HOW DO ORGANISMS

REPRODUCE?

Session 2
Tissue culture is an artificial technique
for growing plants in a controlled
environment. A small portion of the
plant is used in this technique to grow
cells in a nutrient solution in a sterile
laboratory environment.

The following are some of the

advantages of tissue culture:

1. In a short amount of time, new

plants can be grown.
2. The new plants that have been
created are disease-free.
3. The plants may be cultivated at
any time of year, regardless of
the season.
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
● Sexual reproduction takes place by the
combination of special reproductive cells
called ‘sex cells’.

● Sex cells are of two types: male sex cells &

female sex cells (which comes from two
different parents: a male and female).

● The sex cells are called- gametes ( also called

germ cells).

● In sexual reproduction, a male gamete fuses

with a female gamete to form a new cell called
‘zygote’.

● This zygote then grows & develops into a new

organism in due course of time.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

❖ Two parents- a male and female, are involved.

❖ Gametes formation occurs through meiotic cell

division.

❖ Male gamete called sperm and female gamete called

ovum or egg are formed in respective parents.

❖ Fertilization takes place to form zygote.

❖ The offspring are genetically and physically

dissimilar from the parent.

❖ Most variations are produced during sexual

reproduction.

❖ Small number of offspring is produced.

❖ Parental care is present.

 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
1. One division. 1. Two divisions.

2. No of chromosomes 2. No. of chromosomes is

remains the same. halved.

3. Two daughter cells 3. Four daughter cells

are formed. are formed.

4. Daughter cells are 4. Daughter cells are

genetically identical. genetically different
from the parent cells.

5. It takes place in both 5. It takes place only in

Haploid cells and diploid cells.
diploid cells.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS
The plants in which the sex organs are carried
within the flowers are called angiosperms.

Angiosperm are commonly known as flowering

plants.

The flowering plants reproduce by ‘sexual

reproduction’ method.

This implies- 2 sexes (male & female)

are involved in reproduction in
flowering plants.
 PETALS SEPALS

❖ The colorful parts of a ❖ The green,

flower are called petals. leaf-like parts in
The petals lie inside the outermost
the sepals. circle of a
flower are
❖ All petals together are called sepals.
called ‘Corolla’.
❖ All sepals taken
❖ The petals are usually together are
scented. called- ‘calyx’.

❖ The function of
❖ Function of petals is to
sepals is to
attract insects (for protect the
pollination) & to flower in its
protect the initial stages
reproductive organs when it is in the
which are at the centre form of a bud.
of the flower.
 Flower Maybe:

Unisexual- Bisexual-
Contains Contains
either both stamens
stamens or and pistil
pistil (Papaya, (Hibiscus,
watemelon) Mustard)
● Androecium and gynoecium are reproductive
parts of a flower.
● Androecium produces pollen grains containing
male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules
which are female gametes.
● Each individual member of androecium is
called a stamen and consists of anther and
filament. Pollens are produced in anther.
● Each individual member of gynoecium is called
pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary
 Male Reproductive Part

Stamen is composed of two parts: Anther &

Filament
Anther produces the pollen grains in a
process called microsporogenesis.

Internally, each anther lobe consists of

two long & cylindrical pollen sacs or
microsporangia.

The filament is long, slender stalk. It

supports the anther.
 Structure of Pollen Grains

Generative Cell- Generative cell

is spindle-shaped with dense
cytoplasm & nucleus.
Generative cell floats in the
cytoplasm of vegetative cell

Exine- Hard outer layer

Intine- Inner layer composed of

cellulose & pectin

Vegetative Nucleus- In pollen

grains, the known function of
the vegetative cell is to extend a
pollen tube to transport the two
sperm cells to the embryo sac
for fertilization.
 Parts of Pollen Grains

Germ pore- Germ pore plays an essential

part in the fertilization of plants. It helps
in pollen tube formation and releases
the male gamete during fertilization

Generative nucleus- Generative nucleus

is a nucleus of a flowering plant that is
present in the pollen grain of the plant. It
helps in the formation of new sperm
nuclei. It produces the male gamete in
the pollen tube of the flowering plant by
dividing itself.
 Female Reproductive Part

Pistil or Carpel is the female

reproductive part of a flower.

Pistil or Carpel consists

of following parts:

● Style
● Stigma
● Ovary
● Ovule

Collections of pistils are

called- gynoecium
Ovary- The swollen bottom part.

Style- Middle elongated part.

Stigma- Terminal part which may be sticky.

Ovary contains ovules & each ovule has an egg

cell.

The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain

fuses with the female gamete present in ovule.

This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives

us the zygote which is capable of growing into a
new plant.
Types of Pollination

In self-pollination, transfer
of pollen grains takes
place from anthers to the
stigma of the same flower
or another flower of the
same plan
 FERTILISATION

Fusion of male and female gametes is known as

fertilization.

● In flowering plants after pollination, the pollens

germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and
generate two male nuclei.

● After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has

to reach the female germ-cells which are in the
ovule.

● For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and

travels through the style to reach the ovule.

● Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei

 ● One male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei and
forms triploid endosperm.

Syngamy can be defined as the process of fusion ● Another male nucleus

of egg nucleus with male gamete to form a diploid fuses with the egg cell and
zygote. (2n). forms the zygote that
gives rise to the embryo
Triple fusion can be defined as the fusion and future plant.
involving two polar nuclei and a sperm nucleus
that occurs in double fertilization in a seed plant,
giving rise to a triploid nucleus called the primary
● After fertilization, ovary
endosperm nucleus, which later develops into the
becomes fruit and ovules
endosperm.
turn into seeds. All other
PEC- Function- to provide nourishment to the parts wither away
plant
Syngamy and Triple Fusion together
make the process of Double
Fertilization in flowering plants.
 POST-FERTILISATION

After fertilisation, the petals, sepals, stamens,

style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

After fertilisation, the zygote divides several

times to form an embryo within the ovule.

The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually

converted into a seed.

When the seed gets suitable conditions like

water, air, warmth, etc- it germinates & a new
plant grows.
 The seed contains the future plant or
embryo which develops into a seedling
under appropriate conditions. This process
is known as germination
 GERMINATION OF SEEDS

❖ Germination begins when the

seed absorbs water, swells and
bursts through the seed coat.

❖ The water helps the enzymes to

function in the seed. The
enzymes digest the stored food
in cotyledons & make it soluble.

❖ This soluble food makes the

radicle & plumule present in the
seed to grow.
NCERT Solutions
1. How is the process of pollination
different from fertilisation?

Answer
Pollination is defined as the process of
transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
The process takes place with the help of
pollinators like air, water and some
insects.

Fertilization is defined as the fusion of

male and female gametes. It takes place
in the ovule and leads to the formation
of zygote.
2. The anther contains:

A. Sepals

B. Ovules

C. Pistil

D. Pollen grains
2. The anther contains:

A. Sepals

B. Ovules

C. Pistil

D. Pollen grains
3. Draw a labelled diagram of the
longitudinal section of a flower
HOW DO ORGANISMS
REPRODUCE?

Session 3
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
 PUBERTY

The age at which the sex hormones (or

gametes) begin to be produced and
the boy and girl become sexually
mature ( able to reproduce) in called
puberty.

Boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to

14 years, while girls reach puberty at a
comparatively lower age of 10 to 12
years.
Some of these changes are common to both boys and
girls :

Thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as

armpits and the genital area between the thighs, which
can also become darker in colour.

Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well

as on the face.

The skin frequently becomes oily and we might begin to

develop pimples.
In girls, breast size begins to
increase,
with darkening of the skin of the
nipples at the tips of the breasts.
girls begin to menstruate at around
this time.

Boys begin to have new thick hair

growth on the face and their voices
begin to crack.
Further, the penis occasionally
begins to become enlarged and
erect, either in daydreams or at
night.
● All of these changes take place
slowly, over a period of months
and years.

● They do not happen all at the

same time in one person, nor do
they happen at an exact age.

● In some people, they happen

early and quickly, while in others,
they can happen slowly.

● All these changes show

differences between people.
On attaining puberty, the male reproductive
organs- testes start producing male gametes
called sperms.

On attaining puberty, the female reproductive

organs- ovaries start producing female
gametes called ova (eggs).

In addition to producing sex cells, testes &

ovaries also produce and secrete sex hormones
with the onset of puberty.
The sexual mode of reproduction means that
germ-cells from two individuals have to join
together.

If animals are to participate in this process of

mating, their state of sexual maturity must be
identifiable by other individuals. Many
changes during puberty, such as new
hair-growth patterns, are signals that sexual
maturation is taking place
What are sex hormones?

Hormones secreted by the sex organs of

organisms which affect the growth and
functioning of the reproducting organs and
develop secondary sexual characteristics are
known as SEX HORMONES.
Male Reproductive System

Primary Sex Organ- Pair of Testes

Secondary Sex Organ-

Accessory Ducts & Glands
Penis : It is the main organ. It has 3 parts :
root, shaft, glans.

Scrotum : is the loose pouch-like sac of skin

that hangs behind the penis. It holds the
testicles (also called testes), as well as many
nerves and blood vessels.

The testes : 1 pair of testes are oval organs

that make testosterone. The formation of
germ-cells or sperms (spermatogenesis) takes
place in the testes. Therefore, the testes are
called the primary reproductive organs.

The epididymis : is a long, coiled tube that

rests on the backside of each testicle. It
carries and stores sperm cells that are
created in the testes. Sperms mature here.
 Internal Male Reproductive organs :

Vas Deferens
The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens
which unites with a tube coming from the urinary bladder.
The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the
sperms and urine.

Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are sac-like

pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the
base of the bladder.

They make a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides

sperm with a source of energy and helps with the
sperms’ ability to move (motility).

Prostate gland: contributes additional fluid to

the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to
nourish the sperm.
The formation of germ-cells or sperms
takes place in the testes. These are
located outside the abdominal cavity in
scrotum because sperm formation
requires a lower temperature than the
normal body temperature.
 Female Reproductive System

Primary Sex Organ- Pair of Ovaries

Secondary Sex Organ- Fallopian Tubes,

Uterus, Cervix & Vagina.
 Ovaries
1. The pair of ovaries are primary sex organs. They
form the ovum and secrete the female hormones
- estrogen and progesterone.

2. These are oval shaped organ located one on

each side of the lower abdomen.

When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain

thousands of immature eggs.

On reaching puberty, some of these start

maturing. One egg is produced every month by
one of the ovaries. The egg is carried from the
ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or
fallopian tube. The two oviducts unite into an
elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus.
The uterus opens into the vagina through the
cervix.
 Fertilisation in Humans
1. The sperms enter through the vaginal passage
during sexual intercourse.

2. They travel upwards & reach the oviduct where

they may encounter the egg (INSEMINATION).

3. The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and

form a ball of cells or embryo.
4. The embryo is
implanted in the
lining of the uterus
where they continue
to grow and develop
organs to become
foetus. (GESTATION)

5. The embryo gets

nutrition from the
mother’s blood with
placenta.
What happens when the Egg is not Fertilised?

If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one

day.

Menstrual Cycle :

Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the

ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body
when fertilization does not happen

Uterus lining which becomes thick and spongy

for nourishing the embryo, breaks and comes
out through the vagina as blood and mucous
when fertilization doesn’t occur.

It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Reproductive health
Reproductive Health is a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being in all aspects of
reproduction.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE :

An infection transmitted through sexual contact, caused by
bacteria, viruses or parasites

❏ Gonorrhea,
❏ Syphilis,
❏ Genital herpes,
❏ Chlamydiasis,
❏ Genital warts,
❏ Trichomoniasis, Hepatitis-B, and HIV.
 ORAL PILLS

Chemical Methods

CONDOM AND
CERVICAL CAPS

Physical
Methods

DIAPHRAGM

VASECTOMY

Surgical Methods

TUBECTOMY
Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the
passage of semen to the fallopian tube :

(i) Use of condoms: Condoms are thin rubber tubes

worn over the penis before sexual intercourse. The
semen gets collected in this and is not discharged
into the vagina.

(ii) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a

flexible metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in a
woman’s body by a doctor.

(iii) Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD)

(COPPER T)
It is inserted in the uterus and its insertion causes
certain secretion which prevents the implantation
of the embryo in the uterine wall.
Chemical methods

● Use of spermicides: These are strong

sperm-killing chemicals available in the
form of creams, jellies etc. which are
injected into the vagina just before
copulation.
● Oral contraceptive pills: These are
hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but
do not stop menstruation.

Surgical methods

● Vasectomy & tubectomy : cutting and

ligating OF the vas deferens in males and
the fallopion tubes in females.
● Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or
abortions