Waves

Prof. Deep N Chandrani

Department of Physics
School of Science
RK UNIVERSITY
 Waves
Example

➢ When a phone rings the air around the phone vibrates.

➢ The vibrations travel as the vibrating air particles cause the ones next to them to
vibrate, and so on until they reach our ears.

➢ We call this a sound wave.

➢ But the air particles do not travel between the phone and our ear, it is
the vibrational disturbance that travels
 Waves

Waves : A disturbance that transmits energy through matter or space or they

transport energy without transporting matter.

Classification of waves: Transverse waves and longitudinal waves

 Waves
Transverse waves

1. Transverse Waves
➢ A wave that causes the particles of the
medium to vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.

Ex. Light waves

 Waves
Transverse waves
Waves
Examples
Tsunami Waves

➢ Though Tsunamis have properties of

both the transverse as well as a
longitudinal wave

➢ However, it starts as a transverse wave.

➢ It is transverse in form from the place

where the earthquake starts under
water and turns longitudinal when it
reaches the shore.
 Waves
Examples
Earthquake (Seismic S wave)

➢ The bump or rattle that we feel during an

earthquake is due to seismic-S wave.

➢ It moves rock particles up and

down, perpendicular to the direction of the
wave propagation.

➢ These S-waves are transverse waves and

require a solid medium to travel.
 Waves
Examples
Plucking a Guitar String

➢ When you pluck the string of a

guitar, the strings move up and
down, exhibiting transverse wave.

➢ The sound wave is a longitudinal

wave, but the wave on the guitar is,
however, a transverse wave.

➢ The particles in the string move

perpendicular to the direction of
the wave propagation.
 Waves
Longitudinal waves

2. Longitudinal Waves

➢ A wave that causes the particles of the

medium to vibrate parallel to the
direction of the wave.

➢ They expand(rarefraction) and compress.

Ex. Sound waves

 Waves
Longitudinal Waves
 Waves
Longitudinal Waves
 Waves
Properties of waves

➢ The frequency, f of a wave is the number

of waves that pass a fixed point in one
second.

➢ Frequency is measured in hertz

(Hz) or kilohertz (kHz).

➢ One Hz is equal to one cycle (one wave) per

second.
 Waves
Properties of waves
➢ High frequency sounds are high pitched, and low frequency sounds are low pitched.

➢ Humans can hear sound frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz.

➢ Sounds with frequencies higher than this range are called ultrasound.

➢ Ultrasound is used in medical imaging. Sounds with frequencies lower than humans can
hear are called infrasound.

➢ The time period, T of a wave is the time taken for one wave to pass a fixed point.

➢ The time period can be found using the formula T = 1/f

 Waves
Properties of waves
➢ The crest of a wave is the point on the medium that
exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upward
displacement from the rest position.

➢ The trough of a wave is the point on the medium that

exhibits the maximum amount of negative or
downward displacement from the rest position.

➢ The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum

amount of displacement of a particle on the medium
from its rest position. In a sense, the amplitude is the
distance from rest to crest.
 Waves
Properties of waves
➢ The wavelength is another property of a wave that is seen as seen from below diagram.

➢ The wavelength of a wave is simply the length of one complete wave cycle.

➢ A wave is a repeating pattern. It repeats itself in a periodic and regular fashion over both time
and space.

➢ The wavelength can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from trough to
trough.
 Waves
Classification of Sound
➢ Sound is vibration in an elastic medium with definite frequency and intensity that is heard by
human ear.

➢ On basis of frequency f sound waves are classified into three types :

1. Infrasound (f <20 Hz)
2. Audible sound (20 Hz < f < 20 kHz)
3. Ultrasound (f > 20kHz)
 INTENSITY

➢ Intensity I of sound wave at a point is defined as the amount of sound energy Q flowing per
unit area in unit time when the surface is held normal to the direction of the propagation of
sound wave.
𝑸
I=
𝑨𝒕

➢ Therefor , if A = 1m2 and t = 1 sec ,then I = Q where Q is sound energy

➢ The unit of intensity is Wm-2

➢ The minimum sound intensity which a human ear can sense is called the threshold intensity.

➢ Its value is 10-12 watt/m2.

➢ This minimum intensity is also called zero or standard intensity.

➢ The intensity of a sound is measured with reference to the standard intensity.

 Waves
Classification of Sound

➢ The sound waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasound. This is
sound not audible.

➢ Elephants use infrasound to communicate over long distances.

➢ The sound waves having frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 KHz are called audible sound.

➢ The sound waves having frequencies greater than 20 KHz are called ultrasound. This sound
is also not audible.
 Waves
Classification of Audible Sound

➢ The audible sound is generally classified

into two categories :

I. Musical Sound
II. Noise
 Waves
Classification of Audible Sound
Musical Sound
➢ The sound which produce pleasing effect on
the ear is called Musical Sound.

➢ Examples : Sounds produced by musical

instruments like sitar ,violin , flute, piano etc.

Properties of Sound :
➢ The musical sound waveforms are regular in shape
,have definite periodicity and they do not undergo a
sudden change in amplitude.
PERCEPTION OF SOUND
 Classification of Audible Sound
Noise
➢ The sound which produce jarring effect on the ear is and is unpleasant to hear is
called Noise.

➢ Examples : Sounds produced by the flying aero plane, road traffic , crackers, etc.

Properties of Noise :
➢ The noise waveforms are irregular in shape.

➢ They do not have definite periodicity and they undergo a sudden change in amplitudes.
 Characteristics of Musical Sound
➢ The characteristics of musical sound are :

1.Pitch : Related to frequency of sound.

2.Loudness : Related to intensity of sound.

3.Timbre : Related to quality of sound.

 Characteristics of Musical Sound
Pitch
➢ It is a sensation that depends upon the frequency.

➢ Pitch helps in distinguishing between a note of high frequency and low frequency
sound of the same intensity produced by the same musical instrument.

➢ A shrill sound is produced by a sound of high frequency.

➢ Thus, greater the frequency of a sound the higher is the pitch and vice versa.

➢ Pitch of sound is directly proportional to its frequency

➢ Some examples of change in pitch are musical instruments, organ pipes, human
voice.
 Characteristics of Musical Sound
Loudness
➢ Loudness is a characteristic which is common to all sounds.

➢ Loudness is degree of sensation produced on ear.

➢ Thus, loudness varies from one listener to another.

➢ Loudness is dependent on intensity and also on the sensitivity of the ear.

➢ Loudness and intensity are related to each other by the following relation

𝐿 ∝ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼

𝐿 = 𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼
➢ Where K is constant (generally the value of K is taken as 10)
 Characteristics of Musical Sound
Loudness
From this relation, 𝐿 ∝ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼 and 𝐿 = 𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼

➢ It is seen that loudness is directly proportional to the logarithum of intensity and this
is known as Weber-Fechner law.

𝒅𝑳 𝑲
➢ From the above equation, =
𝒅𝑰 𝑰

𝒅𝑳 𝑲
➢ Where = is called sensitiveness of ear.
𝒅𝑰 𝑰

➢ Therefore, sensitiveness decrease with increase in intensity.

Some useful information
 Characteristics of Musical Sound
Timbre
➢ A simple definition of timbre is that it is the quality of a musical sound.

➢ Timbre is the quality of sound which enables to distinguish between two

sounds having thee same loudness and pitch.

➢ It helps us to distinguish between musical notes emitted by different

musical instruments

➢ Different person voices may have sound of the same pitch and loudness.
 EXAMPLE :
In the diagram:

● Wave A and B have the same

frequency, but A is louder.
Waves A and B have the same
pitch.

● Waves C and D have the same

frequency, but C is louder.
Waves C and D have the same
pitch.
 Architectural acoustics of building:
Absorption coefficient
In order to compare the relative efficiency of different absorbing surfaces, it is essential to
select a standard in terms of which all surfaces can be described.

A unit area of open window is selected as the standard. The entire sound incident on an
open window is fully transmitted and none is reflected.

Therefore, it is considered as an ideal absorber of sound.

Thus the unit of absorption is the open window unit (O.W.U.), which is named a “sabine”
after the scientist who established the unit.

A 1 m2 sabine is the amount of sound absorbed by one square metre area of fully open
window.
 Architectural acoustics of building:
Absorption coefficient
➢ The sound absorption coefficient “a” of a material is defined as the ratio sound
energy absorbed by it to the total sound energy incident on it.
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
Absorption coefficient a =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒕

➢ Different surfaces absorb sound to different extents. The effectiveness of a surface in

absorbing sound energy is expressed with the help of absorption coefficient.

➢ Thus ,In order to understand the relative efficiency of different sound absorbing material
Sabine assumed a standard sound-absorbing material.

➢ Since all the sound energy falling on it passes through and are said to be completely
absorbed.
 Architectural acoustics of building:
Absorption coefficient
● If there are different materials in a hall, then the total sound absorption by the
different materials is given by

● where 𝛼1, 𝛼 2, 𝛼 3…….. are absorption coefficients of materials with areas S1, S2,
S3,…..
REVERBERATION AND REVERBERATION
TIME
 REVERBERATION AND REVERBERATION
TIME
➢ The prolongation of sound in a hall even though the source of sound is cut off is
called reverberation.

➢ This is because the sound produced in a room undergoes multiple reflection from
the walls ,ceiling and any other reflecting materials before it becomes inaudible.

➢ Thus, a person in the room continues to receive the successive reflections of

progressively diminishing intensity.

➢ Therefore, the sound lasts for sometime even after the source has stopped
emitting the sound. This effect is known as Reverberation.
 REVERBERATION AND REVERBERATION
TIME
➢ The time taken by the sound to fall below the minimum audibility level after the
source stop emitting the sound is called reverberation time.

➢ Sabine , using an organ pipe of frequency 512 vibrations per second found that its
sound becomes inaudible when its intensity falls to one-millionth of its intensity
just before stopping the organ pipe.
 SABINE’S FORMULA
➢ Sabine defined the reverberation time as the time taken by the sound intensity to
fall to one millionth of its original intensity after the source stopped emitting sound.

➢ The reverberation time is given by

𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕𝑽
➢ T=
𝜮𝒂𝑺

Where, V is the volume of the hall

a is the absorption coefficient
S is the surface area
 Assignment Problems :1

1. If the intensity of a source of sound is increased 20 times its value, by how many
decibel does the intensity level increase ?
 Assignment Problems :1
2. Calculate the intensity level of a plane just leaving the runway having sound intensity of
about 1000 W/m2.

3. The intensity of sound in a street during heavy traffic is 10-6 Wm-2 .Calculate the
intensity level in dB.
 Assignment Problems :1
4. Calculate the intensity level in dB at a distance of 15 m from a source which radiates
energy at the 3.56 W.The reference intensity is 100W/m2
 Assignment Problems :1
5. What is the resultant sound level when a 70 dB sound is added to a 80 dB sound ?
 Assignment Problems :1

6. The sound from a drill gives a noise level of 95 dB at a point a few meters
away from it. What is the noise level at this point when four such drills are
working at the same distance away ?
 Assignment Problems :1
7. A hall of volume 1000 m3 has a sound absorbing surface of area 400 m2.If the average
absorption coefficient of the hall is 0.2, what is the reverberation time of the hall?
 Assignment Problems :1
8. The volume of a room is 1500 m3.The wall area of the room is 260 m2,the floor area is 140 m2 and
the ceiling area is 140 m2 .The average sound absorption coefficient for the wall is 0.03 for the ceiling
it is 0.8 and for the floor it is 0.06.Calculate the average absorption coefficient and the reverberation
time.

Given, V = 1500 m3 , a1=0.03 sabine , a2=0.8 sabine and a3=0.06 sabine ; S1= 260 m2, S2= 140 m2 and
S3= 140 m2
ഥ = ? 𝑻 =?
𝒂
Average absorption coefficient is
a1S1 + a2S2 + a3S𝟑
ഥ=
𝒂
S1 + S2+ S𝟑

𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟐𝟔𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟒𝟎 + 0.06 × 𝟏𝟒𝟎

ഥ=
𝒂
𝟐𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒𝟎
𝟕.𝟖+𝟏𝟏𝟐+𝟖.𝟒
ഥ=
𝒂 ഥ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟒 𝑶. 𝑾. 𝑼`
∴𝒂
𝟓𝟒𝟎
 Assignment Problems :1
8. The volume of a room is 1500 m3.The wall area of the room is 260 m2,the floor area is
140 m2 and the ceiling area is 140 m2 .The average sound absorption coefficient for the
wall is 0.03 for the ceiling it is 0.8 and for the floor it is 0.06.Calculate the average
absorption coefficient and the reverberation time.

Solution: Therefore, the total sound absorption of the room is

ഥ 𝚺𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟒 × 𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝑶. 𝑾. 𝑼 ∕ 𝒎𝟐

𝒂

Therefore, the reverberation time is

𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕𝑽
T=
𝜮𝒂𝑺

𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
T=
𝟏𝟐𝟖.𝟏𝟗𝟔

𝟐𝟓𝟎.𝟓
T=
𝟏𝟐𝟖.𝟏𝟗𝟔

T=1.9450 sec
 Assignment Problems :1
9. The volume of a hall is 475 m3.The area of wall is 200 m2,area of floor and ceiling each is 100 m2.If
absorption coefficient of the wall ,ceiling and floor are 0.025,0.02 and 0.55 respectively. Calculate
the reverberation time for the hall.
 Assignment Problems :1
10. The volume of an auditorium is 12,000 m3. If the reverberation time is 1.5
second. If average absorption coefficient of interior surfaces is 0.4 sabine.
Find the area of interior surfaces.
(I) Reverberation Time:
➢ The reverberation time is the time taken by the sound to fall below the minimum audibility
level and also maintained at optimum value.

➢ The reverberation time is too small then loudness becomes inadequate and the sound may
not reach the listener as result. Thus this gives hall a dead effect.

➢ If the Reverberation time is too long ,it will lead to more confusion due to mixing of different
sounds. This makes the sound unidentifiable.

➢ Thus, reverberation time should neither be too large nor small.It should be optimum value
only.
(I) Reverberation Time Remedies :
● By providing windows and openings

● By having full capacity of audience in the hall or room.

● By using heavy curtains with folds.

● By covering the floor with carpets.

● By decorating the walls with beautiful pictures ,maps , etc.

● By covering the ceiling and walls with good sound absorbing materials like felt , fibre board
false roofing, etc.
(II) LOUDNESS :
● The uniform distribution of loudness in a hall or room is important factor for satisfactory
hearing.
● Sometimes it may get reduced due to excess of sound-absorbing materials used inside a
hall or room.

REMEDIES
● If loudness is not adequate can be increased by adopting following methods

1. The suitable absorbents used at places where noise is high for uniform distribution of
loudness.
2. The construction of low ceilings for reflection of sound towards listener.
3. The usage of large sound boards behind the speaker and facing the audience.
4. The usage of public address system like loud speakers.
(III) ECHO:
● The sound wave reflected or returned with sufficient
magnitude and delay from a distant extended surface like
a cliff, hill, well, building etc., is known as echo.

● The transmitted and reflected sound waves differ in

quality as well as characteristics

REMEDIES
● An echo can be avoided by covering long-distance walls
and high ceiling with suitable sound absorbing material
.This prevents reflection of sound
(IV) ECHELON EFFECT:

● If a hall has a flight of steps, with equal width, the sound

waves reflected from them will consist of echoes with
regular phase difference.
● These echoes combine to produce a musical note which
will be heard along with the direct sound. This is called
echelon effect.
● It makes the original sound unintelligible or confusing.

Remedies: It may be remedied by having steps of unequal

width.The steps may be covered with proper sound
absorbing materials, for example with a carpet.
 Ultrasonic Production :
Magnetostriction method:
Principle:
➢ When a magnetic field is applied parallel to
the length of a ferromagnetic rod made of a
material such as iron or nickel, a small
elongation or contraction occurs in its length.
This is known as magnetostriction.

➢ The change in length depends on the intensity

of the applied magnetic field and the nature of
the ferromagnetic material.

➢ The change in length is independent of the

direction of the field.
Magnetostriction method:
Construction
 Magnetostriction method:
Construction
➢ The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in the rod depends upon the strength of
the magnetic field, the nature of the materials and is independent of the direction of the
magnetic field applied.
Magnetostriction Construction
● XY is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron or nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle.

● The alternating magnetic field is generated by an electronic oscillator.

● The coil L1 wound on the right-hand portion of the rod along with a variable capacitor C.

● This forms the resonant circuit of the collector-tuned oscillator. The frequency of an oscillator
is controlled by the variable capacitor.

● The coil L2 wound on the left-hand portion of the rod is connected to the base circuit.The coil
L2 acts as a feedback loop.
 Magnetostriction method:
Working
➢ When High Tension (H.T) battery is switched on, the collector circuit oscillates with a
frequency,
1
f=
2𝜋√𝐿1 𝐶1
➢ This alternating current flowing through the coil L1 produces an alternating magnetic field
along the length of the rod.

➢ Thus as a result the rod starts vibrating due to the magnetostrictive effect.

➢ The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by

1 𝐸
➢𝑛 =
2𝐿 𝜌
 Magnetostriction method:
Working
❖ The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
𝟏 𝑬
n = 𝟐𝑳 𝝆

where L = length of the rod

E = Young’s modulus of the rod material and
ρ =density of rod material
➢ The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to
the natural frequency of the rod and thus resonance takes the plate.

➢ Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude and generates
ultrasonic waves of high frequency from its ends.
Condition for resonance:
❑Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating rod
 Advantages
1. Magnetostrictive materials are easily available and inexpensive.
2. Oscillatory circuit is simple to construct.
3. Large output power can be generated.

❖ Limitations : Disadvantages
1. It can produce frequencies up to 3 MHz only.
2. It is not possible to get a constant single frequency, because rod depends on temperature
and the degree of magnetization.
3. As the frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the vibrating rod, to increase the
frequency, the length of the rod should be decreased which is practically impossible.
 Piezoelectric Effect
➢ When pressure is applied to one pair of
opposite faces of crystals like quartz,
tourmaline , Rochelle salt , etc cut with their
faces perpendicular to its optic axis, equal
and opposite charges appear across its other
faces as shown in figure.
 Piezoelectric Effect
● Piezoelectric Effect In this effect, when the opposite faces of a crystal like quartz,
tourmaline, rochelle salts, etc., are subjected to squeezing (crush), twisting or
bending, a potential difference is developed across the perpendicular opposite faces.
● The magnitude of potential difference developed across the crystal is proportional to
the extent of deformation produced. This effect is known as direct piezoelectric effect.
● The converse of piezoelectric effect is also true. According to this effect, if an ac
voltage is applied to one pair of faces of the crystals, alternatively mechanical
contractions and expansions are produced and hence, the crystal starts vibrating.
● If the frequency of the applied ac voltage is equal to the vibrating frequency of the
crystal, then the crystal will be thrown into resonant vibrations and hence produce
ultrasonic waves.
 Piezoelectric Effect
CIRCUIT:-
 Piezoelectric Effect
CONSTRUCTION:-
❖ The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B.
❖ The plates are connected to the primary (L3) of a transformer which is
inductively coupled to the electronics oscillator.
❖ The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned oscillator circuit.
❖ The coils L1 and L2 of the oscillator circuit are taken from the secondary of
a transformer T.
❖ The collector coil L2 is inductively coupled to base coil L1.
❖ The coil L1 and variable capacitor C1 form the tank circuit of the oscillator.
 Piezoelectric Effect
Working:-
● When the H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high-frequency alternating
voltages with a frequency.

● Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil L3. This high-
frequency alternating voltage are fed on plates A and B.

● The inverse piezoelectric effect takes place and the crystal contracts and expands
alternatively. The crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.

𝑷 𝑬
● The frequency of the vibration is given by n = 𝟐𝑳 𝝆
 Piezoelectric Effect
● where P = 1,2,3,4 … etc. for fundamental, first over tone, second over tone etc.,
Y = Young’s modulus of the crystal and
ρ = density of the crystal.

➢ The variable condenser C1 is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC
voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus resonance
takes place.

➢ The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.

 Piezoelectric Effect
Advantages
● Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5 x 108Hz or 500 MHz can be obtained with this
arrangement.
● The output of this oscillator is very high.
● It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages
● The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high
● The cutting and shaping of quartz crystals are very complex.
 SONAR
➢ SONAR is a technique which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging.
➢ It uses ultrasonics for the detection and identification of under water objects.
➢ The method consists of sending a powerful beam of ultrasonics in the suspected
direction in water.
➢ By noting the time interval between the emission and receipt of beam after
reflection, the distance of the object can be easily calculated.
➢ The change in frequency of the echo signal due to the Dopper effect helps to
determine the velocity of the body and its direction.
SONAR
 SONAR
➢ By knowing the velocity of sound in sea water and the
measured time, the depth of the sea can be calculated
using the relation,
ht / 2
or
Ut\2

➢ where t is the time taken by the waves for the to and fro
motion and v the velocity of sound in sea water.

➢ The echometer is calibrated to measure the depth of

the sea directly.
 ➢ Measuring the time interval (t) between the transmitted pulses and the received
pulse, the distance between the transmitter and the remote object is determined
using the formula., where v is the velocity of sound in sea water.
➢ The same principle is used to find the depth of the sea.

● Applications
❑ Sonar is used in the location of shipwrecks and submarines on the bottom of the
sea.
❑ It is used for fish-finding application .
❑ It is used for seismic survey.
.
 DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

➢ Ultrasonic waves propagated through a medium can be detected in a number of

ways. Some of the methods employed are as follows:

(1) Kundt’s tube method:

● Ultrasonic waves can be detected with the help of Kundt’s tube.
● At the nodes, lycopodium powder collects in the form of heaps. The average distance
between two adjacent heaps is equal to half the wavelength.
● This method cannot be used if the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is very small i.e., less
than a few mm.
● In the case of a liquid medium, instead of lycopodium powder, powdered coke is used to
detect the position of nodes.
Kundt’s tube method:

Just for information

 DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
(2) Sensitive flame method:
● A narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium. At the positions of
antinodes, the flame is steady.
● At the positions of nodes, the flame flickers because there is a change in
pressure.
● In this way, the positions of nodes and antinodes can be found out in the
medium.
● The average distance between the two adjacent nodes is equal to half the
wavelength.
● If the value of the frequency of an ultrasonic wave is known, the velocity of
the ultrasonic wave propagated through the medium can be calculated.
 DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
(3) Thermal detectors:
● This is the most commonly used method of detection of ultrasonic waves. In
this method, a fine platinum wire is used.
● This wire is moved through the medium. At the position of nodes, due to
alternate compressions and rarefactions, adiabatic changes in temperature
take place.
● The resistance of the platinum wire changes with respect to time.
● At the position of the antinodes, the temperature remains constant. This will
be indicated by the undisturbed balanced position of the bridge.
 DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
(4) Quartz crystal method:
● This method is based on the principle of the Piezo-electric effect.
● When one pair of the opposite faces of a quartz crystal is exposed to the
ultrasonic waves, the other pairs of opposite faces developed opposite
charges.
● These charges are amplified and detected using an electronic circuit.
 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
➢ When ultrasonic waves are passed through transparent through liquid medium in a
container the waves get reflected. These reflected waves are called echos.

➢ The direct and reflected waves superimpose to form the stationary wave patterns.

➢ These waves give rise to a periodic variation in the density of the liquid.

➢ The change in density of the liquid in turn leads to a variation in turn leads to a variation in
the refractive index of the liquid.

➢ The density of the liquid would be maximum at nodal planes , while at the anti-nodal
planes it would be minimum.

➢ Such a liquid-column-subjected ultrasonic waves behaves like a grating.

 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
➢ The metallic plates are connected to an oscillator with frequency adjusted such that the
crystal vibrates in resonance with the frequency of the oscillator and thus produces
ultrasonic waves within the liquid.

➢ Hence liquid behaves like grating.

➢ This acoustic grating is mounted on the prism table of a spectrometer and a parallel beam
of light from the monochromatic source S is passed through the liquid at right angles to the
wave.

➢ Since the liquid is behaving like a grating ,the light beam on passing through it gets
diffracted and produces a diffraction pattern.

➢ The diffraction pattern is viewed through the telescope

 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
➢ The diffraction pattern consists of a central maxima with principle maxima of different orders
on either side.

➢ If 𝜃 is the angle of diffraction for the nth order principle maxima then

d sin𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the monochromatic light and d is the grating element.

𝜆
The grating element d= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜆0 is the wavelength of ultrasonic waves
2

𝝀𝒖
sin𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀

𝟐𝒏𝝀
𝝀 u = sin𝜽
 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY
➢ If the resonant frequency of the ultrasonic generator is f , then the velocity of ultrasonic wave
is given by

v=f 𝝀 𝒖
➢ Using this acoustic diffraction method the wavelength and hence the velocity of ultrasonic
waves through liquids and gases at various temperatures can be determined
 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS
Science and Engineering
➢ It is used to detect flaws or cracks in metals.

➢ It is used to detect ships ,subarmines,iceberg,etc.,in the ocean.

➢ It is used for soldering aluminium coil capacitors, aluminium wires and plates without using
any fluxes.

➢ It is used to weld some metals which cannot be welded by electric or gas welding.

➢ It is used for cutting and drilling holes in metals.

➢ It is used to form stable emulsions of even immiscible liquids like water and oil or water and
mercury which finds application in the preparation of photographic films ,face creams, etc.

➢ It acts like a catalytic agent and accelerates chemical reactions.

 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS
Medicine
➢ It is used to remove kidney stones and brain tumours without shedding any blood.

➢ It is used to remove broken teeth.

➢ It is used for sterilizing milk and for killing bacteria.

➢ It is used to study the blood flow velocities in blood vessels of our body.

➢ It is used as a diagnostic tool to detect tumours, breast cancer and also the growth of focus
Assignment Problems :2