension does.
WHEELS AND TYRES: Racing bikes incorporate seamless forged wheels which are much
lighter than a normal alloy wheels. Racing bike wheels hang about 30%–35% lighter than other
wheels because of magnesium alloy, carbon fibre and composite materials which are nowadays
added to racing wheels to diminish more weight.
Mostly, the racing bikes are driven on dry surface and so as the tyres required. Plane
tyres (without any treads) are used for efficient gripping and to generate ample contact area.
Past consequences, current conditions and rider’s feedback are used as core requirements to
design racing bike tyres. Upper most layer of the tyre is kept softer than normal tyre. This
softer layer gets heated on burning and provides excellent gripping. Life and efficiency of this
GP tyre is decided with respect to number of laps. It becomes obligatory for driver as well as
crew to change bike tyres after pre-defined laps. Auxiliary brake discs and chain sprocket are
kept assembled into the standby wheel-tyre assembly to save precious lap time. Pit crew has
to change this assembled wheel within few seconds.
Racing Bike Requirements 343
FAIRING AND AESTHETICS: Fairing is very obvious requirement for these bikes. Basic
difference exists in material and construction. Racing fairing contains smooth and simple
structure without complicated curves. Smooth and simple fairing of racing bike restricts the
formation of V notches and eddy currents. The only material used for racing bike fairing is
carbon fibre. Racing bikes have dazzling colours but mostly remain cover with sponsor’s logos.
ELECTRONICS: Today, each bike uses electronics either as system controller or as a
component of any system. Electronics has helped designers to get rid of from many bulky
mechanical parts and also serves efficiently without any chance of error. Racing bikes make
use of advanced electronics to control engine power and riding quality. The only difference is
performance data of engine as well as of bike are visible to the crew on their computer screens.
Review Questions
1. How racing bike engines differ from production engine? Explain.
2. Write a short note on requirements of a racing bike regarding air induction,
throttle and exhaust.
3. Explain requirements of clutch, transmission and frame for racing bike.
4. How brakes, suspensions, wheels and tyres contribute to increase the performance
of a racing bike? Explain.
17
Electric Two Wheeler
Contents
YY Drivetrain Layout of Electric Two Wheeler
YY Batteries
YY Electric Motors
YY Motor Controller
YY Charger and Charging
YY Battery Balancer and Battery Management System
YY Merits & Demerits of Electric Two Wheelers
YY High Performance Electric Two Wheelers
Today’s internal combustion engine is more evolved than ever. However, they still have a
carbon-based combustion process that creates heat and pollution. Everything about the internal
combustion engine is toxic, and it is still one of the least efficient mechanical devices on the
planet. Unlike lighting a single match, the use of hundreds of millions (soon to be billions)
of internal combustion engines threatens to destroy all life on our earth. While an internal
combustion engine has hundreds of moving parts, an electric motor has only one. This is one
of the main reasons why electric motorcycles are so efficient.
An electric two-wheeler consists of a battery that provides energy, an electric motor that
drives the wheels, and a controller that regulates the energy flow to the motor.
Electric two wheelers are simple, highly reliable, have lifetimes measured in millions of
miles, need no periodic maintenance, and cost significantly less per mile to operate. They are
highly flexible as well, using electrical energy readily available anywhere as input fuel.
17.1 DRIVETRAIN LAYOUT OF ELECTRIC TWO-WHEELER

In practical terms, the power available from the engine must be utilized for overcoming the
tractive resistances for any given speed. The obvious mission of the drivetrain is to apply the
engine’s power to driving the wheel and tyre with the least loss. The drivetrain layout shown
in Figure 17.1 is known as direct drive which is used most widely to drive small electric
344
Electric Two Wheeler 345
Figure 17.1 Direct Drive Layout.
scooters while the layout shown in Figure 17.2 is known as indirect drive mostly used on
electric motorcycles. Transmission, a chain or belt drive, or maybe a shaft drive unit are
conventionally used on high capacity electric vehicles. The function of each component of the
drivetrain is as follows:
BATTERY: Batteries work as a fuel tank and the basic function of batteries is to generate
the maximum storage possible in a limited space, allowing the vehicle to be driven as much
as possible. It provides necessary electric current to the electric motor. Battery discharges after
predefined time period therefore charging of battery becomes necessary after certain run.
ELECTRIC MOTOR: The electric motor replaces the engine and provides mechanical
output by working on the principle of mutual induction. The electric motor is directly installed
inside the wheels when used on direct drive layout. The electric motor drives the driving wheel
through the conventional drive train when used on indirect drive layout.
CONTROLLER: The controller is one of the most important components of every electric
vehicle. The controller is the device by which the speed and power output of the electric motor
are controlled. It is just like the throttle of a carburetor which controls the power output of an
engine. The controller is usually interlinked with the accelerator. The controller provides many
other features, such as safety interlocks and protection for electric motor.
Figure 17.2 Indirect Drive Layout.
CLUTCH (OPTIONAL): Just like an ordinary two-wheeler, it disengages the power flow
from the motor so that transmission gears can be shifted and, once engaged, the vehicle can
be driven from standstill to top speed.
MANUAL TRANSMISSION (OPTIONAL): It provides a number of alternative gear ratios
to the motor to meet vehicle needs—maximum torque for hill climbing or minimum speed to
economical cruising at maximum speed.
CHAIN OR BELT DRIVE (OPTIONAL): It conventionally connects the motor to the
drive wheel.
17.2 BATTERIES
The basic batteries which used on electric vehicles are secondary batteries. These are the most
popular of all batteries. Secondary batteries are rechargeable batteries. They have the advantage
of being more cost-efficient over the long term. Secondary batteries are the best solution
for high-drain applications. The primary batteries are not rechargeable. Primary batteries are
not suitable for high-drain applications because of their short lifetime. Most of electric two
wheelers either use lead–acid batteries or lithium battery because they are most popular and
most likely the battery of choice. Construction and working of lead–acid battery is already
covered in Chapter 14.
In a typical lithium battery, the anode, or negative electrode is made from carbon. The
cathode or positive electrode is based on lithium-cobalt dioxide or lithium-manganese dioxide.
Since lithium reacts with water and undergoes violent reaction. Therefore, electrolyte is a
composition of non-aqueous organic lithium salts. This electrolyte does not take part in the
chemical action and acts purely as a conducting medium. Since there is no water involved in the
chemical reaction, the formation of hydrogen and oxygen gases, like in conventional batteries, is
also eliminated. As noted earlier, lithium is extremely reactive with water which forms lithium
hydroxide and highly flammable hydrogen gas. When these two elements congregate, a violent
reaction takes place. As a result, tremendous heat and flammable gases are liberated those can
ignite easily. Short-circuiting a lithium battery can cause it to ignite or explode. Any attempt
to open or modify a lithium-ion battery’s casing or circuitry is dangerous.
Most lithium batteries are equipped with some kind of battery management system. This
is a system that regulates charging and balance of the battery voltage. The lithium battery is
designed to operate safely within normal operating voltage, but it becomes unstable if it is
over charged above designed thresholds. When charging above 4.30 V, the cell causes coating
of metallic lithium on the anode while the cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent which
loses its stability and releases oxygen. Overcharging causes the cell to heat up. If left unattended,
the cell could vent with flammable gases, catches fire, and sets off nearby batteries, causing
a chain reaction. Lithium batteries may explode if overheated or if charged to an excessively
high voltage.
17.3 ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motors are available in all types, shapes, and sizes. In comparison with the internal
combustion engine, electric motors produce zero pollutants. The electric motors are equipped
with only one moving part because of which they need minor maintenance. Electric motor can
develop its full power just from the start. Electric motors are rated either with a continuous
rating or an intermittent or 5-minute rating. Electric motors, for small fraction of time, are
capable to generate a power output of two to four times their continuous rating. For defining
acceleration and hill climbing ability, the 5-minute power rating generally is used. A large
part of this power rating is spoiled due to heat generated under over load and high current
consumption. Therefore, it becomes essential to keep the motor running cool. Operating the
electric motor above the rating for any prolonged time will generate tremendous heat and will
easily damage its various components like the field coils, armature, and brushes. Available
horsepower from electric motor increases with the amount of voltage supplied to the motor.
A simple DC motor consists of a coil of wire that can rotate in a magnetic field. The
current is supplied through two brushes. These brushes create a moving contact with a split
ring known as a commutator. Permanent magnets are used to generate a steady magnetic field
in which the coil lies. In modern DC motors, the permanent magnets are substituted by another
coil of wire which produces its own magnetic field when current is supplied. A magnetic
field creating north and south magnetism is generated due to the forces exerted on the current
carrying wires. This magnetism generates a force on the coil which is known as an armature.
A rotational movement is created due to repulsion or attraction of an opposite north and south
poles created when current is supplied to the armature. The different DC motor types are:
Series
Shunt
Compound
Permanent magnet
Brushless
Universal
The AC induction motor is a common form of asynchronous motor. In electric vehicles,
DC motor drive systems are now being replaced by the AC drive systems because of their
improvements in technology. The AC induction motor can be operated from a three-phase
source of voltage. A conventional three-phase stator is used in which the winding is placed at
120°. The most common type of induction motor has a squirrel cage rotor. This rotor consists
of aluminium conductors or bars those are connected together at both ends of the rotor through
aluminium end rings. A sinusoidally distributed air-gap flux generating the rotor current is
produced when three currents are supplied through the three symmetrically placed windings.
The interface of the sinusoidally distributed air-gap flux and induced rotor currents creates a
torque on the rotor. When used for adjustable speed applications, like road vehicles, AC motors
are powered by inverters. The inverter helps to convert the DC power to the AC power at the
desired amplitude and frequency.
COMPONENTS OF MOTOR
ARMATURE: The armature plays important role in construction of the electric motor. It
normally rotates on a shaft which is supported on two bearings. The rotation is produced due
to mutual induction between windings. The armature usually consists of laminated steel pieces
known as the armature core. The armature core is separated in different sections with windings
of coated copper wire. When current is applied to one of the windings, it creates a magnetic
field. The rotational movement is produced either due to attraction or due to repulsion between
two magnetic fields.
COMMUTATOR: The commutator is made up of a set of copper pieces which are fixed
around the circumference of the armature. All copper pieces of the commutator are parted from
each other. The frame of the electric motor holds a set of spring loaded brushes. A current is
supplied to the brushes from an external source. Fundamentally, the commutator performs the
function of a switch for each part of the armature. Current flows only through the winding of
the armature with which the brushes are in contact. This flow of current creates an EMF and
produces torque. As a result, the commutator shaft rotates.
FIELD POLES: Field poles are created with the help of Electromagnets and permanent
magnets. The electromagnetic field pole is created by wire winding. The poles are properly
rounded to fit the circumference of the armature. An electromagnetic pole is better than a
permanent magnet because it can produce very strong magnetic field. Moreover, the flux
strength can be controlled by changing the number of turns in its coil or by varying the current
flow through the coil. Therefore, most of the modern electric vehicles use an electromagnetic
pole while only smaller motors make use of permanent magnets.
BRUSHES: The brushes are usually in a rectangular shape and made of carbon-composite
material. The brushes are locked tightly in their place by a spring which provides the proper
amount of tension on the brushes to generate proper contact with the commutator. Therefore,
brush tension is important; the brushes will jump back and produces arc if the tension is too
light while the brushes will wear down prematurely if the tension is too heavy. The end of
the brush which interacts with the commutator is properly shaped to fit the commutator. This
arrangement provides better current transfer. Current is supplied through copper wire connected
to the brushes
17.4 MOTOR CONTROLLER

The controller plays an important role on every electric vehicle. The controller on an electric
vehicle acts like a carburetor which controls the speed and power output of the drive motor.
The controller is usually interfaced with the accelerator. The controller provides many other
features, such as safety interlocks and protection for electric motor.
MULTISWITCHING CONTROL: This type of motor controller is the simplest and most
basic form. Multiswitching controller makes use of different rows of batteries. These batteries
are separated to form a pack that supplies various voltages as and when required. To provide
initial driving torque, one row of batteries is engaged in the circuit. The circuit thus gets limited
voltage and current on the start. As the vehicle gains some momentum, another row of batteries
is switched on. Likewise, a vehicle can have four different speeds with a battery pack with
four rows. Each speed is resulted by switching a row of batteries on and increasing the voltage.
SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS: These controllers use electronics to provide rapid ON/
OFF switching of power to vary the motor speed. The voltage is regulated by controlling the
duration of on-off pulses of power. Older controllers were operated at low switching frequency.
This low operational frequency was a source of audible sound.
PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED CONTROLLER: The PWM controller is typically used
on most electric vehicles. It switches the power on and off at very high frequencies to control
the vehicle speed. PWM controller is a solid-state device that uses a pulse-width modulator to
send short surges of current to the motor. Most controllers are capable to regulate themselves
for overcurrent and overheating conditions. They are also capable of cutting back on power or
even shutting down temporarily if required.
AC CONTROLLERS: With the help of modern microprocessors and power switching
devices, it is possible to manufacture highly efficient AC induction motor controllers for
modern electric vehicles. AC controllers offer many advantages like increased consistency,
wider vehicle speed range, improved efficiency, and combination of programmable features.
AC controllers also provide more accurate control and full regeneration capability. Compared
with DC controllers, AC controllers can provide natural regenerative braking without extra
components. AC controllers provide a constant torque for a wide range of RPM which results
as constant acceleration irrespective of speed. This would often facilitate the vehicle to be
used on one gear ratio.
17.5 CHARGER AND CHARGING

The charger is the one component of electric vehicle which is often ignored in terms of its
real importance. The charger plays a major part in keeping efficient working of vehicle. Faulty
charging techniques also cause battery damage. The charger has three main functions:
To charge the battery in a safe manner and in a specific time
To monitor and optimize the charging rate
To terminate the charging process of the battery to avoid over or undercharging
During charging process, it is essential to supply more energy into the battery which should be
faster than the chemical process. The energy supplied to the battery should be greater enough
which can avoid back reaction of chemical process. As the chemical reaction in the battery
cannot take place immediately, this larger energy supply can have harmful results in many
ways. Extremely high rates of charging generate heat, gassing, and internal pressure in the
battery. However, some controlled amount of heat is favourable for speeding up the chemical
reaction in the battery. Therefore, it is essential to set the charging times and charging rate at
optimum value according to the capacity of the battery.
The most important function of the battery charger is to notice and control when to stop
and finish the charging cycle. The battery life mainly depends upon the efficiency of charger
in sensing the cutoff point and terminating the charging process. The current supplied for
charging the battery has to be dissipated by some means after the battery becomes fully charged.
Continued charging even after fully charged condition can generate considerable amount of
heat and gases which both are bad for battery life. A good charger has the capacity to sense
and stop the charging process before any damage occurs. This is mainly significant with rapid
chargers, where the frequent overcharging can take place.
The efficiency of a charger refers to the actual energy supplied as an input to charging
energy delivered as an output. Generally, electric vehicle chargers are available with 80–90%
efficient. However, newer chargers with solid-state are much more efficient, attaining the 95%.
Older chargers with step-up or step-down transformers were dissipating energy in the form of
heat loss and other ineffectiveness.
17.6 BATTERY BALANCER AND BATTERY

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
When charging the row of batteries connected in a series, it is significant to confirm that the
weaker battery receives extra charging. This appropriate distribution ensures improved life of
the battery pack. The cells progressively loose the chemical balance when batteries are linked
in series and used as one group. As a result, lower capacity cells endure quicker charging
and discharging cycles. Therefore their terminal voltage also remains higher or lower than
the average charging voltage. It creates considerable temperature gradient through the battery
pack and results in additional imbalance. Hence, a device is used to adjust the charge current
through the battery pack known as battery balancers, also denoted as equalizers.
Battery balancers are connected to each pair of batteries to balance the charging current
flowing into the batteries continuously. The PowerCheq units connect the batteries in a series
and create a bidirectional energy transfer path between adjacent batteries. The balancer system
balances and maintains batteries during charging, discharging, and even during idle period. One
major advantage of battery balancing system is its easiness in adjusting to all battery systems
and can be easily installed in new and existing battery systems.
BMS is a one-step advance than a battery balancing system and controls more activities.
In practice, a BMS may also be combined with other systems of vehicle that converse with the
BMS via a CAN bus. Such systems comprise a temperature management system, an antitheft
device that disables the battery, or a side-stand indicator system of the vehicle. In addition, a
BMS can fulfill all functions of battery balancers like protection of battery during charging,
discharge protection, monitoring during charging process, and much more. With the beginning
of use of alternative battery technologies such as lithium batteries, the batteries are more
sensitive to overcharging and over discharging. When the batteries are used in a series, they
are generally protected with the help of BMS.
17.7 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF ELECTRIC TWO WHEELERS

An electric vehicle greatly reduces cost expended on the fuel. However, there are other reasons
also to promote the technology of electric vehicles.
Merits
It does not require fuel.
Charging can be harnessed from any source of electricity.
It reduces hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide, responsible for many environmental
problems, by 98%.
Electricity can be generated by renewable energy.
Operating cost is very low as it hardly requires any maintenance.
It also reduces noise pollution.
Demerits
Limited distance can be driven.
Vehicle becomes heavier due to the electric motors, batteries, chargers, and controllers.
Battery charging takes time.
Limited access to charging location.
17.8 HIGH PERFORMANCE ELECTRIC TWO WHEELERS

With increase in petroleum cost and global emission from the vehicles, companies are trying
to have more efficient electric two wheelers. Racing world is also expecting enormous change
in bike technology with the help of electronics. Some of the companies have already boosted
their nozzles to build commercial electric racing bikes. There’s also a promising electric-bike
industry in which ground-breaking has already activated. Led by US-based Zero Motorcycles,
Brammo Powercycles, Mission Motors, MotoCzysz, and Canada’s Amarok—are using their
recourses to develop world class electric bikes. The “Japanese Four” manufacturers, along
with KTM, Piaggio Group, BMW, and Peugeot, have production plans for battery electric
motorcycles and scooters. As we all know, China is the leader in electric bike manufacturing
and has produced more than 21 million electric bikes of all types in 2010.
ZERO’S XU: XU is the great effort made by Zero to incorporate the EV technology in
a Dirt bike. Driver can have a feel of dirt bike without much noise and fuel consumption.
XU is designed to solve a frequent trouble for drivers who don’t have feasibility to suitable
charging point close to where the bike is parked. The innovative answer is an air-cooled,
1.7 kW/h Li-Ion battery pack that is effortlessly detachable. The weight of XU is 99 kg and
uses a radial-flux permanent magnet dc motor to thrust the bike. Zero claims distance travelled
per charge is 40 km with top speed of 80 KMPH. Figure 17.3 shows Zero’s XU.
Figure 17.3 Zero’s XU Endure Bike.
BRAMMO SHOOK’S EMPULSE: Brammo shook the electric bike industry has come up
with its new models of Empulse this year. The Brammo Empulse 6.0, Empulse 8.0, and
Empulse 10.0 are the first production bikes with a liquid-cooled motor. The Empulse, shown in
Figure 17.4, has a 6 speed gear box as a benchmark. The Integrated Electric Transmission–IET
is a mechatronic propulsion unit that imitates the emotion and performance of a conventional
IC engine, with a specially developed electric motor, clutch and gear shifting mechanisms,
that enables the Empulse to accelerate fast from the zero to a high top speed, something that
is just not possible to achieve with a single ratio electric motorcycle.
Figure 17.4 Brammo Shook Empuse.
The AC synchronous unit is rated at 40 kW and 80-N/m. Their 6-, 8-, and 10-kW/h
Li-Ion battery packs are capable of 97, 129, and 161 km of range between charges respectively,
claimed by the Brammo. The Brammo 10.0 is claimed to be capable of 160 KMPH. A full-
race version is competing in the TTXGP series also.
MISSION MOTORS’ R: California based Mission Motors developed its model R to prove
the company’s electric propulsion technologies on the racetrack, and as a stepping stone to a
super-premium, high performance electric street machine capable of 2.5 h fast charging. The
Mission R, shown in Figure 17.5, holds the electric motorcycle speed record of 241.497 km/h.
It takes to enclose 14.4 kW/h of Li-ion battery on an electric racing motorcycle.
Figure 17.5 Mission Motors R.
Designed by expert motorcycle engineer James Parker, the Mission R’s diamond type
chassis locates the gigantic battery horde as close to the bike’s centre of gravity as possible.
This power unit is sealed in a carbon-fiber case to provide aerodynamic stability at high speed.
100 kW AC induction motor is liquid cooled and its heat exchangers are located at the bottom
of the bike. A Mission Motors ECU includes adjustable throttle mapping and braking control.
The machine is very heavy and weighs a 247 kg.
MOTOCZYSZ’S E1PC: MotoCzysz is Portland-based company. MotoCzysz’s E1PC won

the 2010 and 2011 races of this segment on the island of Man and top speed surpassed
225 km/h. It uses total ten 1.25 kW/h lithium-polymer battery cells arranged vertically on each
side. Only five batteries are visible in the image. Its oil-cooled propulsion motor produces
75 kW. The only emission from this bike is tyre noise at high speed. Even its driver Mark
Miller doesn’t use ear plugs at some trials. Figure 17.6 shows MotoCzysz E1PC.
Figure 17.6 MotoCzysz E1PC.
Review Questions
1. Draw a drivetrain layout for electric two wheelers.
2. Briefly explain functions of each components of electric vehicle’s drivetrain.
3. Write a short note on Batteries of Electric Vehicles.
4. Briefly explain two types of motors used on electric two wheelers.
5. Explain components of a motor.
6. Why motor controller is important? Explain different types of motor controllers.
7. How charger works? Why charging is necessary?
8. Explain three stages of charging process.
9. Explain importance of battery balancer and battery management system.
18
Three Wheeler Vehicles
Contents
YY Classification of Three Wheelers
YY Layout of Passenger Rickshaw
YY Layout of Loading Rickshaw
YY Engines for Three Wheelers
YY Drive Train of Three Wheelers
YY Suspensions and Brakes
YY Frame and Body
Unlike to the two wheelers, three wheelers are three-track motorized vehicle. They are mostly
used for public transportation or as goods carriages. Many systems of three-wheeler vehicles are
similar like two wheelers; indeed many three-wheelers are extended versions of two wheelers
only. The driving axles, however, have arrangements similar to cars. Riding a three-wheeler
involves some risks not encountered when driving cars and trucks. Even though they are more
stable than two wheelers in a straight line, three-wheelers do not have the stability of cars
during cornering and may roll over.
18.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THREE WHEELERS

Different types of three wheelers on the basis of fuel, weight and use are classified in the
following ways:
1. With respect to use
(a) Passenger Auto Rickshaw
(b) Commercial Loading Auto Rickshaw
(c) Special Purpose Three Wheeler
2. With respect to make
(a) Passenger Auto Rickshaw: Bajaj, TVS, Piaggio, Mahindra etc.
(b) Loading Auto Rickshaw: Bajaj, TVS, Piaggio, Mahindra etc.
(c) Special Purpose: Harley Davidson motorbikes, ATVs etc.
355
3.
With respect to fuel used
(a) Petrol vehicle (b) CNG vehicle
(c) Diesel vehicle (d) Electric vehicle
4.
With respect to wheel configuration
(a) Single front, dual rear wheels (Tadpole)
(b) Dual front, single rear wheels (Delta)
5.
With respect to steering configuration
(a) Front wheel(s) steered vehicles
(b) Rear wheel(s) steered vehicles
As said earlier, three wheeled vehicles are mostly used either as passenger auto rickshaws or as
loading auto rickshaws. The front compartments of these vehicles are almost similar. However,
rear compartments have major difference in construction as well as in functioning.
18.2 LAYOUT OF PASSENGER RICKSHAW

Figure 18.1 shows a layout of a passenger auto rickshaw. It consists of frameless structure. The
vehicle body provides a strong, rigid structure on which to attach the components necessary
Figure 18.1 Layout of Passenger Auto Rickshaw.

Three Wheeler Vehicles 357
to make up the vehicle. 80% of body is made up of pressed steel sheets and rest of the body
is made up of canvas, i.e. rooftop is made from flexible canvas. On older vehicles, the engine
was located at middle under the seat of driver while all newer vehicles are equipped with
rear mounted engine configuration. This engine works on petrol, CNG or diesel. This engine
is nearer in capacity to scooters. This vehicle uses low speed high torque producing engine.
Transmission is provided to the rear wheels through multiplate clutch, and 3–4 or 5 speed
constant-mesh gear box, and sometimes through the chain drive or by using differential gear
box in the rear axle. The engine is started by means of a hand lever (kick) start or electric start
provided. The front steel body partly gives protection to the driver, passengers and the vehicle. It
also consists a glass wind shield in front of vehicle. A wiper assembly is necessarily attached for
the front wind shield. The steering mechanism, handlebar controls and brake controls are similar
like scooters, as explained in respective chapters. The rear brake lever is mounted on the floor.
Rear wheel is mounted on swinging arm which is connected with frame through rear
suspension. Generally the front suspensions are leading link or trailing link type. These vehicles
use hydraulically operated drum brakes on all three wheels. Handbrake is also provided to park
the vehicle on ascent.
18.3 LAYOUT OF LOADING AUTO RICKSHAW

Figure 18.2 shows a layout of a loading auto rickshaw. As they are used as loading vehicles,
they necessarily use conventional type frame and body construction. The frame endures all
Figure 18.2 Layout of Loading Auto Rickshaw.

the loads during dynamic condition. Moreover, all the necessary components are also mounted
on this frame. The steel body is mounted on the frame at various locations through vibration
damping fasteners. The four-stroke diesel engine, in most vehicles, is mounted on the frame
at the middle of the vehicle. However, passenger vehicles use rear engine configuration. The
driver’s cockpit almost has a similar construction like ordinary passenger rickshaw except the
doors. Doors are provided on both sides of the cockpit. Headlight, wind screen, wiper, steering,
handlebar controls etc. remain similar like passenger rickshaw. The base of the carriage unit is
fabricated from the steel sheets with one door configuration. The upper portion of the carriage
unit may be enclosed and protected by round or square tubing. A flexible cover like plastic or
canvas is then used to cover the tubed carriage unit.
Rear wheel is mounted either on swinging arm or on solid axle with leaf springs. Generally
the front suspensions are leading link or trailing link type. These vehicles use hydraulically
operated drum brakes on all three wheels. Handbrake is also provided to park the vehicle on
ascent.
18.4 TYPES OF LOADING AUTO RICKSHAWS

These vehicles are conventionally used to transportation of lightweight merchandises. Depending
upon the loading requirements, many modified version of loading auto rickshaws are available
as factory-made products. Many aftermarket body fabrication units also offer alteration of
the rear carrier as per owner’s requirements. Fundamentally, loading auto rickshaws can be
classified in following ways.
Passenger Vehicle: These vehicles are used for public transportation. Load carrying capacity
of these vehicles is much higher than normal auto rickshaws. These vehicles also incorporate
flexible roof. Overall dimensions and seating capacity of these vehicles are also more than
normal auto rickshaws. Therefore, they are normally used for mass transportation. Figure 18.3
shows a passenger vehicle.
Figure 18.3 Passenger Vehicle.
Delivery Vehicle: These vehicles are used to transfer lightweight goods. The rear carriage unit
is fully enclosed with one or two doors at rear. Load carrying capacity of these vehicles is less
than other types of vehicles. The carriage unit may be provided with necessary refrigeration
system if used to transport food items. The driver’s cockpit may be provided with doors.
Figure 18.4 shows delivery vehicle.
Figure 18.4 Delivery Vehicle.
Pick Up Vehicle: Pick up vehicles are normally used to carry heavy goods. The load carrying
capacity of these vehicles is necessarily more. The carriage unit is fabricated with floor and
side walls as shown in Figure 18.5. The rear wall works as door for loading and unloading the
goods. The carriage unit may be enclosed and protected by round or square tubing. A flexible
cover like plastic or canvas is then used to cover the tubed carriage unit. The driver’s cockpit
is provided with doors.
Figure 18.5 Pick Up Vehicle.
Tipper Vehicle: The rear carriage unit of tipper vehicles is equipped with hydraulic
mechanisms. This carriage unit can be lifted and set downed by these hydraulic circuits. It
facilitates loading and unloading of sand, pebbles, heavy goods etc. the load carrying capacity
of these vehicles are more or less same as pick up vehicles. Figure 18.6 shows a tipper vehicle.
Figure 18.6 Tipper Vehicle.

18.5 ENGINES FOR THREE WHEELERS

As stated earlier, three wheelers work with three varieties of engine which include four-stroke
petrol engines, four-stroke CNG engines and four-stroke diesel engines. The construction and
working of the four-stroke petrol engine is already covered in Chapter 2. Therefore, other two
types of engines are explained in this section.
18.5.1 Four-stroke CNG Engine

Normally, passenger auto rickshaws use CNG engine which also works on Otto Cycle similar
as four-stroke petrol engine. However, instead of petrol and air, the mixture of air and gas is
supplied inside the cylinder during suction stroke. Other arrangements and components also
remain same like four-stroke petrol engine as shown in Figure 18.7. The pressurized CNG is
stored in the tank located at rear side of the vehicle. The main shut-off valve is used to refill
the reservoir as well as to cut the flow of CNG as and when required. The gas filter blocks the
suspended impurities of CNG gas and avoids damage to the engine components. The pressure
regulator plays vital role in this system.
Figure 18.7 Four-stroke CNG Engine.
The pressure regulator is primarily used to reduce the pressure of CNG flowing from
reservoir to the cylinder. This is achieved by expanding the CNG. As CNG expands it gets
very cold due to Joule-Thomson effect. Moisture in CNG can form ice and hydrate deposits,
resulting in chocking of flow. Therefore, the pressure regulator quickly manages the flow of
CNG according to engine load and avoids icing. The pressure regulator also manages varying
gas composition and supplies appropriate amount of CNG. CNG is injected in the flowing
air stream through the spray bar. The pressure difference between flowing air and pressure
regulator helps to achieve spontaneous injection of CNG. A conventional throttle is used to
manage the flow of air+gas mixture.
18.5.2 Four-stroke Diesel Engine

Mostly, loading auto rickshaws use the four-stroke diesel engine. The process begins by the
starter motor or kick start gear rotating the engine until combustion takes place. Figure 18.8
shows layout of four-stroke diesel engine. The piston is attached to a crankshaft with a
connecting rod. This arrangement allows the piston to reciprocate in the cylinder as the
crankshaft rotates. Engine cycles are identified by the number of piston strokes required to
complete the cycle. A piston stroke is a one-way piston movement either from top to bottom
or bottom to top of the cylinder.
Figure 18.8 Four-stroke Diesel Engine.
As shown in Figure 18.9(a), in the intake stroke, inlet valve opens and the piston inside
the cylinder moves downward, drawing a fresh air into the cylinder. The crankshaft rotates 180
degrees from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC) and the camshaft rotates
90 degrees. As the engine continues to rotate, the intake valve closes and the piston moves
upward in the cylinder, compressing the air. The crankshaft rotates 180 degrees from bottom
dead centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC) and the camshaft rotates 90 degrees as shown
in Figure 18.9(b).
When the piston gets near the top of the cylinder, the diesel is injected with the help of
injector. The atomized diesel particles quickly evaporate in high temperature air and results
as ignition, which forces the piston downward. Figure 18.10 shows the power stroke. The
crankshaft rotates 180 degrees from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC) and
the camshaft rotates 90 degrees.
The engine continues to rotate, and the piston again moves upward in the cylinder. The
exhaust valve opens, and the piston forces the residual burned gases out of the exhaust valve
Figure 18.9 (a) Suction Stroke (b) Compression Stroke.
and into the exhaust manifold and exhaust system. The crankshaft rotates 180 degrees from
bottom dead centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC) and the camshaft rotates 90 degrees as
shown in Figure 18.10(b).
Figure 18.10 (a) Power Stroke (b) Exhaust Stroke.

18.6 DRIVE TRAIN OF THREE WHEELERS

Both passenger and loading auto rickshaws use different drive train layout depending upon
engine location. The passenger auto rickshaws use rear located engine outline with which
a compact transmission unit is attached which transmit the power and torque to the drive
axles. The loading auto rickshaws use centrally located engine outline which essentially needed
propeller shaft to transmit power and torque.
18.6.1 Drive Train Layout for Passenger Auto Rickshaws

Figure 18.11 shows drive train layout for a passenger auto rickshaw. It conventionally uses
wet multiplate clutch due to space limitations. The clutch is connected with the 4 or 5 speed
transmission box through the primary drive. Passenger auto rickshaw also makes use of constant-
mesh gearbox similar to scooters. The gear locking and gear shifting mechanism also resemble
with those used on scooter; these mechanisms are explained in Chapter 9. A helical gear pair
is used as a final drive to provide necessary power and torque transmission.
Figure 18.11 Drive Train Layout of Passenger Auto Rickshaw.
As three wheelers are double track vehicle at rear, it is obligatory required to allow
speed difference between inner wheel and outer wheel while moving through turn. This speed
difference helps to achieve correct steering without any skidding, over-turning or under-turning.
To accomplish this requirement, all three wheelers incorporate a differential gearbox at rear.
Two drive axles connect the driving wheels with the differential gearbox. These axles must
also allow for suspension movements because of which they are provided either with constant
velocity joints or with two universal joints. CV joint facilitates drive axles to change its length
without changing power transmission.
18.6.2 Drive Train Layout for Loading AUTO Rickshaws

Figure 18.12 shows the drive train layout for a typical loading auto rickshaw. It uses longitudinal
crankshaft mounted four-stroke diesel engine. This layout with longitudinal shaft, however,
provides sufficient space to accommodate a single plate clutch. The single plate clutch, as
explained in Chapter 9, efficiently transmits the engine power and torque to the 4 or 5 speed
constant-mesh gearbox. As distance between the gearbox and differential is more in this layout,
it becomes essential to use a propeller shaft.
Figure 18.12 Drive Train Layout of Passenger Rickshaw.
The propeller shaft transmits drive from the gearbox output to the final drive in the rear
axle. The propeller shaft also allows for suspension movements because of which it is provided
with universal joints and slip joints. Sometimes, combination of two flexible coupling and slip
joint facilitates propeller shaft to change its length without changing power transmission. Drive
then continues through the final drive and differential, via two half shafts to each rear wheel.
18.6.3 Propeller Shaft

A propeller shaft transmits engine torque from the transmission to the rear axle assembly or
drive wheels. Propeller shaft is the term used to describe the shaft between the transmission
and the rear axle assembly on a rear-wheel-drive vehicle. A typical propeller shaft is either a
hollow steel tube or a solid bar. A splined end yoke is welded onto one end that slips over
the splines of the output shaft of the transmission. An end yoke is welded onto the other end
of the propeller shaft. Figure 18.13 shows constructional details of a propeller shaft.
Figure 18.13 Propeller Shaft.
Most propeller shafts are with hollow steel tubing. The forces are transmitted through
the surface of the propeller shaft when made up of hollow tubing. The surface is therefore in
tension, and cracks can develop on the outside surface of the propeller shaft due to metal fatigue.
Propeller shaft tubing can bend and, if dented, can collapse. A dented propeller shaft should be
replaced and no attempt should be made to repair the dent. To dampen propeller shaft noise,
it is common to line the inside of the hollow driveshaft with cardboard or rubber. The solid
shafts are assembled with flexible coupling which contains rubber bushings to dampen the noise.
Universal joints (UV joints) are used at both ends of a propeller shaft. UV joints allow
the wheels and the rear axle to move up and down, remain flexible, and still transfer torque to
the drive wheels. A simple universal joint can be made from two Y-shaped yokes connected
by a cross member called a cross or spider. The four arms of the cross are called trunnions.
If only one U-joint were used in a driveline, this change in speed of the driven side (output
end) would generate vibrations in the driveline. To help reduce vibration, another UV joint is
used at the other end of the propeller shaft. If the angles of both joints are nearly equal, the
acceleration and deceleration of one joint is offset by the alternate deceleration and acceleration
of the second joint. It is very important that both UV joints operate at about the same angle
to prevent excessive driveline vibration.
18.6.4 Differential Gearbox

The differential allows engine torque to be applied to both drive axles, which rotate at varying
speeds during cornering and while traveling over bumps and dips in the road. The differential
also changes the direction of engine torque 90° from the rotation of the driveshaft lengthwise
with the vehicle. These two purposes of a differential can be summarized as follows:
To change the direction of engine torque (Figure 18.14)

To allow the drive wheels to rotate at different speeds (Figure 18.15)
Figure 18.14 Changing the Direction of Engine Torque with the Help of Differential.
Figure 18.15 Necessity of Differential at the Time of Taking Turn.
A differential is a mechanical addition and subtraction assembly. By splitting the engine

torque to the drive wheels when the vehicle is turning a corner, the torque forces cause the
side gear and pinion gears to subtract torque from one side and add torque to the opposite
side.
While a vehicle travels straight ahead, the speed of each driven wheel must be allowed
to vary slightly as they go over bumps, potholes, railroad tracks, and other road surface
irregularities. While cornering, the wheels must be able to turn at much greater differences in
speed, i.e. the outside wheel must travel a greater distance than the inside wheel. Without some
mechanism to allow for a difference in speed between the wheels, the left wheel would skid
through the turn. Inside the differential gear housing four bevel gears help drive the axles. In
most differentials, there are two bevel gears called pinions that are constantly meshed with a
beveled axle side gear on each axle. The pinion and axle side gears are contained in housing
called the carrier or case.
The propeller shaft applies torque to the drive pinion gear that meshes with a crown
wheel (ring gear) as shown in Figure 18.16. This type of gear set is called a hypoid gear set
and requires gear lubrication specifically designed for this type of service. The ring gear is
attached to a rotating cage that also contains two small beveled spider gears or pinion gears.
The differential case provides the support for the ring gear, side bearings, and side gears. A
pinion shaft passes through and mounts the two pinion gears in the case. In mesh with these
two pinion gears are two sun gears that are splined to the inner ends of the drive axles.
Figure 18.16 Differential Gearbox.
Assuming that a vehicle has equal traction at both wheels, differential action does not
occur. In other words, when traveling straight on smooth road surfaces the ring gear, cage and
the drive axles are traveling at the same speed; they rotate as a unit and the pinion gears are
not rotating on the pinion shaft. The ability of the differential pinion gears to spin on their
shafts allows each axle to rotate at a different speed. Cage speed is always equal to the average
speed of the two sun gears. Since the ring gear rotates with the cage and each sun gear rotates
with its axle; when a vehicle corners, the outside wheel gains the same number of RPM that
the wheel on the inside loses, while ring gear RPM remains constant.
18.7 SUSPENSIONS AND BRAKES

Similar to other systems, suspension and braking systems of three wheelers also differ from
two wheelers. As stated earlier, almost all three wheelers use leading or trailing link suspension
at front, however, the rear suspension varies with type and application of particular vehicle.
Moreover, all three wheels are provided with drum brakes but they are operated through
hydraulic circuit.
18.7.1 Rear Suspension System of Passenger Auto Rickshaw

While using leading or trailing link suspension at front, all passenger auto rickshaws use swing
arm type suspension at rear. Two separate swing arms are used to support the wheels on each
side. Figure 18.17 shows a top view of this system. The swing arm is a kind of single sided swing
as explained in Chapter 10, however design and construction of this swing arm is very diverse.
Figure 18.17 Swing Arm Suspension of Passenger Auto Rickshaw.
Two pivots points are used to mount the swing arm either on the body or on the frame. This
two-point mounting arrangement avoids lateral movement of the swing arm during cornering.
The swing arm is either fabricated from box channel or from hollow circular tubing. Sufficient
strength has been provided to the swing arm structure with the help of extra steel plate stamping
at various locations. A hollow passage on the end is used to assemble the drive shaft with
the wheel. The suspension strut is attached between the extreme end and body as shown in
Figure 18.18. The triangulation formed between rigid body, swing arm and suspension strut
provides necessary suspension action when vehicle moves on bumps or potholes.
Figure 18.18 Triangulation in Swing Arm Suspension.
With advantages like simple construction, less weight and economic cost, it also has
some drawbacks. Frequent overloading of vehicle causes vertical bending in the swing arm
structure. It also generates undesirable camber in the rear wheels. This camber causes decreased
suspension travel, power loss and uneven tyre wear.
18.7.2 Rear Suspension System of Loading Auto Rickshaw

Loading auto rickshaws conventionally use leaf spring suspension at rear. The leaf spring is a
beam simply supported at each end, with a point load at the centre. Figure 18.19 shows a rear
axle leaf spring of semi-elliptic type. The spring consists of a number of leaves called blades.
The blades vary in length as shown. The composite spring is based upon the theory of a beam
of uniform strength. The lengthiest blade has eyes on its ends. This blade is called master leaf.
All the blades are bound together by means of steel straps and central bolt as shown in figure.
Figure 18.19 Leaf Spring.
The spring is supported on the axle by means of a U-bolt. One end of the spring is
mounted on the frame with a simple pin, while on the other end, connection is made with a
shackle. When the vehicle comes across a projection on the road surface, the wheel moves
up, deflecting the spring. This changes the length between the spring eyes. If both the ends
are fixed, the spring will not be able to accommodate this change of length. This is provided
for by means of shackle at one end which gives a flexible connection. When the leaf spring
deflects, the upper side of each leaf tip slides or rubs against the lower side of the leaf above it.
This produces some damping which reduces spring vibrations. However, to dampen the spring
vibration efficiently, two separate hydraulic shock absorbers are also mounted between the
axle and the frame. Figure 18.20 shows the assembly of leaf spring, axle and shock absorbers.
Figure 18.20 Leaf Spring Suspension Assembly.

18.7.3 Braking System of Auto Rickshaw

Three wheelers use drum brakes on all the three wheels. Construction, however, somewhat
is different than a two wheeler drum brake. Unlike mechanically operated drum brakes of
two wheelers, these vehicles use hydraulic operated foot brakes on all three wheels with an
additional handbrake mechanically operated on the rear wheels. A layout of the hydraulic
braking system is shown in Figure 18.21. The main component of this braking system is the
master cylinder, which comprises reservoir for the brake fluid. Master cylinder is operated
through the brake pedal. The master cylinder is linked to the wheel cylinders in each wheel
through pipe lines, unions and flexible hoses. The brake shoes of rear drum brakes are also
operated by handbrake through flexible metal cables.
Figure 18.21 Layout of Braking System.
The system is designed to maintain a small pressure in the brake lines even when the
brakes are in the released position. This ensures that the cups of the wheel cylinder are kept
expanded. This also helps to prevent the air from entering the wheel cylinders. Besides this,
pressure also serves the following purposes:
It keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction
springs.
During bleeding, it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line to return, thus
quickly purging air from the system.
18.7.4 Master Cylinder

The master cylinder is the heart of the entire braking system. No braking occurs until the driver
depresses the brake pedal. The brake pedal linkage is used to apply the force of the driver’s
foot into a closed hydraulic system that begins with the master cylinder.
Brake pedal movement and force are transferred to the brake fluid and directed to wheel
cylinders or calipers. The master cylinder is also separated into two pressure-building chambers
(or circuits) to provide braking force to one-half of the brake in the event of a leak or damage
to one circuit. Both pressure-building sections of the master cylinder contain two holes from
the reservoir. The forward (tapered) hole is called the inlet port, and the rearward straight
drilled hole is called the compensating port. Figure 18.22 shows the constructional details of
a master cylinder.
Figure 18.22 Master Cylinder.
At initial position, the primary sealing cups of the pistons are between the compensating
port hole and the inlet port hole. In this position, if the temperature of the brake fluid rises
and the fluid expands, the brake fluid is free to expand up into the reservoir through the
compensating port. If the fluid was trapped, the pressure of the brake fluid would increase
with temperature, causing the brakes to self-apply.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the pedal linkage forces the pushrod and primary
piston (closest to the driver) down the bore of the master cylinder. As the piston moves forward,
the primary sealing cup covers and blocks off the compensating port. Hydraulic pressure builds
in front of the primary seal as the pushrod moves forward. The back of the piston is kept filled
through the compensating port. This stops any suction (vacuum) from forming behind the piston.
The secondary piston is moved forward as pressure is exerted by the primary piston. If, for
any reason, such as a leak, the primary piston cannot build pressure, a mechanical extension
rod on the front of the primary piston will touch the secondary piston and move it forward,
as the primary piston is pushed forward by the pushrod and brake pedal. As a result of these
actions, brake fluid pressure is applied to both outlets of the master cylinder.
Releasing the brake pedal removes the pressure on the pushrod and master cylinder
pistons. A spring on the brake pedal linkage returns the brake pedal to its normal at-rest (up)
position. The spring in front of the master cylinder piston expands, pushing the pistons rearward.
At the same time, pressure is released from the entire braking system and the released brake
fluid pressure is exerted on the master cylinder pistons, forcing them rearward. As the piston is
pushed back, the lips of the seal fold forward allowing fluid to quickly move past the piston.
Some pistons have small holes that allow the fluid to move more quickly. Once the primary
seal passes the vent port, the remaining hydraulic pressure forces any excess fluid into the
reservoir.
18.7.5 Wheel Cylinder

Hydraulic pressure is transferred from the master cylinder to each wheel cylinder through
brake fluid. The force exerted on the brake fluid by the driver forces the piston inside the
wheel cylinder to move outward. Through pushrods or links, this movement acts on the brake
shoes, forcing them outward against the brake drum. Figure 18.23 shows construction of a
wheel cylinder.
Figure 18.23 Wheel Cylinder.
The construction is very simple. Each wheel cylinder is provided with pistons, rubber
seals, cup spreaders, spring and dust covers. The brake line from the master cylinder is attached
to the inlet port and a bleeder screw with a cover is provided to bleed air from the system
whenever required. Wheel cylinders are mounted on the back plate.
When brakes are applied the fluid under pressure from the master cylinder enters the inlet
port and forces the pistons to move outward to push the shoes against the drum. Similarly,
when brakes are released, the brake show retractor springs force the brake fluid out of the
wheel cylinder by pushing the pistons inward.
18.7.6 Hand Brake

Hand brakes or the parking brakes operate independently of the foot brakes. These are used for
parking on slopes and during emergency and are also called secondary brakes. Generally, these
brakes use the same brake shoes as are for the main foot brakes, but they have to be actuated
through a completely different mechanism than for the main. Most vehicles use mechanical
cable to actuate these. Figure 18.24 shows layout of a hand brake system.
Figure 18.24 Layout of Hand Brake.
On most the vehicles hand brake applies only the rear brakes. A ratchet release handle is
attached with the front cable. The front cable pulls the equalizer when the hand brake lever is
actuated. The equalizer facilitated adjustment of cable tension with the help of adjusting nuts.
Two separate cables are then used to link the brake shoes of each rear drum brakes with the
hand brake lever.
The front cable is directly attached to the ratchet pawl provided on the hand brake lever.
This ratchet pawl always remains engaged with the ratchet stop plate. Pulling the hand lever
causes the ratcheting effect between pawl and stopper. Simultaneously, the front cable is also
pulled through the hand lever and consequently, brakes are applied. The lever is held in braking
condition with the help of the stopper. A release button is provided on the tip of the hand lever
which has been connected to the ratchet pawl through a solid rod. Pressing the button causes
release of the ratchet pawl from the stopper and consequently brakes are released. Figure 18.25
shows details of hand brake lever.
Figure 18.25 Hand Brake Lever.

18.8 FRAME AND BODY

Earlier, the detached body and chassis construction was adopted to build three wheeler vehicles,
in which the chassis is used to resist the bending and twisting loads. So the body was just
used for passengers’ comfort and was used by almost all manufacturers. This conventional
construction has been replaced by the integral construction or mono construction in passenger
auto rickshaws. In this design, the crucial frame members which are designed to withstand all
loads are improved into well designed body panels and fabricated as an integral part of the
body. Forces and stresses are distributed and grounded through integrated body panels like box
section panels, body ledges and reinforcement members.
Therefore, the three wheeler vehicle body can be classified as: a conventional construction
in which body and frame are separate, and an integral construction in which only body exists.
The current bulk-produced passenger auto rickshaws have transformed almost entirely to the
integrated construction. This transform is the outcome of the necessary body weight reduction
and expenditure per unit of the total vehicle. Mass production of these bodies is carried out by
simultaneous manufacturing of different sub-assemblies like a floor-pan, two sides, and cross
members. All sub-assemblies are assembled together at one fixture on the assembly line and
spot welded to form the complete body shell. The entire body shell, as a unit, becomes very
tough and withstands all loads in dynamic conditions.
18.8.1 Conventional Chassis and Frame Construction (Composite Construction)

As mentioned earlier, this type of construction contains separate chassis and body built as
two different assemblies. The body shell is then assembled on the chassis with the help of
mounting brackets. This assembly is done with rubber-bushed bolts to hold the body shell to
the chassis. These elastic fasteners allow the body shell to move a little when the vehicle is
in dynamic condition. Various essential components like engine, wheels, suspensions, brakes
and transmission are assembled to the chassis, i.e. a complete chassis unit can be drive. Body
shell is assembled to this chassis unit consisting dashboard, seats, engine accessories etc.
18.8.2 Integral Construction (Mono Construction)

The terms integral and chassisless construction are often confused, but the difference is simple.
Integral construction is that in which a chassis frame is welded to, or integrated with, the body.
It was the first stage in the evolution of the chassisless form of construction, in which no
chassis frame can be separated. The details of chassisless construction are too wide-ranging and
complex to describe. In principle, however, main advantage of using chassisless construction is
that the strength and stiffness of a properly designed body shell are potentially much greater
than of a chassis frame. One of the main facts about metal sheet is that even a simple flange
provides large load bearing capacity against buckling or other forms of distortion.
The main intend of building integral construction is to reinforce the body shell without
increasing needless mass. The integral construction does not make use of a separate chassis
frame for assembling necessary driving components like suspension, engine, transmission and
other chassis component. So the major difference lies at the design and construction of the floor
on which all the driving components are assembled. This floor area is generally known as the
underbody. The underbody is fabricated with formed floor sections, channels, boxed sections,
formed rails and several reinforcements. Spot welding is used extensively in its construction,
though some unstressed panels may be bolted on, for ease of replacement in the event of
damage.
In the integral body construction, the metal sheet used to manufacture the floor area is
generally of heavier gauge. One or more box sections and several channel sections are designed
as a replacement of frame members to withstand various loads. Just like frame members, these
sections may be designed through the entire floor either from side to side or from front to
rear. Construction of underbody varies mostly due to the variation in wheelbase, length and
weight of the vehicle involved.
Review Questions
1. Classify three wheelers.
2. Explain layout of passenger auto rickshaw with neat diagram.
3. Explain layout of loading auto rickshaw with neat diagram.
4. Classify loading auto rickshaws. Also explain characteristics of each layout.
5. Draw neat diagram showing layout of four-stroke CNG engine. Also explain
function of each component.
6. Draw and explain drive train layout of passenger auto rickshaw.
7. Draw and explain drive train layout of loading auto rickshaw.
8. Explain construction of propeller shaft.
9. Why differential gearbox is necessary in three wheelers?
10. Explain construction and working of differential gearbox with neat sketch.
11. Explain leaf spring suspension assembly used on loading auto rickshaws.
12. Draw layout of braking system used for three wheelers. Also explain the same.
13. Describe construction and working of master cylinder.
14. Write a short note on wheel cylinder.
15. How hand brake is operated? Explain.
References
BOOKS
1. Lear, George and Lynn S. Mosher, 1977, Motorcycle Mechanics, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
2. Foale, Tony, 2002, Motorcycle Handling and Chassis Design: The Art and Science,
Tony Foale, Spain.
3. Halderman, James D., 2012, Automotive Technology—Principles, Diagnosis and
Service, Pearson Education, New Jersey.
4. Heywood, John B., 1988, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
5. Heisler, Heinz, 2002, Advanced Vehicle Technology, Reed Educational and
Professional Publishing, UK.
6. Denton, Tom, 2004, Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems, Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, UK.
7. Garrett, T.K., K. Newton, W. Steeds, 2001, The Motor Vehicle, Reed Educational
and Professional Publishing, UK.
8. Page, Victor W., 1920, Motorcycles and Side Cars—Construction, Management,
Repair, The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co., New York.
9. Vogel, Carl, 2009, Build Your Own Electric Motorcycle, McGraw-Hill, New York.
10.
Crouse, William H. and Donald L. Anglin, 2007, Automotive Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
11.
Pacejka, Hans B., 2006, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, Elsevier, UK.
MANUALS
1.
Honda CBR600RR/CBR600RR ABS Owner’s Manual, 2008, Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
2.
KTM Duke 390 Owner’s Manual, 2014, KTM—SportmotorcycleAG.
3.
Honda Service Manual NSS250/A, 2004, Honda Motor Co., Ltd.
4.
Suzuki GSX-R1000 Service Manual, 2005, Suzuki Motor Corporation.
5.
Hyosung Commet650 Service Manual, 2003, Hyosung Motors & Machinery Inc.
6.
Hyosung Commet250 Service Manual, 2003, Hyosung Motors & Machinery Inc.
377
378 References
7. Aprilia RS125 Service Manual, 2002, Aprilia S.P.A.

8. BMW K 1200 RS Service Manual, 2001, BMW Motorrad.
9. BMW R 1150 R Service Manual, 2001, BMW Motorrad.
10.
Cagiva Raptor1000 Service Manual, 2000, MVAgusta Motor S.P.A.
11.
Bajaj Chetak Service Manual, Bajaj Auto Ltd.
12.
Ducati Monster 600 Owner’s Manual, 2001, Ducati Motor Holding S.P.A.
13.
Harley–DavidsonFLH Electra Glide 1970 Owner’s Manual, 1970, Harley–Davidson
Motor Co.
14.
Harley–DavidsonFLHRC 2006 Service Manual, 2006, Harley–Davidson Motor Co.
15.
PiaggioVespaP125XP200E Service Manual, Piaggio Co.
16.
Vespa S50 Service Manual, Piaggio Co.
17.
Kawasaki KX250f-06 Service Manual, 2005, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd.
18.
Stella-4t Service Station Manual, Genuine Scooters Co.
19.
Triumph SpeedTriple1050 Owner’s Manual, 2005, Triumph Motorcycle Ltd.
20.
Yamaha MT09 Owner’s Manual, 2002, Yamaha Motor.
21.
Yamaha R1 Service Manual, 2003, Yamaha Motor.
22.
Kawasaki ZX6R Service Manual, 2004, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd.
23.
Russell Henning, Maintaining Motorcycles—A Fieldworker’s Manual, World
Neighbors, USA.
WEBSITES
www.bikeadvice.in
www.tonyfoale.com
www.bmw-motorrad.com
www.toyota.com
www.books.google.com
www.harley-performance.com
www.world.honda.com
www.yamaha-motor.eu
www.totalmotorcycle.com
www.kawasaki-cp.khi.co.jp
www.classicmechanics.com
www.slideshare.net
www.motocatalog.org
www.classicmagazines.co.uk
Index
A-arm, 215 Ball receiver, 166

ABS operation, 247 Banzo bolt, 235, 236
Absorption mufflers, 115 Basic cranking mechanism, 129
Acceleration circuit, 69 Basic systems, 19
Acceleration nozzle, 69 Battery, 288
Accelerator, 317 Battery balancer, 350
AC controllers, 349 Battery case, 292
Additives for lubricant, 85 Battery construction, 292
Advantages of sidecar, 286 Battery ignition system, 305
Aerodynamics, 335 Battery management system, 350
Air adjustment screw, 67 Battery principle, 291
Air cooled engine, 97 Beach handlebars, 197
Alloy wheels, 253 Bead, 255
Alternator/dynamo/generator/magneto, 297 Belt, 255
Amp-hours (AH), 294 Belt drive, 149
Angle of advance, 38 Bias-ply tyre, 255
Angular motions, 326 Bifocal reflector, 314
Anti-foam additives, 86 Blades, 369
Anti-lock braking system, 244 Bleeding valve, 236
Anti-oxidants, 85 Blind spots, 282
Anti-rattle spring, 236 Body ply, 255
Anti-vibration mounts, 275 Body work, 279
Anti-wear additives, 85 Brake hose, 235
Ape hanger handlebars, 196 Brake light circuit, 309
Assist clutching, 158 Brake specific fuel consumption, 53
Assist slipper clutch, 158 Braking system of auto rickshaw, 370
Asymmetric port timing diagram, 33 Bridge bolts, 236
Auto-start mechanism, 139 Buffer chamber, 247
Auxiliary exhaust valve, 123 Bulb, 313
Auxiliary inlet valve, 123 Bump start, 132
Butterfly type valve, 78
Butterfly valve carburetor, 70
Backbone type frame, 270 Bypass, 241
Back pressure, 105, 116
Balance, 327
Ballast resistance, 302 Calipers, 234, 235
Ball lock type gear locking mechanism, 165 Camber, 192
379
380 Index
Camshaft drive, 59 Constant voltage, 295

Cam type clutch release mechanism, 162 Contact area, 329
Capless bulb, 313 Continuous variable transmission–cvt, 177
Capsize, 334 Control circuit, 140
Carburetor, 64 Conventional chassis & frame construction
Carburetor system, 61 (composite construction), 374
Carcass, 255 Cornering requirements, 204
Carcass plies, 255 Corrosion inhibitors, 85
Carrier, 366 Counter-lean, 328
Castor angle, 190 Countershaft, 165
Cells, 293 Counter-steering, 328
Centrifugal clutch, 163 Crankcase, 59
Chain drive, 150, 181 Crankshaft, 57
Charger, 350 Crankshaft position sensor, 81
Charging system, 295 Cross-flow radiators, 101
Charging technique, 295 Cross members, 267
Charging voltage, 295 Cross-ply tyres, 258
Chassis speed, 244 Cross scavenging system, 122
Choke, 65 Crosswind force, 336
Classification of three wheelers, 355 Crown wheel, 367
Classification of two wheelers, 11 Cruiser bike, 15
Cleanliness, 85 Cush drive, 184
Clip-ons handlebar, 198 Cylinder
Clock, 321 angle, 26
block, 58
Closed loop system, 288
head, 58
Cluster gear, 165
Cylindrical slide, 69
Clutch, 152
boss, 156
boss cam, 158 Dampers, 208
housing, 154 Designation of tyres, 256
plates, 156 Design considerations for
release mechanism, 160 brakes, 229
spring, 157 engine, 54
Cold-cranking amperes (CCA), 294 frame, 263
Colour, 85 suspension system, 202
Common sump lubricating system, 93 Detergents, 85
Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke engines, Diaphragm spring, 160
38 Different circuits in carburetor, 66
Compensating port, 371 Differential gearbox, 365
Compensation port, 241 Direct bearing lubricating system, 90
Components of Direct transmission, 134
ABS, 245 Disadvantages of sidecar, 286
charging system, 295 Disc, 233
frame, 265 Disc brake, 233
ignition system, 302 Dispersants, 85
of motor, 348 Dive, 337
Compression cartridge, 241 Double acting caliper, 236
Connecting rods, 57 Double beam type frame, 270
Constant-mesh gearbox, 165 Double cradle frame, 271
Index 381
Double leading shoe, 231 Festoon, 313

Double link type front suspension, 216 Final drive, 180
Double overhead camshaft, 29 Fix sheave, 178
Down-flow radiators, 100 Flash point, 84
Down tube, 266 Float, 65
Drag, 335 Float chamber, 65
Drag handlebars, 197 Floor tube, 266
Driven pulley, 163 Fluid check valve, 241
Driver’s visibility, 282 Foot operated hydraulic brake, 240
Drive train, 22 mechanical brake, 239
layout for loading auto rickshaws, 364 shifting mechanism, 175
layout for passenger auto rickshaws, 363 Four-cylinder in-line engines, 46
Driving plate, 163 Four-stroke CNG engine, 360
Drum brake, 230 Four-stroke diesel engine, 361
Dry lubricants, 87 Four-stroke petrol engine, 35
Dry sump lubricating system, 92 Frame material, 278
Dual rate springs, 208 Free flow silencer, 116
Dynamic damping control, 221 Friction plates, 154
Front bracing tube, 267
Front master cylinder, 242
Eco indicator, 321 Front trail, 187
ECU, 78, 247 Fuel cock, 63
Electrical system, 23 Fuel injection system, 71
Electric horn, 315 Fuel meter, 321
Electric motors, 347 Fuel pump, 74
Electric two-wheeler, 344 Fuel system, 22
Electrode gap, 308 Fuel tank, 61
Electrolyte, 293
Electronic ignition system, 306
End-range power, 26 Gas-filled bulbs, 313
Endure bike, 14 Gassing, 293
Engine, 21 Gearbox, 164
classification of, 25 Gear change shaft, 176
Engine-based frame, 273 Gear drive, 150
Engine stop switch, 316 Gear shifting mechanism, 174
Ergonomic considerations, 280 Gear shifting rod, 166
Exhaust pipe, 107 Girder forks suspension, 211
Exhaust pipe and header, 111 Grading of lubricating oils, 86
four-into-four, 113 Grease lubrication, 88
four-into-one, 114 Grip, 330
four-into-two, 114 Grooves, 254
three-into-one, 112 Ground trail, 188
two-into-one, 112 Gudgeon pin, 56
two-into-two, 111
Exhaust system of two wheelers, 107
Expansion chamber mufflers, 115 Halogen bulbs, 313
Hand brake, 372
Handlebar, 196
Factors affecting stability, 331 controls, 316
Fatigue, 263 crown, 195
382 Index
dampers, 276 pinion and primary reduction, 137

mountings, 276 shaft, 137
Handling characteristics, 326 start mechanism, 135
Hand operated hydraulic brake, 240
Hand operated mechanical brake, 238
Hand operated shifting mechanism, 174
Lambda sensor, 81
Hardtail type rear suspension, 217
Law of triangulation, 264
Header, 107
Layout of
Headlight and taillight circuit, 309
Headlight dimmer switch, 317 scooters, 17, 148
Headlight reflectors, 314 scooter with CVT, 148
Head tube, 266 kick start mechanism, 138
Head tube rib, 266 loading auto rickshaw, 357
High speed engine, 25 moped, 16
History of motorcycle, 18
mopeds, 1 passenger rickshaw, 356
motorcycles, 4 scooter, 17
scooters, 2 transmission system, 147
Homifocal reflector, 314 Lay shaft, 165
Horizontal engines, 26 Leading link suspension, 212
Horizontally opposed four-cylinder engines, 44 Leaf spring, 369
Horizontally opposed six-cylinder engines, 49 LED lighting, 315
Horizontally opposed twin cylinder engines, 41 Lift, 336
Horn switch, 318 Lighting system, 308
Hydraulic brake control, 239 Linear motions, 325
Hydraulic unit assembly, 246 Linear rate spring, 207
Hypoid gear set, 367 Load carrying capacity, 52
Hysteresis, 329 Load on the frame, 263
Lobe pump, 76
Ideal scavenging process, 120 Location of controls, 283
Idle circuit, 68 Location of engine, 52
Idle nozzle, 68 Locking bolts and washers, 157
Ignition, 22 Locking nut, 157
advance, 38 Lock pawl type ratchet, 130
coil, 303 Loop scavenging system, 123
systems, 301 Lower bracket, 195
Inclined engines, 26 Low-range power, 26
Indexing drum, 176 Low speed engine, 25
Indicator circuit, 312 Lubrication system, 83
Indirect transmission, 133
Injector, 77
Injector pulse width, 73 Magneto ignition system, 304
Inner liner, 255 Main shaft, 165
Instruments and indicators, 319
Main stand, 268
Intake air temperature sensor, 82
Main tube, 266
Integral construction (mono construction), 374
Maintenance-free battery, 294
Map sensor, 80
Kerfs, 254 Master cylinder, 241, 370
Kick, 135, 136 Master leaf, 369
gear, 137 Mechanical brake control, 238
idle gear, 137 Mechanical trail, 188
Index 383
Medium speed engine, 25 Plates, 293

Mesh spring, 143 Point cam, 303
Middle bracing tube, 267 Point-less regulators, 300
Mid-range circuit, 68 Poppet valve, 58
Mid-range power, 26 Port injection lubricating system, 89
Miniature centre contact, 313 Port timing diagrams, 33
Mixing, 121 Positive trail, 188
Monocoque frame, 274 Positively engaged clutches, 152
Mono-shock, regular swing arm, 219 Pour point, 84
Mono-shock, single-sided swing arm, 220 Power circuit, 141
Moped cranking mechanism, 133 Power cylinder, 69
Mopeds, 12 Power output, 26, 52
Moppets, 12 Power per litre, 54
Motor controller, 349 Power plunger, 69
Motorcycles, 13 Power (watts), 294
Mounting plugs and clamps, 267 Practical scavenging process, 120
Muffler, 107, 115 Preload, 205
Multi-function display, 322 Pressed steel wheels, 252
Multiplate clutch, 154 Pressure plate, 157
Multiswitching control, 349 Pressure plate cam, 158
Primary kick start layout, 139
Primary reduction, 149
Needle valve, 65 Progressive rate springs, 208
Nose dive, 227 Progressive type clutch, 152
Number and diameter of cylinders, 54 Propeller shaft, 365
Number of cylinder, 26 Properties of lubricants, 84
Number of strokes, 25 Pulse-width modulated controller, 349
Push button start system, 139
Pushrod overhead valve, 27
Oil cooled engine, 98 Push starting, 132
Oiliness, 85
Oiliness improvers, 86
Open loop system, 287 Rack angle, 190
Output shaft, 157 Radial ply, 255
Overlap period, 106 Radial tyre, 257
Overrunning clutch, 143 Radiators, 100
Oxidation stability, 85 Ratchet spring, 136
Oxygen sensor, 81 Ratchet wheel, 136
Reactive mufflers, 115
Real trail, 188
Parabolic reflector, 314 Rear down tube, 267
Partially ideal scavenging, 121 Rear master cylinder, 242
Partitions, 293 Rear suspension system of loading auto rickshaw,
Passing light control switch, 317 369
Performance measurements, 337 Rear suspension system of passenger auto rickshaw,
PH value, 85 367
Pinion gear, 367 Rear trail, 187
Piston, 55 Rectifier, 298
Piston rings, 56 Recuperation port, 241
Pitch, 326 Reed valve, 127
384 Index
Regular ratchet wheel, 131 Single overhead camshaft, 28

Regulator, 300 Single plate clutch, 159
Release bearing, 159 Six-cylinder in-line engines, 48
Required maximum speed, 52 Sliding sheave, 178
Requirements of clutch, 152 Slip angle, 188
Requirements of tyre, 255 Slipper clutching, 158
Reserve capacity (RC), 294 Slipper plates, 150
Reversion, 106 Solid-state controllers, 349
Ride height, 205 Spark plug, 307
Riding posture, 282 Speed and torque output, 25
Risers, 196 Speed power curves, 53
Road holding, 329 Spider, 166
Rocker arms, 59 Splash lubricating system, 91
Rocker and link type rear suspension, 220 Spoked wheel, 251
Roll, 326 Sport bikes, 16
Roller pump, 75 Spring, 207
Roller type ratchet, 129 Springer forks suspension, 210
Rotary valve, 32 Spring rate, 205
Rotary valve type two-stroke engine, 32 Sprung and unsprung mass ratio, 203
Squat, 337
Starter drive, 143
SBC, 314 Starter motor, 141
Scavenging, 119 Starting circuit, 67
Scavenging process, 33, 119 Starting nozzle, 67
Scavenging pump, 126 Start switch, 317
Scooters, 12 Steering, 328
Screw type clutch release mechanism, 161 angle, 192
Seat, 283 column, 195
Seat rails, 267 damper, 277
Secondary batteries, 346 geometry, 187
Selection criteria for engine, 51 stem, 195
Selector sector, 174 Stepping motor, 319
Self-stability, 331 Step-through frame, 272
Separate oil sump lubricating system, 94 Straight through, 116
Separation point, 336 Street commuter bike, 13
Separators, 293 Structural efficiency, 264
Sequential gearbox, 170 Sub-circuits, 67
Shaft drive, 183 Supply nozzle, 65
Shifter drum, 176 Suspension frequency, 202
Shock absorber, 208 Suspension requirements, 199
Short circuiting, 121 Suspensions, 20
Side-by-side twin cylinder engines, 42 Swing arm bracing plate, 267
Sidecars, 285 Swing arm type rear suspension, 218
Side stand, 268 Switches, 312
Side stand/ignition interlock system, 318 Symmetric port timing diagram, 33
Sidewall, 255 Synthetic oils, 88
Single acting caliper, 235
Single cradle frame, 271
Single leading shoe, 231 Tachometer, 321
Single link type front suspension, 214 Tangential loop system, 124
Index 385
Telelever suspension, 214 Uniflow scavenging system, 125

Telescopic suspension, 213 Upper bracket, 195
The frame, 20 Upper bridge pin, 236
Theory of brake action, 227
Thermostat, 102
Three-cylinder in-line engines, 45 Vacuum controlled carburetor, 70
Throttle body injection system, 72 Valves overlap, 37
Thrust washer, 157 Valve timing diagram, 37
Timing belt, 181 Vane pump, 75
Tyre stiffness, 329 Variable venturi carburetor, 69
Torque curve, 53 Vehicle stability, 330
Torsion spring, 136 V eight engines, 50
Total wheel travel, 205 Venting system, 293
TP sensor, 80 Venturi, 66
Trail, 187 Vertical engines, 26
Trailing link suspensions, 212 V five engines, 47
Transmission gear display, 322 V four engines, 43
Transmission kick start layout, 138 Vibration dampers, 275
Transmission pulley, 163 Viscosity, 84
Tread, 254 Viscosity index improvers, 86
Trellis frame, 272 Viscous drag, 84
Triple tree, 195 V twin engines, 39
Trunnion, 166
Trunnion type gear locking mechanism, 166
Tubeless tyres, 260 Wake, 335
Tubular frame, 270 Water cooled engine, 99
Turbine pump, 76 Water pump, 103
Turn signal circuit, 309 Weave, 334
Turn signal switch, 318 Wet sump lubricating system, 91
Twin-shock, regular swing arm, 218 Wheelbase, 194
Twin-spar frame, 273 Wheel cylinder, 372
Two-stroke Wheels and brakes, 20
engine oils, 87 Wheel sensor rotors, 246
petrol engine, 30 Wheel sensors, 246
pre-mix lubrication, 89 Wheel skidding, 228
Types of instabilities, 333 Wheel speed, 244
Types of loading auto rickshaws, 358 Wobble, 334
Types of lubricants, 86
Tyres, 253
Tyre with tube, 259 Yaw, 326
T WO AND THREE
WHEELER
TECHNOLOGY
Dhruv U. Panchal
The inclination towards two wheelers is not newer to the world. From the very beginning, two
wheelers are recognized as a mark of triumph, independence and joy. These are considered
fast, safe and easy mode of transportation with worthy fuel economy. With the arrival of automation
and electronics in two wheelers, the study gained more momentum, which led Two and Three
Wheeler Technology to emerge as a new discipline of automobile engineering. The book explains
traditional and modern technologies in an easy to understand manner. Various technologies have
been explicated with appropriate 2D and 3D diagrams to support learning. Text comprises the
state-of-the-art developments in the field of two wheelers. Detailed explanation on the actual
assemblies helps the students to cognize the technology systematically. Although the emphasis
has been given to the two wheeler technology, considering the requirement of various syllabi, the
last chapter is solely dedicated to three wheeler technology.
Chapter-end review questions help students in preparing them for examination by self-assessment
method.
Primarily designed for the undergraduate and diploma students of automobile engineering, the
lucid and simple presentation of the book makes it useful for the commoner, who has keen interest
in this area. It is a useful guide for a vehicle owner for understanding mechanism and parts, which
may help him in maintaining his vehicle at best efficiency.
THE AUTHOR
DHRUV U. PANCHAL, is Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, L.D. College
of Engineering, Ahmedabad. He has also served at Ahmedabad Institute of Technology, and Indus
Institute of Technology and Engineering, Gujarat. He has a good blend of teaching and industrial
experience in the field of automobile engineering.
You may also be interested in

Automobile Engineering, Kamaraju Ramakrishna
Vehicle Maintenance and Garage Practice, Jigar A. Doshi, Dhruv U. Panchal, Jayesh P. Maniar
ISBN:978-81-203-5143-1
www.phindia.com 9 788120 351431

TTW Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TTW Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TTW Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the different types of engines discussed in the document?

What are the different types of engines discussed in the document?

What are some of the design considerations discussed for engines?

What are some of the design considerations discussed for engines?

T WO AND THREE

2. Two Wheeler Engine 24–60

2.1.8 Cooling System 30

3. Fuel Supply System 61–82

4. Lubricating System 83–94

5. Cooling System 95—104

6. Exhaust System 105–118

7. Scavenging System 119–127

8. Cranking System 128–145

8.5 Layout of Kick Start Mechanism 138

9. Transmission System 146–185

10. Steering and Suspension System 186–225

10.5 Design Considerations for Suspension System 202

11. Braking System 226–249

12. Wheels and Tyres 250–261

13. Frame and Body 262–286

14. Electrical Systems 287–324

14.4 Lighting System 308

15. Two Wheeler Dynamics 325–339

16. Racing Bike Requirements 340–343

17. Electric Two Wheeler 344–354

18. Three Wheeler Vehicles 355–376

1.1 HISTORY OF MOPEDS

1.2 HISTORY OF SCOOTERS

Figure 1.4 Salsbury Motor Scooter.

Figure 1.5 1946 Vespa.

1.3 HISTORY OF MOTORCYCLES

Figure 1.6 Daimler’s Motorized Bicycle.

Figure 1.7 Hildebrand & Wolfmueller Motorcycle.

To eliminate the drawback of heavy engine, DeDion-Buton introduced a small and

Figure 1.8 First Motorcycle from Hendee Manufacturing Company.

Figure 1.9 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1902.

Figure 1.10 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1920.

Figure 1.11 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1930.

Figure 1.12 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1940.

Figure 1.13 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle in World War-II.

Figure 1.14 Harley–Davidson Motorcycle, 1950.

In 1955, Genichi Kawakami established a company named Yamaha Motor Company

Figure 1.15 Yamaha YA-1.

Figure 1.16 Yamaha DT-1.

Figure 1.17 Suzuki Colleda COX.

Figure 1.18 Honda CB750.

Figure 1.19 BMW K100RS.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TWO WHEELERS

Figure 1.22 Street Commuter Bike.

Figure 1.23 Endure Bike.

Figure 1.24 Cruiser Bike.

Figure 1.25 Sport Bike.

1.8 LAYOUT OF MOPED

Figure 1.26 Layout of Moped.

1.9 LAYOUT OF SCOOTER

Figure 1.27 Layout of Scooter.

1.10 LAYOUT OF MOTORCYCLE

Figure 1.28 Layout of Motorcycle.

1.11 BASIC SYSTEMS