08 - Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts (Ira Torresi)

Translation Practices Explained
Translation Practices Explained is a series of coursebooks designed to help

self-learners and teachers of translation. Each volume focuses on a specific
aspect of professional translation practice, in many cases corresponding to
actual courses available in translator-training institutions. Special volumes
are devoted to well consolidated professional areas, such as legal translation
or European Union texts; to areas where labour-market demands are currently
undergoing considerable growth, such as screen translation in its different
forms; and to specific aspects of professional practices on which little teaching
and learning material is available, the case of editing and revising, or electronic
tools. The authors are practising translators or translator trainers in the fields
concerned. Although specialists, they explain their professional insights in a
manner accessible to the wider learning public.
These books start from the recognition that professional translation practices
require something more than elaborate abstraction or fixed methodologies.
They are located close to work on authentic texts, and encourage learners to
proceed inductively, solving problems as they arise from examples and case
studies.
Each volume includes activities and exercises designed to help self-learners

consolidate their knowledge; teachers may also find these useful for direct
application in class, or alternatively as the basis for the design and preparation
of their own material. Updated reading lists and website addresses will also
help individual learners gain further insight into the realities of professional
practice.
Dorothy Kelly
Sara Laviosa
Series Editors
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TRANSLATING PROMOTIONAL AND
ADVERTISING TEXTS
Ira Torresi
I~ ~~~~~;n~~;up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2010 by St. Jerome Publishing
Published 2014 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© Ira Torresi 2010
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by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
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broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
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ISBN 13: 978-1-905763-20-7 (pbk)

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Torresi, Ira.
Translating promotional and advertising texts / Ira Torresi.
p. cm. -- (Translation practices explained, ISSN 1470-966X)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-905763-20-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Advertising--Translating--Textbooks. 2. Translating and interpreting--
Textbooks. 1. Title.
P306.2.T67201O
418'.02--dc22
2009043112
Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts
Ira Torresi
Promotional and advertising texts come in different forms and account for
a considerable share of the translation market. Advertisements, company
brochures, websites, tourist guides, institutional information campaigns, and
even personal CVs all share a common primary purpose: that of persuading the
reader to buy something, be it a product or a lifestyle, or to act in a particular
way, from taking preventive measures against health risks to employing one
candidate in preference to another. Consequently, their translation requires the
application of techniques which, although they vary depending on the specific
text type, are all aimed at preserving that persuasive purpose. This often re-
quires in-depth cultural adaptation and, on occasion, thorough rewriting.
Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts covers different areas of per-

sonal promotion, business to business promotion, institutional and business
to consumer promotion, including advertising. Numerous examples from a
wide variety of languages and media, taken from the author's own profes-
sional experience and from real-life observation, are provided throughout.
The volume is designed for use as a coursebook for classroom practice or
as a handbook for self-learning. It will be of interest to undergraduate and
postgraduate students, but also freelance and in-house translators, as well as
other professionals working in sales, public relations or similar departments
whose responsibilities include involvement in the management of multilingual
advertising and promotion activities.
Ira Torresi has taught Translation from English into Italian for several years at
the University of Macerata and at the Advanced School of Modem Languages
for Interpreters and Translators (SSLMIT) of the University of Bologna,
Forli, Italy. She currently teaches Interpreting from English into Italian at the
SSLMIT. Her research publications include studies on intercultural issues in
the translation of advertising material. She also works as a freelance inter-
preter and translator, and has considerable experience in the promotional and
advertising sector.
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Contents
List of Tables and Illustrations IX
Acknowledgements XI
1. Introduction: Why a Book on the Translation of

Promotional Texts? 1
1.1 How to use this book 2
1.2 Intended readership 3
1.3 A short note on terminology 4
1.4 Structure 5
1.5 What this book does and does not do 5
2. Promotional Translation and Professional Practice 7

2.1 Why advertising and promotional translators aren't just
translators 7
2.2 Valuable tools: the brief, visuals, multiple versions,
and negotiation 9
2.3 A short note for freelance translators: can one live off
promotional and advertising translation? 13
3. Key Issues in Promotional Translation 21

3.1 The brand name 21
3.2 Accuracy and loyalty to the original text 23
3.3 Different kinds of text 26
4. Translating Promotional Material: Self-Promotion 29

4.1 Source, target, context of distribution, and information-to-
persuasion ratio 29
4.2 Self-promotion 31
4.2.1 CVs 32
4.2.2 Job application letters 42
4.2.3 Personal websites with a promotional purpose 52
5. Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Business 61

5.1 B2B promotional texts 61
5.1.1 Brochures and websites 64
5.1.1.1 Product presentation websiteslbrochures 65
5.1.1.2 Company presentation websiteslbrochures 70
5.1.2 B2B advertisements 80
6. Translating Promotional Material: Institutional Promotion 87
6.1 Institutional promotional texts 87
6.1.1 Institution-to-institution (121) 88
6.1.2 Institution-to-user (12U) 92
6.1.2.1 12U promotion in the healthcare field 94
6.1.2.2 Tourist promotion 101
6.1.2.3 Awareness-raising III
7. Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Consumer 120

7.1 Business-to-consumer (B2C): creative and emotional
language 120
7.1.1 B2C brochures and websites 129
7.1.2 B2C advertisements 140
8. Translating Persuasion across Cultures 156
Appendix 163
A Glossary of Terms 182
References 188
Index 191
List of Tables and Illustrations
Tables
Table 1 Sample translator-initiated brief 10

Table 2 The infonnation-to-persuasion ratio continuum 28
Table 3 Working grid for B2C advertising translation 155
Illustrations
Example 1 INCA's campaign for residence pennit renewal (Italian

and English versions) 14
Example 2 An example of alternative versions and negotiation 18
Example 3 L'Oreal Elvive 1999 British and Italian ads 27
Example 9 Barbara Amadori's homepage 54
Example lOa Italian product description from Oli's Italian website 66
Example lOb International English product description from Oli's
Italian, Indian and Maltese websites 67
Example 10c English product description from Oli's US website 68
Example 12a Papertech's English homepage 72
Example 12b Papertech's Chinese homepage 72
Example 12c Papertech's Spanish homepage 73
Example 12d Papertech's Indonesian homepage 73
Example l3a Hindi homepage ofKSL True Value 74
Example l3b English homepage ofKSL True Value 75
Example 14a Gennan homepage of Zoratti Studio Editoriale 77
Example 14b English homepage of Zoratti Studio Editoriale 78
Example 14c Italian homepage of Zoratti Studio Editoriale 79
Example 15 Fantini-Andreoli multilingual ad 82
Example 16 SIME multilingual ad 84
Example 17 Trilla Corp ad 85
Example 18 Skilled Mobile European project 89
Example 19 Introduction to the brochure 'Do you want to work in
another EU Member State? Find out about your rights! "
issued by the European Commission Directorate-
General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal
Opportunities 89
Example 25 Greenpeace Italy's campaign for compact fluorescent
lightbulbs 112
Example 26 Greenpeace's 7 steps towards the Energy [R]evolution 117
Example 27 Sony Vaio C-Series website 125
Example 28 Dr. Beckmann Rescue ad 127
Example 29a Adidas Europass football web page, English version 131
Example 29b Adidas Europass football web page, French version 132
Example 29c Adidas Europass football web page, German version 133
Example 29d Adidas Europass football web page, Spanish version 134
Example 2ge Adidas Europass football web page, Italian version 135
Example 29f Adidas Europass football web page, Dutch version 136
Example 30a Moreno's 2005 Russian ad 140
Example 30b Moreno's 2005 Chinese ad 141
Example 30c Moreno's 2005 Arabic ad 141
Example 31 Siemens Converto Italian ad 144
Example 32 Candy Activa British ad 146
Example 33a British Maybelline Smooth Foundation print ad 147
Example 33b Italian Maybelline Smooth Foundation print ad 148
Example 33c Russian Maybelline Smooth Foundation print ad 150
Example 34 British Persil Performance Tablets ad 159
Acknowledgements
I have so many people to thank for this book that the only way to try and
remember them all is to start from the beginning of the story. My first 'thank
you' goes to Dorothy Kelly, who after a short accidental talk at the first IATIS
conference in Seoul invited me to send in a proposal for a book on advertising
translation when I was next to a perfect nobody, not only to her, but to the
academic community in general. It would have been so much easier for any
editor to invite an established academic to do the same. Her invitation, and
then her acceptance of my draft proposal, gave me that little confidence boost
that made me set my mind on continuing academic work and exploring ways
to combine it with my professional practice. By the way, I would have never
met Dorothy without the material support of Derek Boothman's research group
on translation and identity of the University of Bologna at Forli, a collective
mentor that has meant, and still means, a lot for my research.
Moving on in time, a big thank you to Dorothy once again, and to Mona
and Ken Baker, for their patience during the slow progress of the project - it
took me a couple of years to classroom-test the format and materials you will
find in the book. In this respect, I should like to thank my English translation
students of the University of Macerata at Civitanova and the University of
Bologna at Forli for unwittingly providing the feedback that led me to expand
and sometimes change my initial idea. And of course, no idea is really original
- much of what I came to understand about promotion and advertising was
shaped by my work with Rosa Maria Bollettieri Bosinelli, Raffaella Baccolini
and Delia Chiaro.
During the writing stage, key input came from my revisers, Patrick Leech,
Sam Whitsitt, Derek Boothman and Anthony Mitzel- thank you guys! And
for their kind assistance in providing permission to reproduce copyright-
protected material, my thanks go to Salvatore Casabona, Director-General of
INCA; Titius Caius (he knows who he is); Barbara Amadori; Michael Grass,
Marketing Communication Manager ofWAMGROUP, and his assistant Silvio
Bandi; Eleonora Zoratti of Zoratti Studio Editoriale; Ruggero Brunazzi of
SIME Srl; the President of Fantini-Andreoli / Andreoli Engineering, Francesco
Andreoli; Lester Trilla from Trilla Steel Drum Corp. and his efficient assistant,
Nadine Lebensorger; Stefan Schulze-Sturm from ZDH; TizianaRambelli, the
Communication Dept. Manager of the Forli Health Unit (AUSL); Simone and
Marcello Ruspi from Poliambulatorio Sanpietro and their press agent, Maria
Cristina Lani; the President ofUnione di Prodotto Citta d' Arte, Cultura e Af-
fari, Mario Lugli, and Celestina Paglia from APT Servizi Emilia Romagna;
Andrea Pinchera, Communication and Fundraising Director at Greenpeace
Italy, and Alexandra Dawe, Energy [R]evolution Communications Project
Manager at Greenpeace International; Nick Sharples, Sony Europe's Director
of Corporate Communications; Candy Group Marketing Director Guglielmo
Pasquali and his collaborators Franco Lualdi and Ramona Rotta; Giovanni
Flamenghi of Moreno Motor Company Srl; and Eleanor Bowden, Press Office
Executive at Unilever PLC.
Then came the editing stage, for which I have to thank first and foremost
Sara Laviosa, a most valuable addition to the series editing team and a great
editor and problem-solver. Dorothy and Mona, too, were very much present
at this stage, helping me all along.
And last but not least, thank you Matteo and mum, for looking after me
and bearing with me while I was writing this. Strange enough, all in all, it
was a really nice summer.
Every effort has been made to obtain permission to reproduce copyright

material appearing in this volume. Any omissions brought to the publisher s
attention will be remedied in future editions.
1. Introduction
Why a Book on the Translation ofPromotional
Texts?
In introducing this volume, it is perhaps necessary to justify why one would

write a book about the translation of a wide array of promotional genres, from
advertising to institutional brochures, from company websites to personal pro-
motion (CVs,job application letters, personal websites). One might argue that
such text types have different topics and addressees, circulate across different
media, and therefore have different linguistic and contextual characteristics
that call for different translation strategies. What unites them, however, is
that they all share a persuasive purpose. Or in more cynical terms, they all
aim at selling something, be it a service, product, life-style, company (of any
size), or public institution. For translators, this has one major implication: if
a source text is intended to promote something or someone, then the one who
commissions the translation of that text usually wants the same purpose to be
re-created in the target (i.e. translated) text. This means that the translations of
promotional texts are assessed in functional terms - i.e. for what they do rather
than what they are, or for how well they affect the reader rather than how close
they are to the original (§ 3.2). In other words, promotional translations, just
like their source texts, are assessed in terms of their effectiveness or success,
which means in terms of an increase in sales or, in the case of institutions, an
increase in the number of contacts received as a token of visibility.
Thus, even if they belong to different genres, all promotional texts can
be tackled within the same translational approach, which, in tum, needs to be
adjusted to the specific nature of the text in question (for instance depending
on its information-to-persuasion ratio, § 3.3), and the situational context
of the translation job (for instance, a given commissioner might want a literal
translation of a promotional text for non-promotional purposes, or for later
re-creation).
For readers who may be interested in definitions, this shared translation
approach can be broadly identified with functionalism or Skopostheorie
(Reiss and Vermeer 1984/1991; Nord 1997; Schaffner 1998, 2009), and may
be considered a kind of consumer-oriented translation, which applies to
a larger number of text genres, including recipes, technical handbooks and
instructions in general (Hervey and Higgins 199212002: 196-204; Hervey et al
199512006: 145-154). It is also an instance of covert translation, which implies
the naturalness of the target text, i.e. the translated text appears to have been
written directly in the target language (House 1977/1981: 189). This implies
that the source text is usually domesticated, i.e. made to conform as much as
2 Introduction: Why a Book on the Translation ofPromotional Texts?
possible to the linguistic and cultural nonns the target community attaches to
that text genre (Venuti 1998b).
1.1 How to use this book
This book can be used in University classes as a coursebook, or as a self-

learning handbook. In either case, note that chapters do not correspond to
study units and require different periods of time and degrees of effort. In par-
ticular, the first three chapters are more general, and while they contain some
examples, they do not have any exercises. They should not take more than
one-tenth of the time you devote to the entire course or self-learning process.
It is however important that practice-related and general issues (chapters 2
and 3) are studied before going on to practical examples.
As for timing, an adaptation of the book was piloted on an Italian
undergraduate 30-hour (lO-week) course focusing on translation practice. For
shorter courses, I advise trainers to make a selection of topics from chapter 4
to chapter 7 rather than rushing through the whole coursebook. Professionals
may also find it useful to skip sections about text types which they do not
usually encounter in their work. To this purpose, I have designed chapters 4, 5,
6 and 7 in such a way to make it easier, I hope, for readers to select the topics
and materials that best suit their own teaching or learning needs.
Teachers and trainers may also want to integrate this book with translation
coursebooks and translation theory handbooks, such as the ones listed in the
last paragraph of the Introduction above (especially Nord 1997), as well as a
selection of relevant works from the further reading section in the References.
Additionally, the materials provided in this book should be taken as examples,
and should always be integrated with fresh real-life material that best suits
learners' needs, including languages that are not accounted for here.
As far as activities are concerned, apart from individual translation
exercises that can be corrected and discussed in class or among peers, roleplay
can be useful to optimize classroom or individual study time, accommodate
distance learning needs, and encompass revision as well as translation roles.
This is especially useful with texts that lend themselves more easily to multiple
versions (§ 2.2). Pairs or groups of more than two people can work together
exchanging roles after each exercise: one component acts as the translator,
the other as the commissioner's reviser/editor, and in larger groups additional
members can be second-level revisers, or one of them can play the role of the
end client. The reviser, or the end client where present, fills in the brief fol-
lowing the general model in table 1 or any other brief agreed by the group for
the specific text to be translated. The translator translates the text following
the brief, getting back to the end client or the commissioner's reviser to clarify
the brief or negotiate choices when possible or relevant, and after self-revision
Ira Torresi 3
hands in the final version(s) of the target text. The reviser revises the target
text(s) taking the brief, the visual level and the target culture into account (see
Mossop 200112007 for revision and editing strategies), and ranks alternative
versions, when present, in order of preference and compliance with the brief.
This first-level revision is then sent to the second-level reviser or the end-
client, if the group includes such figures. At this point, individual choices and
suggestions are critically discussed among all group members. In a face-to-
face setting such as the classroom, oral communication has the advantage to
be less time-consuming, but e-mail, Skype or Messenger communication are
more realistic choices and help participants choose specific rhetorical strat-
egies to motivate their translation and revision choices. Of course, given that
power relations are non-symmetrical in the group, translators will need to be
flexible and ready to accept equally or more fitting alternatives suggested by
the reviser( s) or client, but equally ready to tactfully advocate for the validity
of their translation options if they are sure about it. It might be a good idea to
accompany the translation with a detailed comment that pre-emptively argues
for translation choices; revisions should similarly be motivated with a com-
ment. Revisers and end-clients should be well aware of their priorities from
the start of each project when they fill in the brief, and investigate into any
translation choice that they might interpret as challenges to such priorities.
This should drill participants into the practice of negotiation (following § 2.2)
and prepare them to face the complaints and claims that might arise during
their professional practice.
1.2 Intended readership
This book is intended for both students/trainees and professionals.

Translation students, both undergraduate (BA level) or graduate (in mas-
ter's or other postgraduate translation courses) may use it as a coursebook in
class, or as a tool for individual training if promotional translation is not a
topic of their translation courses.
Promotional translation may also be of interest for those professionals
with different priorities. For instance, newly graduated translators who have
not received specific training for advertising/promotional material, and who
do not want to risk mining their reputation by venturing into an unknown
domain, may want to know more about this field, just in case one of their first
clients asks them to translate texts such as a website or a company advertising
campaign. As we all know, it is very difficult at the start of one's career, for
both economic and psychological reasons, to say 'no' to any translation job.
And clients do tend to tum elsewhere after the first refusals.
Similarly, well-established freelance translators or translation agencies
specializing in other fields may wish to diversifY their translation service offer,
for at least two reasons: first, advertising translation is usually paid better than
other fields; second, client fidelization is important, especially once one has
won one's own pool of regular clients. For instance, if my clients are mainly
small industrial companies, the bulk of my commissions will probably be made
up of technical handbooks, but if I tum down, or translate badly, promotional
texts, then my precious regulars might look for other providers, not just of
promotional translation services, but of translation services in general.
This book, however, does not only address translators, but also in-house
marketing people or sales personnel in charge of foreign markets, who work
at small to medium sized companies that cannot afford to outsource their in-
ternational advertising and marketing campaigns. Such professionals might
be asked to develop and/or translate in-house the company's promotional
texts (e.g. posters, leaflets and brochures to be distributed and displayed at
international exhibitions, chapter 5).
Finally, other professionals working in the fields of marketing and
advertising may be interested in gaining some insight into advertising and
promotional translation. For instance, figures such as in-house copywriters,
sales managers at advertising agencies, or the marketing staff of companies
that outsource their promotional translations, may be asked to review or edit
the target text produced by a translator, or may wish to have some degree of
understanding of and control over the translation/adaptation process. After
all, if translators need to learn to know their commissioners in order to work
at their best, the reverse applies, too!
1.3 A short note on terminology
The trans-linguistic, trans-cultural, trans-market transfer of advertising and

promotional material goes under a number of names. Just to name a few,
'translation', 'adaptation', 'localization', and 'trans-creation', each of them
referring to different aspects of the same process.
Whereas translation might be considered as mainly connected to the
written word and to the transfer of concepts from one language to another,
adaptation and localization (a more specific term, which is mainly used for
advertisements, websites and software) may be seen to stress the cross-cultural
aspect of the process and the need to adjust the promotional text to the target
market in order to preserve its persuasive function. This, in tum, might entail
trans-creation, i.e. re-building the entire promotional text so that it sounds
and reads both natural and creative in the target language and culture.
Given the practical approach of this book, however, I will use the term
'translation' for all such aspects, as long as they fall or can fall within a
translator's field of action. In this sense, I give 'translation' its etymologi-
cal meaning of 'transfer', i.e. the transfer of a text, concept, or promotional
Ira Torresi 5
purpose across languages, cultures and markets. This by no means implies

that translation is limited to the verbal dimension, nor to texts as seen out of
their real-life contexts.
1.4 Structure
After this introductory chapter, we will first see a few notes and caveats con-
cerning professional practice (chapter 2). Section 2.1 briefly outlines some of
the non-linguistic abilities involved in promotional translation, while section
2.2 describes a few tools available to promotional translators and section 2.3
discusses the relative weight of advertising and promotional translation in
professional practice. Chapter 3 focuses on a number of key issues such as
the translatability of brand-names (§ 3.1), loyalty to the source text (§ 3.2),
and the different strategies required by different types of promotional texts
(§ 3.3). Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7 are entirely practical and each chapter is de-
voted to a different text type. Texts are categorized according to their source,
target, context of distribution, and information content, progressing from
more informative text types such as self-promotion (chapter 4) to business-
to-business (or B2B) promotion (chapter 5 ), institutional promotion and
awareness-raising (chapter 6), and business-to-consumer (or B2C) promo-
tion (chapter 7). The cultural side of advertising and promotional translation
is then discussed in chapter 8.
The Appendix includes additionallanguage versions of examples 10, 18,
19 and 20, for which several versions were available. Recurrent technical terms
are listed in the Glossary; terms that are included in the Glossary are marked
in bold the first time they occur in the book. Moreover, curious readers will
find a further reading section in the References, with several suggestions on
how to expand one's theoretical and practical knowledge about promotional
translation.
1.5 What this book does and does not do
First and foremost, reading this book and doing all the translation exercises
it contains is not, by itself, key to professional success. Secondly, although
the book is meant to be as comprehensive as possible, there are entire areas
that are not covered here. For instance, only printed promotional materials are
accounted for, leaving out radio and TV commercials or promotional videos.
The translation of these texts can be approached by combining this book with
that of Diaz Cintas and Remae12007.
What this book tries to do is to provide you with plenty of real-life
examples, and information and hints that come from my own professional
practice, which might help you recognize some of the main problems and
opportunities of promotional translation. This, however, is far from being

enough to make anyone a good translator of promotional and advertising ma-
terial. As in other translation fields, it is vital that you seek as much practice,
and expose yourself to as many promotional texts as you can. For instance,
look closely at ads and promotional material that circulate in your own market,
culture and language to spot recurrent linguistic forms and consumer values
or fears that are used for leverage.
Additionally, my examples are mainly in English and will be old in a few
years' time. Do not take them as universals, but always compare them with
fresh material from your own country. And it would not be surprising to find
that the more you are attentive to new trends and local peculiarities, the more
you will have to adjust the general principles and approaches presented here
which will serve, nonetheless, as solid guidelines to follow.
2. Promotional Translation and Professional
Practice
Given the practical approach of this book, it seems appropriate to situate pro-
motional translation within the working context of a professional translator
before going on to translation exercises. This chapter, in spite of being short,
influenced by my own professional experience, and given from the point of
view of one who privileges freelance work, will hopefully put the translation
of advertising and promotional texts in perspective - and perhaps provide
students with a clearer idea about what it means to work with promotional
and advertising texts.
2.1 Why advertising and promotional translators aren't just

translators
Ifwe understand translation in the broad sense mentioned at the end of § 1.3,
no translator can really make it in the professional world by relying on verbal
transfer skills alone. In each specialized field, a number of abilities that are not
necessarily linguistic in nature are required, or at the very least, very useful:
from the ability to detect and reproduce textual genres and their conventions,
to familiarity with the subject-matter (e.g. in scientific or technical texts),
and from ownership and proficient use of CAT tools and corpora to social
and self-marketing skills (when working in a team and dealing with clients,
respectively). No professional translator, therefore, isjust a translator and the
skills that one acquires in translation courses are seldom sufficient for survival
when working in a highly diversified, constantly evolving market.
Promotional translation is a broad category, and it is impossible to list here
all the non-linguistic abilities it requires. Some of these skills are very general
and apply to all translation types, such as, for instance, a familiarity with the
specific terminology and concepts concerning the field to which the object of
promotion belongs, be it hair care, mortgages, or environmental activism. It
is also necessary that one knows how to correctly assess both the constraints
and the opportunities of the medium and channel being used for promotion,
whether it be the press, posters, leaflets, the radio, television, internet, etc. To
this purpose, other volumes in the series 'Translation Practices Explained'
could be of help, and if one is interested in more theoretical issues, these can
be found in literature on visual semiotics, film studies, multimodal analysis,
conversation analysis (for the spoken parts of TV commercials), geosemiotics
(for posters and other street-distributed material), and social semiotics. In the
further readings section of the References, more information will be given
on these resources.
8 Promotional Translation and Professional Practice
To return, however, to those non-linguistic skills which are, if not required,

at least extremely useful for promotional translators, we can begin with what
may commonly be called agility: the ability to recognize different functions and
purposes embedded in the source text, and approach them appropriately, with-
out losing sight of the overall function of the text, its coherence and cohesion.
We will see how this can be done in § 3.3 and in chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Another quality which is often required of a promotional translator, in spite
of it being rather vague, is persuasiveness, or the mastery of an emotional or
evocative style that helps lure the addressee into the desired course of action. A
component of persuasiveness is the ability to recognize and, where necessary
or advisable, to adapt to culture-specific values in order to accommodate both
the target audience's expectations and taboos (see chapter 8).
A third, much-abused word that recurs in the translation of promotional
texts, and especially advertising, is creativity. It is often maintained, even by
translation agencies specializing in the localization of advertising campaigns,
that advertising should not be translated by professional translators, but by
copywriters and/or creative people who are proficient in foreign languages
(or who in any case, get to revise/recreate the translations, whether at the
agency or client company). It is the same argument which claims that the
best literary translations are not produced by professional translators but by
authors who have already published their own books in the target language
(sometimes regardless of their proficiency in the source language and familiar-
ity with the source culture and literature). Needless to say, this has yet to be
proved. It is true, however, that in promotional translation, the ability to devise
and produce, within an extremely limited time frame, clever texts that play
with language and visual cues makes things easier in professional practice,
particularly in those cultures where witty promotion and advertising is more
appreciated (see chapter 8). It should be also pointed out that this ability is
not necessarily innate, or something that translators either have or have not:
this is something that can be learned through constant exposure to and careful
analysis of creative texts.
A fourth quality which is perhaps less vital for freelance translators, but
crucial for agencies and company staff, is the knowledge of relevant laws and
restrictions about advertising and publicly distributed material in the countries
where the translated text will be circulated.
Finally, perhaps even more important for promotional texts than in other
fields of translation is the ability to be flexible in the relationships one has
with agencies, editors, and the end client. Promotion is a sensitive topic. After
all, it is about the client's image, identity, and ultimately, money (in terms of
prospective profits). This is why your translations, in spite of how good they
may be judged by client and intermediaries, could still be laid aside, or used
as raw material for in-house creative staff to re-write entirely. Promotional
Ira Torresi 9
translators may be left free to express their creativity at its highest, but this
does not mean that they are granted visibility or authorship status (incidentally,
the same usually applies to copywriters and creative staff in general, no mat-
ter how glamorous the position may seem from the outside). So do not feel
offended or frustrated if in addition to not seeing your name in the final text,
you cannot even recognize any trace of your work there, even if you feel that
you had followed the brief faithfully and the feedback was positive.
2.2 Valuable tools: the brief, visuals, multiple versions, and

negotiation
After having examined some of the skills which are useful for promotional
translators, we can move on to looking at some of the practical tools that can
be particularly handy for them.
The first and perhaps most important of these tools is the brief - which
includes the following detailed information about:
- the purpose
- the intended readership/audience
- the channel of distribution for which the target text is intended
- the values and brand/corporate image that should come out in the target
text
- the product/servicelinstitutionibehaviour that is being promoted
- the producer/provider/promoting organization
- where possible, the authors of the source text, whether they are the end
clients, and if not, the position of the end clients relative to the text.
The brief is of vital importance for our target text to keep its promotional
function. At the verbal level, it gives us information which allows us to make
decisions about lexis, register, and personal and social deixis (e.g. feminine/
masculine, singular/plural, degrees of social distance and respect). For instance,
if we know that the intended addressees are young girls, we should normally
employ feminine grammatical forms, an informal register, common words,
and avoid distancing devices and indicators of formality such as impersonal
forms; we could even opt for an informal second person singular or a first
person if we wish to encourage identification.
While all translators should always receive a brief from their clients,
when dealing with clients and/or agencies that are more familiar with non-
promotional translation, a brief is seldom provided. To make things worse,
insistent inquiries by the translator might even irritate the client or agency
(who thus implicitly take upon themselves the responsibility for the effects
of their reticence on the target text). In advertising translation, on the other
hand, if the client and/or agency are accustomed to working with advertising
agencies or staff, briefs are normally provided, and if critical information is
missing, the translator is entitled to ask for it.
Things may be different when the translator works with smaller companies
or agencies that have not had any lengthy experience with advertising trans-
lation, as well as non-advertising promotional text types (e.g. brochures or
company presentations to be included in websites). In such cases, especially
when one is working in direct contact with the end client, it might be useful
to e-mail or fax your contact person a short list of the information you need. A
model list is provided in English in table I, but it is strongly advisable that you
adjust it to your specific working conditions: in addition to translating the list
into the language you use with the client, read the source text carefully, with
the list at hand, and see what you can infer from the text. Sometimes infor-
mation such as the intended audience and the product image emerge clearly,
and it may be enough to ask the client whether s/he wishes to maintain the
same in the target text. Keep the list as short as possible, avoid unnecessary
or ambiguous questions, and give clear reasons for your requests, pointing to
the client's interests (e.g. 'Information about the media involved would help
me make the translated text as effective as possible for those media in par-
ticular'). If you are working through an agency, you can send the list to them
and hope they will convey it to the end client. In any case, keep a record of
all communication with your employer in order to clearly establish responsi-
bilities for any interruption of the information flow. As already pointed out,
promotional translation is a particularly sensitive field, and if problems arise,
agencies or clients are quite likely to blame the translator for not guessing the
information they withheld.
Table 1. Model Translator-prompted Brief
To be used when a brief has not been provided, and to be adjusted according to
real working conditions
1. The translated text will be circulated (please tick all relevant options):
L as a brochure L as (part of) a website L via e-mail or snail mail
L as a leafleUflier L on the product's package L at trade fairs
L in the press (title of publication/s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-'
L it is the script for a TV commercial to be broadcast on channel/s
L it is the script for a radio commercial to be broadcast on station/s
L other (please specify)

Ira Torresi 11
2. What group(s) of people do you wish to reach and persuade? Please

provide age range; nationality; gender; level of education; employment;
degree of specialization with respect to the product/service; whether
they are end-consumers/end-users, companies/organizations working in
your field of activity, or companies/organizations working in other fields;
any other relevant details.
3. Please list the brand values, corporate identity, and product/service

image you wish to be conveyed in the translated text.
4. Please put an X where you would like to see your company/organization

located on the following scales:
a. Degree of authoritativeness
Min Max
b. Degree of proximity to the customer/user/public
Min Max
c. Degree of deference towards the customer/user/public
Min Max
5. What kind of effect(s) do you wish the translated text to have on the
target group? Please provide full details and be as precise as possible.
6. Please enclose all visuals and other material that will accompany the
translated text, or at least samples or descriptions of the final form it will
have (e.g., for printed texts: layout, fonts, and colours to be used; for TV/
radio commercials: music, sound effects, description of action, camera
movements, etc.).
Other fundamental tools, which sometimes contain much of the informa-

tion conveyed by the brief, are the visuals and any other non-verbal elements
that accompany the verbal text. Apart from pictures and photographs, which
may be quite descriptive and thus give translators significant input about the
target group, the nature of a product, and the image attached to it, there are
other elements, such as typography and layout (including the kind of font used
for the characters and the colours used for the background), or the naviga-
tion structure of a website, which offer opportunities and pose restraints in
the trans-creation process. Example 1 (at the end of this chapter) is a case in
point; it shows that the visuals and the brief are complementary and should
always be given to and/or actively sought by the translator.
Another tool that can, and sometimes must be used in promotional trans-
lation, but never with other translation types, is the possibility of providing
multiple versions. It is a tool, and not just a waste of time and effort, for
two very practical reasons: first, it is the client, not the translator, who takes
responsibility for the final choice; and second, a translation with multiple ver-
sions is quite obviously paid better than a single version (assuming that the
offer of multiple versions has been cleared with your client).
Multiple versions are likely to be explicitly requested for text types that
are less informative, shorter and more emotional (§ 3.3), and by clients and
agencies who fully appreciate the opportunities and risks connected with
promotional translation, and wish to have more choices when revising and
re-working the translation. In this book, the practice of providing multiple
versions will be systematically introduced in § 7.1.2 (see table 3) for the fol-
lowing reason: it is for advertising that clients most often request multiple
versions, whereas for longer promotional text types, it is far less practical to
provide full alternative versions. In my own professional practice, however,
I have sometimes been asked to provide alternative versions for key parts of
non-advertising promotional text types, especially for less informative bits
with a higher evocative, emotional value, and with a higher impact potential
in terms of image. Quite predictably, these parts also require a translation
approach that is more trans-creative and less close to the source text. These
text types often include section or paragraph titles in web sites and brochures,
names of tourist packages, general profile descriptions in CV s or 'About us'
web pages, extended metaphors in company/organization presentations, and
the like. Quite obviously, the client does not expect to pay extra for multiple
versions of very small portions of text (and even if the client does not pay, you
might still want to provide them to foster client loyalty), but if requests of this
kind are systematic, you might have good reasons to negotiate an increase in
the translation price (see below).
It is important that all versions are valid in their own right, i.e. they
comply with the brief and are free-standing, complete, and accurate. They
should not be drafts or weaker versions of one final version; the client is not
interested in seeing the phases of the translation process, but only in having
a range of viable options, each of them with a different style that may be
more suitable for a given reception context, or generate given nuances with
respect to brand/product/company image. To facilitate selection, the differ-
ences between the versions and the specific properties of each one should be
clearly outlined in a short comment. Example 2 (at the end of this chapter) is
a real-life illustration of this process.
In any case, one should not provide alternative versions, even compli-
mentary ones, unless asked to do so or before negotiating this possibility with
Ira Torresi 13
the client or agency. For clients, choosing among a range of options can be a
time-consuming activity; moreover, their staff might not be qualified to make
the best decision with regard to translation solutions.
Example 2 also demonstrates the importance of the role of continuing
negotiations between the translator and client in order to achieve mutual satis-
faction, which does not necessarily apply only to promotional translation, but
is particularly important in this sensitive field. In the example, it is the client
who starts negotiations for the provision of alternative versions and gives in-
put about translation choices that should be avoided. By asking for a range of
possible solutions, the client also implicitly agrees to assume responsibility for
the final translation choice. The translator, on her part, negotiates the amount
of time to be granted for the new alternative versions. In similar situations, if
alternative versions are required for longer parts of text, the translator should
be in a position to negotiate higher prices (unless the first translation was badly
done) and further extensions of the deadline.
Negotiations usually take place before a translation commission is ac-
cepted. In that phase, the translator ought to be able to point out to the client
that that the process of trans-creating an entirely new text to accommodate
the expectations of the target group requires more flexible deadlines and
higher prices than the client is usually prepared to pay. But if the translator
is just starting out, it is perhaps better to use such an approach with caution,
and perhaps some time must be spent to educate those clients who may lack
a genuine interest in obtaining functional target texts and may prefer any
kind of translation at the lowest price. Promotional translation, on the other
hand, does entail trans-creation and can therefore be much more time- and
effort-consuming than other kinds of translation, and one should bear this
in mind when drafting a quotation or accepting a commission, because your
negotiation margin will be substantially reduced once you have agreed to
certain conditions (§ 2.3).
2.3 A short note for freelance translators: can one live off
promotional and advertising translation?
As with other specialized fields, especially at the start of your career, it is un-
likely that you will be flooded with the kind of translation jobs you enjoy doing,
or are more proficient in, although you can improve your situation by actively
seeking such jobs and marketing yourself as a highly specialized translator. But
even then, while we are surrounded by ads and publicity, these texts are often
translated or recreated in-house. This happens not only in small and medium
enterprises which do not have the resources to resort to professional agencies,
but also in large multinational companies which have branches in the target
countries. It is therefore advisable that you do not rely on promotional and
advertising translation as your sole source of income, but diversifY your offer
in order to meet local market demand (§ 1.1).

It is also a fact, at least in the markets I know, that certain promotional
text types (e.g. tourist promotion and company web sites) are not regarded as
belonging to a specialized field, which then has an inevitable impact on the
price one can charge. When one gets to translate advertising texts, however,
or succeeds in making clients realize that part of their income depends on the
translation of promotional material, the pay is generally much better than in
other specialized fields of translation. This implies that when you are asked
for a quotation, it is not advisable to apply your standard prices. When in
doubt, you can gather information about the prices for advertising translation
which are being applied by others who operate on the same national or local
market, and in the same language combination. You can do this by checking
the mailing lists of translators' associations you are a member of, or other
non-institutional mailing lists of professional translators, such as the Italian
Langit (http://list.cineca.it/cgi-bin/wa?Pl&L=langit).
Example 1
How the visual and the briefinfiuence translation choices
Consider the following Italian source text:
Let us imagine that your client provides you with this text, but not a brief.
Before sending them a brief to fill in, drafted following the list in table 1, let
us try to draw up a list of cues that can be retrieved from the text, starting
Ira Torresi 15
with the verbal components and then going on to the visual.

The large verbal print, which we can call the headline, literally means
'We help you extend your residence permit. And also defend it'. In the bot-
tom left comer there is a telephone number, followed by words in small
print which say: Servizio telefonico multilingue. Costo 1 scatto a chiamata
urbana. Giorni feriali h. 14. 00-lB. 00 [multilingual telephone service. Cost:
one local call. Weekdays 2 - 6 pm]. To the right of the logo, there is the name
of the service sponsor: Patronato INCA GGIL [INCA CGIL aid society],
followed by a website address.
This already contains a number of significant cues. First of all, the
service being promoted is that of helping people extend their residence
permits, which means that those targeted are immigrants working in Italy.
Secondly, the service provider and promoting organization is an aid society
(INCA) which is sponsored by a left-wing trade union (CGIL). As can be
seen on INCA's website, it offers free assistance on issues connected with
labour law.
This kind of promotion can be identified as institution-to-user (or 12U)
(§ 6.1.2). The politicized nature of the provider is reflected by the choice of
the verb difendere [defend], which implies that the residence permit is an
immigrant's right that is worth fighting for and must be protected. INCA
thus becomes an ally in the struggle as it helps the target group extend and
defend its permits. And personal and social deixis confirm INCA's role as
an institution that is strong enough to back migrants' rights because it is a
collective and has more weight than a single person, while it also treats the
persons it assists as peers by addressing them directly in the first person
plural 'we' and not, for instance, by choosing a third person singular (,INCA
helps you') or avoiding any personal self-reference ('you will find the help
you need at INCA'). Referring to point 4 oftable 1, this stance would score
very low on the authoritativeness and deference scales, but very high on
the proximity scale.
The war metaphor associated with migrant workers' rights is reiter-
ated and made more explicit by the typography and layout. All letters are
capitals, with the conventional exceptions of h., from the Latin hora(e},
[hour(s)], and the website address. The headline is in boldface, and there
is no concession to fancy formats; the colours are limited to black and red
over a white background, which adds graphic emphasis to the verbal text
by making it stand out on the page. Moreover, the use of the colour red,
which is a high-visibility colour as well as the identity colour of CGIL,
once affiliated to the now dismembered Italian Communist Party, further
highlights the institution's logo and the main focus of the text, il permesso
di soggiorno [the residence pennit]. Such typographic choices, together

with the particular font and the worn -out paint effect used for the headline,
establish a clear intertextual link between this text and the writings on
military vehicles and military property in general. Extending a residence
penn it, the verbal-visual metaphor implies, is no easy task: you will have to
fight for it, and even if you succeed, you must then be prepared to struggle
against those who want to take it away from you.
Any translation choice aimed at softening the image of the organization
should therefore be avoided. It would not be appropriate to have a more
friendly or affable text, such as: 'Need to extend your residence pennit?
We're here to help! '; nor should there be translations which would try to
diminish the anxiety connected with extending residence pennits (e.g.
'Residence pennit extension? No need to worry! '). Such choices might
work with other kinds of services, especially those which are not free,
but they are out of place in this particular case. We must acknowledge
however that in certain target cultures, INCA's aggressive stance might
not be appreciated, and a milder tone therefore would be preferred, both in
tenns of verbal choices and visual encoding. In this case, nonetheless the
service being discussed is in an Italian context, and INCA is quite proud
of its militant mission.
At this point, there is actually very little we could get from a filled out
brief. The only point in the brief in table 1 that cannot be inferred from the
text itself is the media plan, or point 1. For the sake of the discussion here,
we can say that If we were to ask our clients for clarification on this point,
we would be told that the ad was one of three similar texts circulated in
2007 in the Italian free press (the kind of newspapers that are distributed
free of charge in train stations and other public places). This further nar-
rows the target group to financially disadvantaged migrant workers, who
do not spend money on buying regular newspapers, and whom INCA is
more interested in assisting. It also explains the discontinuous line around
the ad which suggests that the square is to be cut, or ripped out for future
reference when the rest of the newspaper is thrown away.
In order to reach a larger number of migrant workers, particularly
those who did not read Italian, the ads were translated into English, French,
Spanish and Arabic. The English translation of the Italian source text above
is reproduced below.
The grammar of the English version, as you might have noticed, shifts
between 'help' + infinitive without 'to' and 'help' + infinitive with 'to'
mingling two usages that are usually associated with American and British
English respectively. This approach should nonnally be avoided since it
points to an inconsistent, sloppy style. When you translate into languages
that have regional variation, the brief (or points 1 and 2 of table 1) should
Ira Torresi 17
give you a clear indication of the local variety you should confonn to. In
this particular case, however, English is clearly used as a lingua franca to
reach migrants who are likely to speak a number of different non-standard
varieties of English as a second or third language. For INCA's purposes,
then, a degree of variation from the standard cannot be considered a flaw,
as long as it does not hinder comprehension nor the interlinguistic transfer
of the organization values mentioned above.
There are two other interesting case-specific translation choices that

are fully compatible with what has emerged from our analysis of the Italian
text. The first is the elucidation of giorni feriali [weekdays] as 'Mondays to
Fridays'. The tradition of considering Saturdays and Sundays as non -work-
ing days is clearly of the West, based on Christian nonns, while migrant
workers might originally come from other traditions and feel ill at ease with
the Italian division of the week. The second is the choice to leave the word
patronato in Italian. INCA probably wanted to introduce the word and the
concept behind it into their users' vocabulary and reference systems, and the
English tenn, 'aid society' , might be mistaken for a religious organization,
an association that INCA would not be too keen on encouraging.
In more general tenns, and in other working contexts, choices such as
these we have just discussed (especially grammatical variation and the no
translation option) may expose the translator to the risk of being labelled
inaccurate or to being accused of leaving words out. Such a risk can be
avoided, however, by providing a short comment regarding the choices
made, negotiating with the client and or employer, and providing, in the
right cases, alternative versions.
Example 2
Alternative versions and negotiation
In a 2005 tourist guide of Emilia-Romagna, which was to be distributed

free of charge at international trade fairs and local tourist offices, one of the
sight-seeing tours of the town of Forli was entitled, Architettura fra Ie due
guerre [architecture between the two wars]. The reference is to functionalist
architecture, which had become popular under the Fascist regime. I pro-
vided the client, a local tourist promotion organization, with the translation
'Mussolini Deco', a phrase that was quite shamelessly borrowed from a
famous non-promotional English-language tourist guide of the region, as
I noted in my accompanying remarks. In my mind, the authoritativeness
and competence of the source from which I borrowed the phrase should
have vouched for its validity. Moreover, the name, 'Mussolini', with all
its negative connotations, not only denoted a particular historical period,
but was also particularly appropriate in that context since it was either on
Mussolini's orders or in order to please him that Forli (a few miles from
Predappio, the dictator's birthplace) was partly re-built and expanded in the
official architectural style of Fascism, that of Functionalism.
I should have thought better, however. The text I was translating was
promotional, whereas the guide with 'Mussolini Deco', was not, since it
was aimed at giving its readership as objective an account as possible of
Forli's historical and artistic features.
Furthermore, my knowledge of current local policies should have
helped me to foresee the client's reticence to use the name 'Mussolini'. I
knew that the client worked in close contact with local authorities, some
of which had announced in the local media that nostalgia tourism to Mus-
solini's places was to be staunched; and although the tour Architetturafra
Ie due guerre was focused on architecture only, the very fact of mentioning
Mussolini's name might have implied political exposure. All these consid-
erations should have led me to keep away from 'Mussolini Deco', or at
least to provide alternative versions.
During the in-house revision phase, in fact, my contact person called
me to negotiate a new version of the title that did not contain the name
'Mussolini'. I asked for a few hours' time to produce a range of new trans-
Ira Torresi 19
lations from which she and her colleagues would then be free to choose,
and proceeded to assess alternative options.
Given the premises, I immediately excluded any reference to Fascism
or Fascist architecture. My first version was a literal
1. 'Inter-war architecture'.
As I pointed out in the comments that accompanied the new versions, how-
ever, I felt that while an Italian readership would immediately understand
what type of architecture was typical of inter-war Italy, foreign readers
might need more precise cues to figure out what kind of sights were being
proposed as worthy of interest. I therefore brainstormed for a few alternative
versions that integrated more precise references to the type of architecture
involved, and came up with what follows:
2. 'Italian Functionalism in the 1920s and '30s';

3. 'Functionalist architecture, 1922-43';
4. 'Functionalism in Forli before WWII'.
As you may have noticed, version 4 incorporates an explicit reference

to Forli, which may have been added to the other versions as well. The
reason for its exclusion lies in the total length of the name of the itinerary
which, just like an advertising slogan, should be kept as short as possible
in order to capture the reader's attention, and also, in this particular case, to
accommodate space restraints since the texts were to be printed in columns,
and each title, where possible, was to be printed on the same line. I did not
incorporate this remark in the accompanying comments, as the client was
perfectly aware of the page-space issue.
Version 3, being precise about the dates marking the rise and fall of
Fascism in Italy, may have led a foreign reader to associate Functional-
ism with the Fascist era. As indicated in the accompanying comments, I
favoured this solution, as the reference was emotionally indirect and his-
torically correct. I also pointed out that I had applied the opposite strategy
in version 2, blurring the historical period into a generic reference to two
decades, without any explicit mention of the sad milestones of Fascism
and the two wars.
I stopped at four versions. I felt that although the client's staff had
initiated negotiations, they were quite busy revising the rest of the book
(some 150 pages), and I knew that they were under enormous pressure as the
guide was supposed to be ready for an international trade fair that was only
a couple of weeks away. Moreover, given the brevity of the title involved,
I did not apply any additional charge to the price we had agreed on.
My agency and responsibility as a translator ended there. Just to tell
the end of the story, however, the final version, which I saw in the proofs
and which was not negotiated further, was the first, more neutral 'Inter-war
architecture', perhaps the least problematic from the Italian organization's
point of view.
This example also tells us something about the kind of hidden agenda
an institutional client may have. Although the brief for a promotional text
may be as generic as 'choose as persuasive and emotional a language as
possible', other unspoken priorities (in our example, avoiding political ex-
posure) may override it. Opening and maintaining a channel of negotiation
with the client is always a precious tool that helps solve such communica-
tion problems.
3. Key Issues in Promotional Translation
This chapter addresses a number of key issues concerning the process of
translating promotional texts. First, it focuses on the extent to which brand
names are translatable; it then discusses the notions of accuracy and loyalty
as they apply to the specific case of promotional material. The last part deals
with the main features of different types of promotion and the translation
strategies they require.
3.1 The brand name
Brand names are texts in themselves. They convey the brand's carefully con-
structed image and identity. Sometimes this is connected with the nationality
traditionally associated with a kind of product: real pasta must be Italian, so
non-Italian pasta makers choose Italian-sounding names for their brands (such
as the French Panzani); in Italy, given the Americanness attached to products
introduced by US troops during WWII, Brooklyn and Big Babol [sic] chew-
ing gum (produced by Perfetti, until 2001 an all-Italian company) has been
popular at least since the 1980s.
Given their importance for brand image, brand names are usually treated
as proper nouns and left untranslated when a product is marketed abroad. There
are, however, exceptions to this, and these can be divided into three groups:
• phonetic/graphic adaptation
changes introduced to avoid taboos or undesired associations
• translation to make the meaning or implications of the brand name trans-
parent in the language of the target market.
Phonetic and graphic adaptation
Graphic adaptation usually occurs between different alphabets or writing con-

ventions. Normally, for instance, a Russian brand-name (or company name)
has both a Cyrillic version and a version written in Latin characters for the
benefit of foreign markets. The process of graphic adaptation may also carry
some phonetic adaptation if the phonetics and alphabet of the target language
do not include all the sounds that make up the original name.
Phonetic adaptation, however, can also occur among languages that
share the same alphabet. This is common, for instance, in Italy, where foreign
brand names are sometimes adjusted to the Italian phonetic reading to recre-
ate a sound string that is similar to that of the source language, especially in
down-market segments. Thus, before introducing the original name Pantene,
a haircare line was marketed in Italy as Panten; Glade home deodorants were
22 Key Issues in Promotional Translation
renamed Gled until a few years ago; and more recently, the registered mark
Easy Peel (a pull-tab for tin covers) has become Isy-Pil, which had to be
registered as a separate trademark. We may notice that none of these names
were Italianized in any other respect than phonetically - rather, they were trans-
formed into other foreign-looking and foreign-sounding words. In this way,
the positive connotation associated with non-Italian non-food products was
retained, whereas the right pronunciation was ensured even when the buyers
had no idea of foreign languages. This kind of approach may be perceived as
offensive by perspective buyers who feel that it presupposes their ignorance
or unwillingness to take on new words.
Taboos and unwanted associations
When a graphic or aural element of the brand name or logo generates undesired
associations or violates a taboo in the target language and culture, changes
are normally made, since the negative connotation would directly affect sales.
These changes are usually as unintrusive as possible, as in the case of the Italian
marketing of Sega consoles and videogames. The word Sega, pronounced as
/'sega/ in the rest of the world, in Italian commercials used to be pronounced
/'si:ga/ with a heavy American accent. This was done to avoid the obscene as-
sociations that go with the written word, which in Italian would be pronounced
/'sega/ and allude to male masturbation and to a low-quality product. The
exotic pronunciation, on the contrary, made it apparent that the word was not
to be associated with its Italian homograph. The original pronunciation was
restored once the brand had conquered and stabilized its market share, and
at the same time built a positive brand image. Failing to adapt a negatively
connoted brand name may have high costs for a company launching a product
on a new market. An example (which may actually be an urban legend) is the
Chevrolet Nova, which is reported to have sold poorly in Latin America, where
no va means 'it won't start'; while in the 1970s, the sales of a Chinese battery
brand, which had already started to perform well on the British market under
its original name, written in ideograms, plunged after the brand name was
translated literally as 'White Elephant', a sacred animal in South-East Asia,
and a useless but expensive thing in British English (Chuangshen 1997:182;
other examples in Chuansheng and Yunnan 2003).
Translation
The last type of brand-name trans-creation that will be tackled here is the
re-encoding of the name's meaning, either to convey the original meaning or
to introduce a new one. Examples of transparent translation of the original
meaning are the White Elephant case above or the successful localization
of Procter and Gamble's brand Mr. Clean as Mr. Propre (France), M. Net
Ira Torresi 23
(French Canada), Mastro Lindo (Italy), Meister Proper (Gennany), Don

Limpio (Spain), Mastro Limpio (Mexico), and so on. Additionally, there are
cases in which the brand is loaded with new meanings in the target language.
This can be achieved more easily when the brand name is intersemiotically
trans-created, i.e. totally replaced with a new one that has a different physical,
as well as verbal encoding.
This can happen when Western brands are launched onto the Chinese
market and vice-versa, when the name is trans-coded into or out of ideograms,
and the gap between very different cultures and semiotic systems (the first
logocentric, the second more visually-oriented), encourages the trans-creation
of meanings that best accommodate the conventions of the target language
and culture. When a Western brand is translated into Chinese, there are several
alternative encodings of its phonetic component, and for each phonetic alterna-
tive there are several possible graphic encodings. Of course, translations that
carry a positive meaning and therefore comply with the Chinese conventions
of brand-name making are favoured. Successful examples of such trans-
creation are the Chinese translation of Coca-Cola, which adopts a slightly
different pronunciation (ke-kou-ke-le) with a set of ideograms which read
'tasty and happy'. The reverse also applies: of all the possible English words
whose pronunciation would sound more or less like their brand-name, the
managers of the Xiling company, a manufacturer of air conditioners, chose
Serene by virtue of its connotation of quietness and comfort. The last two
examples were taken from Chuansheng and Yunnan 2003, where many other
interesting examples can also be found.
3.2 Accuracy and loyalty to the original text
In chapter 1, we saw that promotional translation is usually assessed in func-

tional tenns; in other words, the main concern in this field should be whether
the target text works, i.e. fulfils the purpose for which it is intended in the
target language, culture, community, and context. Similarly, it has already
been pointed out that this may require a thorough trans-creation of the source
text (§ 1.3), and that creativity is one of the abilities that are often required of
promotional translators (§ 2.1).
Such arguments go against traditional concepts such as accuracy and
loyalty to the source text. In fact, in promotional texts, the concept of loyalty
applies neither to the letter of the text, nor to its original content or message,
but only to its intended function. If this function is not preserved, the target
text is disloyal to the source text, even if its content and literal meaning are
accurately conveyed. If, on the contrary, the function is maintained, then the
translation can be deemed loyal to the original text, even if this implies creat-
ing an entirely new text, with a new fonn and a new content. Of course, the
notion of 'function' does not only pertain to the generic purpose of persuad-
ing the target group to buy a product or service, or modify the target group's
behaviour or attitudes in some way or other, but also includes the specific
indications contained in the brief.
It is easy to demonstrate this hyper-functionalist view through examples,
especially in the case of advertising, where clients tend to give functionality
of the target text priority over the close rendition of the source text. Some-
times this involves non-verbal as well as verbal aspects, which are totally or
partially changed to accommodate the features of the target markets, or the
sales strategies of national branches.
In example 3 (at the end of this chapter), for instance, the different defini-
tions of the product's main ingredient, i.e. a protective 'UV FILTER' in the
British version, and a 'NUTRI-FILTRO' [nourishing filter], in the Italian one,
are reflected by the different encodings of the computer-generated images (the
small boxes over the picture). In the British ad, the protective agent is visual-
ized as a rigid, semi-transparent and shiny ribbon, apparently in line with its
function of shielding the hair from UV rays. In the Italian version, on the other
hand, the nourishing substance - probably to convey its supposedly organic
nature - is a floppy double filament that hangs onto the surface of the hair,
which is superimposed onto a part of the model's real hair, not a computer-
generated background of stylized hair as in the British example.
The two ads in the example were independently developed in-house by
the respective national marketing departments from a range of visuals, a loose
brief and a draft copy (in English) provided by the company's central marketing
department. The values attached to the product were adapted according to the
expectations of the British and Italian markets (protection and nourishment,
respectively), or the marketers' perceptions about them. In such cases we can
still talk of translation if we intend it in the broad sense used in this book, but
a more specific term would be glocalization (Adab 2000:224).
The phenomenon of glocalization suggests that a holistic view of ad-
vertising translation, which embraces all its semiotic dimensions and the
functionalist view ofloyalty explained above, is possible and viable. Even when
the end client is not a multinational company, but perhaps a small company
interested in translating a few business-to-business posters to be shown at
international trade fairs, this holistic approach may be extremely productive in
marketing terms, because it caters for cross-cultural as well as cross-linguistic
adaptation. Translators or in-house marketing staff may therefore propose
or be asked to re-create a new campaign that best suits the expectations of
the target group. Of course this does not mean that translators or in-house
copywriters should acquire the skills of art directors, typographers, and the
like. They can, however, suggest how non-verbal elements may be adapted
in order to match new values or new figures of speech that were not present
in the source text. In order to do this, however, it is vital that they are ready
Ira Torresi 25
to forfeit the traditional concept of loyalty to the source text, and re-locate it
within the text function and the client's brief.
The same can apply to non-advertising promotional genres, even if clients
may be less prepared to spend a significant amount of time and money on a
complete re-thinking of their promotional material. In such cases, if a transla-
tor spots an opportunity to trans-create the text, negotiation becomes vital to
defend that opportunity (§ 2.2). Also, in such cases it is important to identify or
investigate any hidden agendas the client may have: for instance, spending as
little as possible on translation at the expense of the prospect of higher profits
- perhaps because the efficiency of the members of staff entrusted with finding
a translator will be assessed in terms of costs and timing, rather than according
to possible higher company profits. In such cases, after careful negotiation,
translators may have to find a compromise between their own loyalty to the
function of the promotional text and the client's hidden agenda.
Even in non-advertising promotional genres, however, holistic
trans-creation becomes necessary when given elements of the source text,
if translated literally or (in the case of non-verbal elements) left unchanged,
may offend or be negatively received by the target group. Examples of this
might be a hypothetical brochure developed in the United States for a German
language course, written in a gothic typographic style like the Fette Fraktur
font shown in Schopp 2002, which in Germany (and Europe at large) would
evoke neo-Nazism; or a website or brochure decorated with pictures of chry-
santhemums, a symbol of nobility and power in many Asian cultures, but
usually associated with death in Italy. (Other examples of cultural taboos can
be found in chapter 8; see also § 3.1). At the verbal level, any incompatibility
of the source text with the genre conventions that apply in the target language
should be pointed out to the client and amended. Normally, however, the degree
of freedom in trans-creation is directly dependent on the information/persua-
sion ratio (§ 3.3): the higher the persuasion and the lower the information, the
higher the possibility, and potentially the need, to trans-create. For example,
normally a business-to-consumer website offers much more leeway for trans-
creation than a CY.
This does not only apply to the text as a whole, but also to its parts. Any
part of the promotional text that contains specific and/or technical informa-
tion, and serves the overall promotional purpose of the text through its local
informative function rather than through an emotional or evocative language,
should be approached with an accuracy-oriented approach. In other words,
the local function of the informative parts of a promotional text should be
preserved by conveying their content as accurately as possible. On the other
hand, any part of the source text that appeals to the addressees' impressions,
feelings and emotions rather than their rational judgement can be trans-created
more freely. This point will be analysed further in § 3.3.
3.3 Different text types
As pointed out in chapter I, we are dealing with a vast array of texts which share
the same purpose: selling something (a product, a service, a person, a company,
an attitude, or a behaviour). Of course, different categories of addressers and
addressees determine different genres, each of them being characterized by
specific stylistic conventions both in the source and target language. This is why,
in the following chapters, a distinction will be made between different kinds
of promotion, i.e. business-to-business (or B2B), institution-to-institution (or
121), business-to-consumer (or B2C), and institution-to-user (or I2U) (see
example I in chapter 2). Another contextual characteristic that contributes to
genre definition is the kind of medium employed, the limits it poses and the
opportunities it offers, all of which account for the general division of bro-
chures and websites from advertising, and for the division of advertising texts
according to the medium of distribution (the press, TV, posters, etc.).
The main characteristics of each (sub-)genre that are relevant for transla-
tion will be analysed in chapters 4-7. Before moving on to more particular
issues, however, a general concept must be introduced here, as it will be
mentioned throughout the following chapters and it is critical for the selection
of appropriate translation strategies. It is the information-to-persuasion ratio
of a text, that is the extent to which the text can be defined as informative or
technical, compared with the extent to which it appears to aim at persuading
the addressee by means that do not include the provision of objective data
or facts.
'Information' and 'persuasion' are intended here as stylistic traits rather
than textual purposes. Of course all promotional texts are ultimately per-
suasive, but in some promotional genres this persuasive purpose is best not
made explicit and is thus left to impersonal, non-emotional information that is
presented in such a way that it speaks for itself. In such genres, adding evoca-
tive language, or trying to get emotionally closer to the addressee (e.g. by
speaking or writing in the first person to an interlocutor identified as a 'you')
would be interpreted as a less than serious attempt at biasing the addressee's
assessment of the qualities described in the text. In Great Britain and other
Western European cultures high information, low persuasion texts include:
CVs, business-to-business technical brochures and catalogues, and institution-
to-institution literature. Whenever the texts within such genres are seen, both
in the source and target language and culture, as objective and based on facts
rather than argumentation and emotions, they are usually translated as closely
as possible, i.e. reproducing the information as accurately as possible, while
adjusting the form to the canons of the same genre in the target language.
High persuasion and low information genres, on the other hand, include
most business-to-consumer texts, especially ads. Such texts tend to rely more
Ira Torresi 27
on emotional, evocative language which is often used creatively, e.g. in word-

play. When they do convey technical information, they may not be aimed at
informing as much as impressing the addressee, as is evident when pseudo-
technicaljargon is used or scientific-sounding neologisms are specially coined
to promote a given product. Such texts normally require thorough re-writing
or trans-creation to preserve their persuasive effect.
As can be seen from the tentative collocation of some promotional genres
in table 2, however, there are several genres that are located half-way across the
information-to-persuasion ratio continuum. Additionally, it should be pointed
out that there may be persuasive elements in the most informative of texts, and
conversely, even the most persuasive texts may include facts and data. What
kind of strategy should one adopt in such cases? Here agility (§ 2.1) comes to
the translator's aid: as will be seen in the following chapter, informative texts
can suddenly shift to a persuasive style and vice-versa, and such shifts can occur
several times in a single text, paragraph, or even sentence, requiring a prompt
adjustment of strategies from literal to creative translation, and back.
Example 3
The following two-page spreads were respectively circulated on the British and
Italian press (mainly women S magazines) in 1999. rotice the different visual
encoding ofthe product S main ingredient in the two eGIs (computer-generated
images) in the small boxes
Table 2. Visual indication ofthe collocation ofdifferent promotional genres

on the information-to-persuasion ratio continuum
B2C
cv. brod\ures
personal promOCIC:tl
promOCIC:tl ~~1"
promotion promOCIC:tl
promOCIC:tl
B2C
B2BII21 promOCIC:tl Ti:M.m~ ad<
brochures promOCIC:tl
web"t..
Max. information Max. persuasion

Min. persuasion Min. information
4. Translating Promotional Material
Self-promotion
This chapter first introduces four interrelated features of promotional texts,
which the translator needs to consider when dealing with this text typology,
i.e. the source, the target, the context of distribution, and the information-to-
persuasion ratio. It then analyses, through real-life translation assignments, the
characteristics of three types of text (CV,job application letter and promotional
personal website) that share the same type of source: individuals who want to
promote themselves as professionals.
4.1 Source, target, context of distribution, and information-

to-persuasion ratio
Why is it particularly important to assess the source, the target, the context
of distribution, and the information-to-persuasion ratio when translating pro-
motional material? Knowing the source - where a promotional text comes
from, or for whom it speaks - is vital not only to correctly assess the client's
potentially hidden agenda (see chapter 2), but also because certain categories
of persons or organizations have typical ways of using language, or addressing
their clients. In Italy, for instance, public institutions and those who want to
be associated with the public sector by their target audience/readership tend
to use a rather impersonal, unemotional style when promoting their services,
especially in sensitive fields such as healthcare. In their promotional texts, then,
it is likely that the information-to-persuasion ratio will be oriented towards
information, so that the overall impression is that the receiver of the text is
being informed rather than persuaded to use a service. This is precisely what
triggers persuasion in Italian users, because they expect an unemotional style
from that type of source, and because they tend to associate it with objectiv-
ity and reliability, which is important in the scientific or medical sphere. In
this chapter, sources will be categorized as: single individuals, as in personal
promotion, private companies, as in business-to-business (B2B) or business-
to-consumer (B2C) promotion, and institutions, as in institution-to-institution
(121) or institution-to-user (12U) promotion. Institutions include public enti-
ties, NGOs, or even private companies that aim at being identified with public
organizations, usually to partake of their authoritativeness.
Knowing the target, i.e. whom the text aims at persuading, is important
because it helps us make specific practical choices about the kind oflanguage
we should use. For instance, as pointed out in § 2.2., the definition of the target
may be essential for decisions about the gender, number, register and lexical
complexity to be used in the target text. Target identification is also essential
30 Translating Promotional Material: Self-promotion
to define the values and/or fears that are employed in texts with high promo-
tion and low information content (see table 2 in chapter 3); this is especially
important for copywriters and market researchers, but translators, too, should
be aware that target characteristics may vary across markets and cultures, and
sometimes it may be useful to warn commissioners that the product/service
benefits present in the source text may not work in the target culture (see
chapter 8). In this book, targets are categorized as collective entities, such as
businesses or public organizations (as in B2B or 121 promotion), or individuals
(as in B2C or 12U promotion).
The relationship between the source and the target is equally important.
In some cases, it helps us assess the client's agenda, which often has to do
with power relations. For instance, 121 promotional communication usually
proceeds from the dependent or funded organization to the principal or fund-
ing one. The main purpose of such communication, therefore, will be that of
showing the target that the source of the text is worth the support it receives
(or more), even if the client labels the purpose of the text as 'informative' in
the brief. In more general terms, however, the relationship between the source
and the target is essential for establishing a correct information-to-persuasion
ratio (§ 3.3.), that is to say, the amount of information regarding what is being
promoted that is shared by both the source and the target. If the target read-
ers already know the promoted product/service, and have very well-defined
needs that cannot be easily changed (as usually happens in B2B genres, for
instance), then they will expect very specific information. Not complying with
such expectations - for example choosing a boastful or argumentative style
rather than a factual and technical one - might irritate the target and undermine
the source's reliability. In B2C promotion, on the other hand, the target is not
likely to know what is being promoted yet, and hislher needs and desires are
assumed to be induced or manipulated by the promotion itself. This justifies
the use of a more openly promotional, less informative style.
Another factor that influences the encoder's and the translator's choices
is the context of distribution, meaning the space (either physical or virtual) in
which the text is circulated. The amount of other semiotic stimuli, especially
other promotional texts, that occur at the same time or in the same space as
our text tells us how hard the text will have to fight to get the target's atten-
tion. This information, too, helps us assess how far we should go towards the
promotion end of the information-to-promotion ratio, using both verbal and
non-verbal means, to give our text a chance to be seen among its potential
competitors.
The last (but by no means least) factor that we will take into account is
the information-to-persuasion ratio. As is clear from the previous discussion,
it is a consequence of all the elements listed above: it is influenced by the type
of source and target, their mutual relationship, and the context of distribution.
Ira Torresi 31
Moreover, for certain promotional genres or sub-genres, it varies substantially

across cultures, depending on specific textual conventions. For instance, the
promotion of private healthcare or educational services is deeply influenced
by the country's economic history: in countries where government-funded
systems are more widespread and/or are recognized to provide higher qual-
ity than private entities, private schools or healthcare providers will usually
adopt a factual I2U, rather than a boastful B2C, style which, on the other
hand, may be favoured by the same kind of sources in those countries where
public services are non-existent or seen as less efficient. In such cases, special
attention should be devoted to relevant target culture conventions, and, if
necessary, raise or reduce the amount of promotional boost contained in the
text. Generally speaking, however, if the source and target cultures share similar
conventions (as usually happens in international B2B promotion, for instance),
the translator is required to treat factual, neutral information as an anchor
that should be manipulated as little as possible (i.e. translated as accurately as
possible), so as to avoid the risk of the text going adrift and missing the target.
On the other hand, less informative, more promotional texts or parts of texts
can be trans-created, provided that the overall amount of boost is preserved,
otherwise the text may either outrun or fall short of the target.
4.2 Self-promotion
The texts analysed in this chapter share the same type of source: individuals
who want to promote themselves as professionals, whether they are applying
for a job or trying to reach new customers for their activity. Translating this
kind of text is not as unusual as one may think. In the global market, people
may seek ajob abroad, and require a professional translator's services if they
recognize the importance of a well-written CV and cover letter. Moreover,
professionals who use the Internet to make connections with their prospective
clients or customers may need a multilingual website because they operate in a
multilingual area, or they may be seeking to expand their market internation-
ally by having their web sites translated into foreign languages.
Individuals are usually aware of the competition they are exposed to.
Their drive towards visibility, however, is usually mitigated by the need to
build a reliable image, one that does not give away the professional's naturally
limited resources (after all, they are individuals, not a company or institution)
or, even worse, their limited knowledge of the conventions the target reader-
ship is used to.
The following sub-sections will examine the characteristics of self-
promotion texts, dividing them according to whether their main targets are
potential employers (as in the case ofCVs and job application letters, which
will be treated separately because they follow different textual conventions),
or potential clients/customers (as in personal websites).
4.2.1 CVs
Curricula vitae are highly fonnal and standardized texts. Different conven-
tions for CV writing exist in different countries; within the European Union,
to reach formal equivalence and thus grant better understanding of the
skills and abilities of applicants coming from different member states, the
Europass CV model (http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/europasslhome/ver-
navlEuropasss+DocumentslEuropass+CV/navigate.action) is currently used.
It is a template, written in all the languages of the Union, which caters for the
needs of those who apply for ajob in both the public and private sector across
the EU, both in their own country and abroad. If the person one is translating
for falls within this category, then suggesting the Europass template for the
relevant target language may be a good idea (with the proviso that in some
sectors, such as academia, it may not be appropriate).
There are cases, however, in which the client may not wish to resort to
a fixed model or template, either because it does not cater for hislher specific
needs (e.g. a freelancer who wishes to list all hislher working experiences) or
because slhe knows the potential employer as someone who may appreciate
people who do not necessarily confonn with the standard. In such cases, it is
always better to make it clear that the responsibility for such deviation from
the canon lies with the client, not the translator. Moreover, it is advisable that
the degree of deviation from the standard is assessed and negotiated with the
client depending on the kind of target, the kind of job that the client is ap-
plying for, the extent to which the client is sure of hislher knowledge of the
potential employer or the person who will be receiving and selecting the CVs,
and other important details that at first sight may seem minor. For instance,
the client may want to mark out key elements (the ones that would be in bold
and/or capital letters in the Europass and other traditional CV s) in dark red or
blue rather than through other graphic conventions, but can slhe be sure that
the person who receives the CV will not print it out, or photocopy it, in black
and white, thus missing all emphasis?
At any rate, there are certain conventions that are best retained if the
client wants to convey an image of professionalism and reliability, which
are generally appreciated virtues in job applicants or freelancers seeking to
expand their client pool. For instance, graphic consistency should be sought
throughout the CV, with as few changes as possible in fonnatting (e.g. type
and size of fonts, spacing, alignment, etc); bright or varied colouring and fancy
graphic styles should be avoided, even if the context of distribution of CV s is
usually characterized by fierce competition; and infonnation units should be
clearly separated, so that each relevant item can be easily spotted on the page
and identified in tenns of infonnation type. Generally speaking, when writ-
ing or translating a CV, typography and layout play an essential role (Schopp
Ira Torresi 33
2002). Even if CVs are usually seen as a kind of text where the infonnation
conveyed is more important than the style of the language that conveys it,
the very existence of rather strict semiotic and linguistic conventions for CVs
bears witness to the contrary.
Titius Caius's CV (see example 4a) is an illustration of CV translation
which entailed substantial negotiation with the client. I was commissioned
the translation of the CV into Italian by the end client's wife, who owned a
translation agency. Translation choices were negotiated with the end client
either directly or through his wife. The text is reproduced faithfully except
for proper names, which have obviously been changed.
Example 4a
English CV of a German professional working in the banking system
Curriculum Vitae Dr. Titius Caius

Steubenstrafie 16, D-47100 Fantatown, Gennany
Phone: +49 777 66 55 444, Mobile +49 111222333 55
Fax +49 6668899000, e-mail: drtitiuscaius@aol.com
Statement A professional with a sustained record of achievement
within the financial sector. Quick to grasp new ideas and
concepts and to develop innovative and creative solu-
tions to problems. A team player with highly developed
communication and people skills. Proficient in English,
Gennan, Italian and Spanish and good knowledge of
French and Luxemburgish
Career History
10/03 - present PARIBAS FUNDSHUB, Luxembourg

to/03-present: Manager, Dealing and Client Sencices
Team (8 people)
• Supervise and manage all operational processes of a
Fundsupennarket dealing and client service desk (UK,
Gennan and Swiss Market) on a daily basis
• Co-operated in the start-up and production set up of a
Fundsupennarket in Gennany with special emphasis
on taxation aspects
• Involved in business analysis and development of new
functions and applications
• Validate and ensure the application of internal proce-
dures and guidelines
• Recruited and integrated a number of new Team
members
Major achievements: Efficiently re-engineered oper-

ations to enhance performance and improve customer
satisfaction
06/01 - 09/03 AGENT INVESTMENT OPERATIONS S.A.,

Luxembourg
05/02 - 09/03: Team Leader, International Team
• Overseeing all daily operational processes in the
transfer agency area (incl. Dealing, Registration, Euro-
clear/Clearstream operations, trailer fee management,
distribution processing etc.)
• Managing relationships with key TA clients and assist-
ing in winning and integrating new TA clients
• Managing a team of 6 TA Administrators - recruit-
ment, motivation, appraisals, delegation of duties
Major achievements: Restructured work flow in the
transfer agencies in Luxembourg and Dublin and ensured
full promotion and utilisation of electronic commerce
applications
ASSET INVESTMENT OPERATIONS S.A.,

Luxembourg
06/01 - 04/02: Administrator
• Delivered and improved reliable shareholder record
keeping
• Implemented an internal communication program
• Instructed and monitored new staff members
Major achievements: Reorganised reconciliation of
accounts.
Designed and implemented new procedures in the
transfer agency area
10/97 - 05/01 UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN, Berlin

05/98-05/01: Academic Assistant
• Researched and published on Spanish and Italian

Culture and Literature
• Managed human and financial resources
• Co-ordinated national and international symposiums
• Wrote course design documents
Major achievements: Published several articles and
held conferences.
Ph.D. degree with highest honours
Ira Torresi 35
10/97 - 05/01: Lecturer for Spanish & Italian

Literature
• Taught Italian and Spanish literature
• Prepared and scored student exams, tutored and ad-
vised students
• Lectured on interpersonal communication topics
Major achievements: Organised and led internet and
HTML workshops.
Developed training schemes for lecturers.
08/96 - 02/97 TRAINER AT PHOENIX INSTITUTE (Institute for

Job Information and Training, Berlin)
• Developed and implemented training programs
• Advised clients and conducted negotiations with
institutional clients
04/88 - 08/00 GUIDE AT BERLIN TOURIST INFORMATION
• Guided tourist groups and translated publications into
Spanish and Italian
• Organised training for guides
Education
06/96 - 03/02 Ph.D. in Spanish Literature (University of Berlin)

Grade: summa cum laude
02/00 - 03/00 Research activities at the Universidad Nacional Au-
t6noma de Argentina, Argentina
03/96 M.A. in Political Science, Romance Philology and
History (University of Berlin)
10/92 - 10/93 Studies in Political Science and Italian Philology at the
University of Bologna (Italy)
10/90 - 05/96 Studies in History, Romance Philology and Political
Science at the University of Berlin
08/86 - 05/90 Berliner Gymnasium Berlin, school-leaving certificate:
Abitur
08/87 - 07/88 Exchange student in Argentina
08/80 - 06/86 Staatliche Realschule Fantasberg, school-leaving cer-
tificate: Mittlere Reife
Language Skills German (mother tongue); Proficient in English, Italian,

Spanish; good language skills in French and Luxem-
burgish
Communication • Group leading and event management practice
Skills • Published several articles and a Ph.D. thesis
• Extensive experience in public speaking and lecturing

• Strong multinational culture formed through extensive
travel and living in Argentina and Italy for more than
two years
PC Skills Very good working skills in Office programs (Word,

Excel and MS Project), in the DTP Area (e.g. Power-
point, Photoshop), as well as in the Internet Publishing
Area (HTML, Homepage, Frontpage)
Personal Details Nationality: German

Date of birth: 12th February 1970
Place of birth: Fantasberg, Germany
Civil status: married, two children
Example 4b
Translation of 4a
CURRICULUM DOTT. TITIUS CAIUS

VITAE
Dati personali Titius Caius

Steubenstrafie 16, D-47100 Fantatown, Germania
Tel: 00497776655444, Cell: 0049 111222333 55
Fax: 0049 666 88 99 000, E-mail:
drtitiuscaius@aol.com
Nato a Fantasberg (Germania) il12 febbraio 1970
Coniugato, due bambini
Profilo Comprovata esperienza nel settore finanziario, prontezza

nell' apprendere nuovi concetti e nell' elaborare soluzio-
ni innovative e creative. Propensione per il lavoro di
squadra, elevate competenze sociali e organizzative. Ot-
tima conoscenza di inglese, tedesco, italiano, spagnolo;
buona conoscenza di francese e lussemburghese
Formazione
06/96 - 03/02 Dottorato di ricerca in Letteratura Spagnola (Uni-
versita di Berlino), con eccellenza
02/00 - 03/00 Visiting Scholar presso la Universidad Nacional Au-
t6noma de Argentina, Buenos Aires
03/96 Laurea magistrale in Scienze Politiche, Filologia
Romanza e Storia (Universita di Berlino)
10/92 - 10/93 Studi di Scienze Politiche e Filologia Italiana presso
l'Universita di Bologna
Ira Torresi 37
08/86 - 05/90 Maturita classica (Abitur) presso il Berliner Gymnasium

di Berlino
08/87 - 07/88 Scambio studentesco con l' Argentina
08/80 - 06/86 Licenza media (Mittlere Reife) presso la Staatliche
Realschule di Fantasberg
Esperienze
professionali
10/03 - oggi PARIBAS FUNDSHUB, Lussemburgo

Responsabile unita di negoziazione e servizi alia
clientela (8 persone)
• Supervisione e amministrazione costante di tutti i
processi gestionali relativi a un'unita di negoziazione
e servizi alIa clientela (mercati britannico, tedesco e
svizzero) di un supermercato di fondi
• Assistenza all' avviamento e al set up produttivo di un
supermercato di fondi in Germania, con particolare
riferimento agli aspetti fiscali
• Contributo alIa business analysis e alIa creazione di
nuove funzioni e applicazioni
• Approvazione e controllo dell' applicazione di proce-
dure e linee-guida interne
• Assunzione e integrazione di diversi componenti
dell'unita
Principali successi: Efficace riorganizzazione delle
operazioni nel senso di una migliore performance e per
soddisfare al meglio Ie esigenze della clientela
06/01 - 09/03 AGENT INVESTMENT OPERATIONS S.A.,

Lussemburgo
05/02 - 09/03: Team Leader unita operativita
estera
• Supervisione costante di tutti i processi gestionali

dell'area Transfer Agency (ufficio registro e trasfe-
rimento), incluse Ie operazioni di negoziazione,
iscrizione, Euroclear/Clearstream, gestione commis-
sioni di intermediazione, distribuzione ecc.)
• Gestione dei rapporti con i principali clienti della
Transfer Agency e contributo all' acquisizione e inte-
grazione di nuovi clienti nella stessa area
• Gestione di un team di 6 amministratori dell'area
Transfer Agency: assunzioni, motivazione, valutazio-
ne, assegnazione delle mansioni
Principali successi: Ristmtturazione del work flow

nelle Transfer Agencies di Lussemburgo e Dublino;
promozione e garanzia dell'utilizzo a pieno regime delle
applicazioni di e-commerce
06/01 - 04/02: Amministratore
• Tenuta e ottirnizzazione dell'archivio azionisti, man-
sione svolta con la massima affidabilita
• Implementazione di un programma di comunicazione
interna
• Tutoring e supervisione di nuovi colleghi
Principali successi: Riorganizzazione dei controlli della
concordanza dei conti.
Elaborazione e implementazione di nuove procedure
nell'area Transfer Agency
10/97 - 05/01 UNIVERSITA DI BERLINO, Berlino
05/98-05/01: Dottorando titolare di borsa
• Ricerche e pubblicazioni accaderniche su Letter-
atura e Cultura Spagnola e Italiana
• Gestione risorse umane e finanziarie
• Organizzazione conferenze nazionali e intemazionali
• Compilazione di programmi di corsi universitari
Principali successi: Pubblicazione di vari articoli
accadernici e partecipazione a convegni. Dottorato di
ricerca conseguito con eccellenza
10/97- 05/01: Docente di letteratura spagnola e italiana
• Corsi di letteratura spagnola e italiana
• Preparazione degli studenti agli esarni e loro valutazio-
ne, attivita di tutoring e orientamento
• Lezioni sulla comunicazione interpersonale
Principali successi: Organizzazione e direzione di
workshop sull'uso di Internet e dellinguaggio HTML.
Ideazione di piani di formazione per docenti
08/96 - 02/97 ISTITUTO PHOENIX (Istituto per I'Informazione
e la Formazione Professionale, Berlino): Istruttore
• Ideazione e implementazione di programmi di
formazione
• Consulenza ai clienti e negoziazioni con i clienti
istituzionali
04/88 - 08/00 UFFICIO INFORMAZIONI TURISTICHE DI
BERLINO: guida turistica
Ira Torresi 39
• Guida turistica per gmppi e traduzione di pubbli-

cazioni in spagnolo e italiano
• Organizzazione della formazione delle guide
turistiche
Lingue straniere Tedesco (madrelingua); ottima conoscenza di inglese,
spagnolo e italiano; buona conoscenza di francese e
lussemburghese
Competenze • Esperienza di moli direzionali e organizzazione

sociali e eventi
organizzative • Pubblicazione di vari articoli accademici e della tesi
di dottorato
• Esperienza pluriennale di public speaking e docenza
universitaria
• Cultura di forte impronta internazionale, formata gra-
zie a frequenti viaggi e lunghi soggiorni in Argentina
e Italia, questi ultimi della durata di oltre due anni
Competenze In ambito lavorativo, uso assiduo del pacchetto Office
informatiche (Word, Excel e MS Project), di software DTP (come
Powerpoint e Photoshop) e Web editing (HTML,
Homepage, Frontpage)
Although the client was German, he had developed his CV in English, as he had
worked for multinational financial corporations and was seeking ajob outside
Germany. In particular, he hoped to be employed by an Italian bank, with which
he had already arranged an interview, and move to Italy. He believed that his
knowledge ofItaly and the Italian culture, which emerged from the CV itself,
could be an advantage in obtaining the job, but did not feel up to writing an
Italian CV that could persuade the potential employer that he could function
smoothly in an all-Italian workplace, in other words that he 'thought like an
Italian'. Accordingly, the first and main input I received was to make the CV
'as Italian as possible'.
After reading the source text, I asked the client whether he wished to
comply with Europass standards, as the CV clearly broadly followed them
in some respects (for instance, in the general graphic layout composed of a
left-hand column bearing the labels of the CV sections, and a larger right-
hand column describing the contents) but also differed from them in other
details (for instance, in the Europass CV, labels in the left-hand column are
much more detailed and sometimes redundant, as they identify items such as
'surname', 'name', 'address' and the like). The client answered that he had
not chosen a Europass CV because he wanted to be recognized as somebody
who was capable of taking independent decisions, and he knew that his
potential employers would appreciate this approach in connection with the

kind of position he was applying for.
After this second input, I then proceeded to re-organize the information
structure of the CV in such a way that it would seem logical to an Italian reader.
When I had a clear idea of how to arrange the target text, I contacted the client
with a series of proposals, some of which were accepted, some other rejected.
These proposals are listed below; the result of the negotiation can be seen in
the target text (see example 4b).
The first step was to group contact information and personal details
together and place them directly under the applicant's name (originally the
contact information was placed under the applicant's name, whereas personal
information was provided at the end of the CV). It is true that, from an appli-
cant's point of view, contact information may be the most important item in
a CV, because the purpose of the CV is in fact to have the potential employer
call or write back to the applicant. It is also the kind of information one would
find on a business card, which is a promotional text in its own right. From the
employer's point of view, however, it is also useful to know the applicant's
age, nationality, and whether s/he has a family. Having to look through the CV
in order to find such information may be frustrating when its standard position
would be together with the contact data (see the Europass model). The client
agreed with this rearrangement.
The second consideration was linked to the 'Statement' originally placed
directly under the contact data. It summarizes the entire CV in a few short
sentences, highlighting the applicant's best qualities with a positively con-
noted language that is quite unusual in Italian CVs, which are normally more
oriented towards a neutral, informative style rather than rhetorical or lexical
boost, as can be seen from the tentative collocation of this genre along the
information-to-persuasion ratio continuum in table 2 in chapter 3. This kind
of language is usual in English cover letters; in this case, however, the client
did not wish to enclose a job application letter, which he knew would prob-
ably be discarded, but stated his intention of also preserving the same kind of
summary in the Italian version of the CY.
I therefore proceeded to adjust the style of the statement according to
what would be found in an Italian job application letter (§ 4.2.2.), making
it as impersonal as possible. This was done mainly at the grammatical and
lexical level. At the grammatical level, the logical subject and theme of all
sentences was changed from the applicant: A professional ... qUick ... a team
player ... proficient to his skills and abilities, transformed from adjectives into
nouns: 'Comprovata esperienza ... prontezza nell'apprendere ... propensione
allavoro di squadra ... ottima conoscenza' [Proven experience ... readiness to
learn ... inclination towards team -work. .. proficiency]. In this way, the focus
was shifted from the person to his qualities, which were presented as facts. The
Ira Torresi 41
same strategy was employed throughout the text, for instance changing verbs
into nouns in the career history sections. e.g. Efficiently re-engineered oper-
ations, with the applicant as logical subject, became an impersonal 'Efficace
riorganizzazione delle operazioni ' [effective re-engineering of operations].
At the lexical level, the promotional boost inherent in words such as new,
creative, innovative, and highly developed was preserved: 'nuovi', 'innovative',
'creative', 'elevate'. On the other hand, the Statement, which implies a subject
that states, namely the applicant, became a more objective 'Profilo' [profile]:
something that is stated about the applicant by an external, although indeter-
minate, logical subject. Moreover, the sustained record of achievement, once
again something that implies the applicant's active role in achieving success
in his work, was turned into 'comprovata esperienza', where the applicant's
experience is backed by some indeterminate material proof or authoritative
testimony. The omission of the achievement element is a clear loss of boost,
but makes the target text seem much more objective and less boastful, fol-
lowing the Italian stylistic conventions for CV s and cover letters. In fact, CV s
and cover letters are two examples of promotional genres where conventions
concerning the information-to-persuasion ratio vary across cultures. In such
cases, then, decreasing emotional boost to bring it within the target culture's
conventional limits (or increasing it, as might be the case when translating
from Italian into other languages) may become necessary to preserve the text's
overall promotional purpose.
Following the same logic, the Major achievements items in the Career
History sections should have been reworked into the rest of the text, or at least
their graphic emphasis should have been eliminated or attenuated. The client,
however, chose to keep them lexically and graphically conspicuous because
he knew the target reader as someone who would appreciate a summary of
what the applicant had achieved in different workplaces in addition to, and
possibly more than, an account of what responsibilities he had covered, so my
suggestion on this third point was dismissed on valid grounds.
The fourth major difference concerning the adjustment of the information
structure of the text was the anticipation of the education section, which was
relocated before the career history. This was not done in order to comply with
conventional Italian standards, but to highlight the applicant's high educational
level (he held a PhD) and inclination towards international relations, as shown
by his in-depth knowledge of Romance languages and cultures. The client
agreed with this strategy.
In translating the section, however, I realized that most of the items in
the education list were redundant, as in Italian CV s it is customary to include
only the degrees and diplomas obtained after each cycle of studies (e.g. BA,
MA, and PhD) and not the period of study that leads to them. Additionally,
lower education level such as primary and junior high school (Mittlere Reife
in Gennan, 'Licenza Media' in Italian) are generally not accounted for, as they
do not qualifY the applicant's specialization in any way. At this point, however,
the client had already received two e-mail inquiries, one about the Europass
model, and one consisting in a list of proposals for the rearrangement of the
infonnation structure. Not wishing to overtax the client's patience, I took the
initiative of omitting the period of university studies (10/90 - 05/96), explain-
ing in the e-mail that accompanied the target text that the infonnation could
be easily retrieved from the items about his MA and high school diploma. For
the rest, for the sake of completeness I did translate the Mittlere Reife item,
but advised the client to take it out, and left the start and finish dates of each
period of study even if the corresponding items stated the kind of diploma
obtained (e.g. 'Maturita classica'), suggesting that only the finish dates be
used except for exchange programs with foreign institutions.
Clumsy choices like these could have been avoided by further negotiation,
or much better, by including relevant proposals in the second e-mail inquiry.
By including suggestions about the final editing of the text in the accompany-
ing e-mail, I placed the responsibility for the corresponding choices upon the
client, as I would have done by negotiating them beforehand; in the latter case,
however, the target text would at least been a truly turnkey version. As usu-
ally happens in professional practice, such considerations had to be balanced
against other ones, such as time constraints (the deadline, and the lack of time
to draft a first version that would have helped spot the need to rearrange the
text at the micro level) and the wish not to irritate the client with too many
questions about what s/he may perceive as mere details of translation.
Example 4 is a good illustration of negotiation strategies and introduces
an aspect that will be brought to the fore in the following section: the need
to adjust the amount of boost used in personal promotion to the conventions
that apply in the target culture.
4.2.2 Job application letters
Job application letters have the same source, target, and context of distribution
as CVs. Usually, they actually accompany curricula vitae, in which case they
may be tenned cover letters. In the e-mail era, cover letters may be included
in the text of the message, whereas the CV would nonnally be attached as a
separate file. This can have an impact on the length of the cover letter, as e-
mailed letters are usually shorter than hard copies sent via surface mail.
Like CVs, job application letters are fonnal texts that follow culture- and
language-specific conventions. It is therefore advisable that in translating such
texts attention not be paid only to rendering the factual infonnation which
makes up most of the letter (and makes it a high infonnation, low persuasion
kind of text in comparison with other promotional genres, see table 2), but
Ira Torresi 43
also to the functional equivalence of the target text as a persuasive piece of

writing. For instance, it is not unusual to find enthusiastic and self-assertive
statements in American English cover letters, which are not necessarily bound
to the neutral objectivity that is normally found in CVs, and also follow a
less schematic style. American guides to cover letter writing (see for instance
http://ow1.english.purdue.edulowllresource/527/03/) suggest that the body
paragraphs contain 'strong claims' that the applicant is the right candidate for
the employer, and is better than others. In Italian cover letters, on the other
hand, even in the face of less schematic, more argumentative language, one
would more often find an objectivity and neutrality that reflect those contained
in the CV itself, and seem much less assertive than American letters in the
description of the applicant's qualities. This difference equals a shift of job
application letters along the information-to-persuasion ratio continuum across
languages and cultures, which should be taken into account in translating this
kind of text.
The tendency towards less assertive CVs and cover letters is by no means
limited to Italian linguistic and cultural conventions. This is how the Dutch
authors Hofstede and Hofstede (2005: 116) describe the matter from their own
point of view:
American applicants, to Dutch eyes, oversell themselves. [... ] Dutch ap-

plicants, in American eyes, undersell themselves. [... ] To an uninitiated
American interviewer, an uninitiated Dutch applicant comes across as
a sucker. To an uninitiated Dutch interviewer, an uninitiated American
applicant comes across as a braggart.
Hofstede and Hofstede explain the difference between assertiveness and

modesty on the workplace with a specific cultural dimension that they call
"masculinity vs. femininity", and provide a list of74 countries and regions with
their respective Masculinity Index Scores (ibid.: 120-121). Their conclusions,
however, should be taken with a pinch of salt: Italy seems to rank higher than
the US on the masculinity scale, but Italian CVs and cover letters seem to be
more on the Dutch than on the American side.
Examples 5, 6, 7a and 8a below are the result of a rewriting process
based on sample letters found in various online and offline sources. Even if
they are not real texts, they reflect the conventions by which cover letters are
written in American English and in Italian, since the texts that were used to
draft them are in fact produced and circulated as models to be followed by
applicants in the respective languages and cultures. They can therefore be
used as parallel texts to compare respective textual features. More examples
for the same and other languages can be easily found in professional writing
manuals and online career guides.
Taken two by two, same-language examples display obvious differences

(for instance, example 6 is clearly shorter and more informal than example
8a, and can be used for e-mail transmission as well as surface mail). Overall,
however, they share several features. In the two American examples (5 and
7a), self-assertiveness emerges clearly from sentences and phrases such as My
levels of enthusiasm, experience and team-building skills provide an excel-
lent match for the requirements of this position; I performed an active and
significant role JOrm idab Ie challenge; dailv contact with dozens ofcustomers,
e(foctivelvprioritize tasks, optimize my time and maximize the results of my
efforts (example 7a). Some of the words underlined here (excellent,formidable,
optimize, and maximize) are instances of what Teh (1986) and Bhatia (1993:
51-52) call lexical boost, that is to say, words with an inherently superlative
meaning that are used to boost the applicant's qualities without resorting to
grammatical devices such as the grammatical superlative form.
Lexical boost proper is not found at all in the two Italian examples. We
only find some degree of boost, but with no inherently superlative words, in
'buon livello' [good level], referred to the applicant's knowledge of English
(example 6) and, in example 8a, one instance of 'particolare interesse' [special
interest] (example 8a), which, however, does not count as a quality or past
experience, and one 'importanti istituti bancari' [important banks]. (Note that
in the rest of the book, the term boost will be used in this broad sense rather
than in Teh and Bhatia's specific one, for which the term lexical boost is used
instead.)
Verbs are perhaps the most telling elements with regard to self-assertiveness:
in example 5, we find I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that
my characteristics match such requirements, whose closest match in example
8a is 'spero che la mia formazione e Ie mie esperienze lavorative possano in-
teressarLa' [I hope that my education and professional career can be ofinterest
for you']. The style of the Italian example would certainly seem too weak to an
American employer, whereas the American style would appear over-confident
to an Italian reader. A functional translation of letters such as those contained
in the examples, then, would imply shifting the position of the text along the
information-to-persuasion ratio continuum. American source texts intended
for an Italian audience would need to be pruned of some of their boost, which
would tip them closer to the maximum-information, minimum-persuasion
end of the line. Conversely, a job application letter written by an Italian for
an American potential employer would probably need to be trans-created in
such a way as to sound more persuasive; the operation would in tum require
close cooperation and much negotiation of choices between the translator and
the client. Two possible results of such processes, in both directions, can be
seen in example 7b and example 8b.
Ira Torresi 45
Example 5
American English job application letter
789 Rhododendron St.,

Madison, WI 53703
February 19,2008
Ms. Jennifer White

Human Resources Manager
Health & Safety Corporation
PO. Box 411
Houston, TX 77002
Dear Ms. White:
Prof. John Doe, a consultant to your firm and my Marketing professor, has
informed me that Health & Safety Corp. is looking for someone with excellent
communication skills and leadership background to train for a management posi-
tion. I believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that my characteristics
match such requirements. In addition, I should like to mention how my recent work
experience makes me a particularly strong candidate for the position.
As a promoter for Fireproof Textiles at the 2007 Birmingham (UK) Safety

& Health Expo, I discussed Fireproof Textiles' products with marketing and
sales personnel from allover the world. I also researched and wrote reports on
the development of new products and compiled information on safety apparel
trends. The knowledge of the health and safety industry I gained from this posi-
tion would help me analyze how H&S products can meet the needs of regular
and prospective customers, and the valuable experience I gained in promotion,
sales, and marketing would help me use that information effectively.
I would welcome the opportunity to discuss my qualifications with you. If you

are interested, please contact me at(lll) 222-3333 orby e-mail atmargegreen@
server. com. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss the ways my skills
may best serve Health & Safety Corp.
Sincerely yours,
MaJjorie Green
Enclosure: resume
Example 6
Italian job application letter
Spett.le Macchine Sri,

mi chiamo Eugenio Bianchi, sono un ingegnere elettrico con indirizzo au-
tomazione industriale, ho 26 anni ed attualmente sto svolgendo servizio civile
che terminen't il 30/07/08.
Sono interessato ad approfondire sia argomenti tecnici sia argomenti di
marketing.
Durante gli studi universitari ho studiato per sei mesi in Gran Bretagna come vin-
citore di borsa Socrates. Questa esperienza mi ha consentito di imparare l'inglese
ad un buon livello.
Sono una persona curiosa cui piace viaggiare, incontrare nuove persone ed
imparare.
Vi autorizzo all'utilizzo dei miei dati personali ai sensi del D. 19s. 196/03.
Cordiali saluti
Eugenio Bianchi
Example 7a
American English application letter
RODERICK BROWN
789 Rhododendron St., Office: (000) 555-6666
Madison, WI 53703 Mobile: (000) 777-8888
February 19,2008
Letter of Application
To Whom It May Concern:
With reference to the employment opportunity advertised on your website, I
have noted that the Senior Account Manager position you are offering strongly
appeals both to my experience and personal goals. My levels of enthusiasm,
experience and team-building skills provide an excellent match for the require-
ments of this position.
As an Account Manager at Smith & Smith, I performed an active and significant

role in the development of new business relationships. I met the formidable
challenge of coordinating daily contact with dozens of customers and suppli-
ers by learning to effectively prioritize tasks, optimize my time and maximize
Ira Torresi 47
the results of my efforts. Regardless of workload, I took care that each contact
received an appropriate level of attention as to portray them as the only organ-
ization that mattered to S&S.
Now, I am looking for a new opportunity where I may continue to provide inno-
vative direction as a member of your team. I will welcome a personal interview
at your convenience to discuss this opportunity with you. I can be reached at the
contacts above and look forward to hearing from you soon.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Roderick Brown
Example 7b
Translation of example 7a into Italian
RODERICK BROWN
789 Rhododendron St., Ufficio: (000) 555-6666
Madison, WI 53703 Cellulare: (000) 777-8888
191212008
Lettera di presentazione
Spett.le <company's name>,
Scrivo in risposta all'annuncio di lavoro relativo alIa posizione di Senior Ac-
count Manager pubblicato suI vostro sito web.
Nelle mie mansioni di Account Manager presso la Smith & Smith, mi sono
occupato della presa di contatti con nuovi clienti e fornitori, gestendo consi-
derevoli moli di lavoro su base quotidiana. Questa esperienza mi ha insegnato
a ottimizzare tempo e risultati, e a mantenere un'immagine aziendale positiva
attraverso una cura co stante e personalizzata delle relazioni esteme.
Sono una persona che si dedica con entusiasmo allavoro e possiede spiccate
doti di team-building.
Spero che Ie mie esperienze possano essere di vostro interesse. Rimango a di-
sposizione ai recapiti contenuti nell' intestazione della presente per un eventuale
colloquio in merito alIa mia candidatura.
Vi autorizzo all 'utilizzo dei miei dati personali ai sensi del D. 19s. 196/03.
Nell'attesa di un vostro cortese riscontro, vi ringrazio e porgo i miei pili
Cordiali saluti,
Roderick Brown
Example 8a
Italian job application letter
Marcella Rossi
Via Garibaldi, 9
95124 Catania
tel. 095 -333333
Cell. 320-001122334
e-mail marcella.rossi@server.com
Gent. Responsabile del personale,

con la presente desidero sottoporre alIa Sua attenzione il mio curriculum vitae.
Sono laureata in Economia e Commercio e gia durante la formazione accademica
e post laurea ho mostrato particolare interesse per l' analisi economico-quan-
titativa con riguardo agli aspetti matematico-finanziari. Ho successivamente
sviluppato esperienze professionali presso importanti istituti bancari italiani,
nell' ambito del Risk Management e dell' area titoli e derivati.
Spero che la mia formazione e Ie mie esperienze lavorative possano inte-
ressarLa e resto a Sua disposizione per ogni chiarimento in merito alIa mia
candidatura.
Nell'attesa di un Suo cortese cenno di riscontro, porgo i miei migliori saluti.
Vi autorizzo, limitatamente allo scopo per cui Vi scrivo, all'utilizzo dei miei
dati personali ai sensi del D. Igs. 196/03.
Marcella Rossi
Example8b
Translation ofexample 8a into English
Marcella Rossi
Via Garibaldi, 9
95124 Catania
tel. +39 (0)95 -333333
mobile +39 320-001122334
e-mail marcella.rossi@server.com
Dear Human Resources Manager,
Please find enclosed [or 'attached' if the CV is sent via e-mail] a copy of my CV
for your consideration. I believe that my experience and qualifications make me
an ideal candidate for a managerial position in the financial areas of <company's
name>'s business. Other positions in any other areas of your company will also
be considered.
Ira Torresi 49
Ever since my time at University, both before and after my MA in Econom-

ics, I have been developing and cultivating a special interest in quantitative
economic analysis, particularly concerning the application of mathematics
to finance. I have also had the opportunity to effectively put such knowledge
into practice during my professional experience at several major Italian banks,
where I performed an active and significant role in Risk Management as well
as Securities and Derivatives.
I would welcome the opportunity of a personal intelView to discuss how my

qualifications and skills may best selVe <company's name>. To this end, I can be
reached at any time at the contacts above.
Thank you for your time and consideration,
Sincerely,
Marcella Rossi
In example 7b, the first major transformation is the substitution of the

generic salutation To whom it may concern with the company's name. This
operation could be carried out on the source text as well, as the letter is clearly
written for a specific company and, therefore, it does not count as a transla-
tion-driven modification.
When we come to the first paragraph, however, we find that, whereas the
source text states that the position appeals to the applicant, and why he would
be the best person to fill the vacancy, the Italian text only states the subject of
the letter. This is motivated by the fact that in Italian job application letters,
writing that the position for which you are applying is interesting for you
is equal to stating the obvious. Also, it is usually left to the reader to assess
whether the applicant's experiences and characteristics match the requirements
for the position in question. For this reason, the information content (but not the
general attitude, or the boost) of the last part of the first paragraph of example
7a have been postponed to the third and fourth paragraph of 7b.
The reduction of self-assertiveness and boost to a more impersonal, neutral
style is evident in the second paragraph, where the applicant's work experience
is outlined. Here several elements have been omitted, some of them (active and
significant role, formidable challenge, effectively) carry a type of boost that
in an Italian setting would be more appropriate in a past employer's letter of
recommendation. Some others, that shorten the distance between the applicant
and the prospective employer through colloquialisms (e.g., dozens ofcustomers
and suppliers) are generalized in a more formal, although equally boosting,
'considerevoli moli di lavoro' [considerable workloads], which at the same
time partially makes up for the omission of regardless of workloads below.
Similarly, the boosting triad, prioritize tasks - optimize time - maximize
efforts is subsumed in one action verb only, 'ottimizzare tempo e risultati'

[optimize time and results]. The semantic component of the first element that
indicates organizational skills,prioritize tasks, is partly recovered in 'gestendo
[managing] considerevoli moli di lavoro' above. In the last sentence of the
second paragraph, the reason why the company should care about its contacts
feeling as the only organization that mattered is made explicit in 'mantenere
un'immagine aziendale positiva' [maintain a positive corporate image]. This
operation helps shift the focus from the emotional impact of the applicant's
work to the importance of such work for the company's interests.
The third paragraph of example 7b is an integration that recovers the
semantic content of part of the last paragraph in example 7a, My levels of
enthusiasm ... and team-building skills. The relocation was necessary because
in Italian formal professional communication, personal characteristics are
usually regarded as less important than work experience, and occupy the last
part ofCVs andjob application letters.
The rest of the last sentence of the first paragraph in the source text, ...
provide an excellent match for the requirements of this position, has been
relocated as the first sentence of the fourth paragraph of the target text, where
it introduces the closure. Notably, the self-assertive original wording has been
changed into a much more hypothetical 'Spero che Ie mie esperienze possano
essere di vostro interesse' [I hope that my experience may be of interest to
you]. In Italian applications, such non-committal strategies do not denote a
weak personality, but are widely used to make professional relations more
impersonal, less loaded with emotions. This is not only meant to make things
easier on both parts in case the application is turned down, but is also motivated
by the traditional clear-cut separation between the kind of language one uses
for professional purposes and the one that is used in personal life. Emotional
language, even when applied to professional relations, such as in the only
organization that mattered to S&S, is usually avoided in Italian professional
writing, as are colloquialisms and the constant use of boost.
Going back to the first sentence of the fourth paragraph of example 7b,
it actually replaces the sentence that had the same metatextual function of
introducing the closure in the source text, Now, I am looking for a new op-
portunity where I may continue to provide innovative direction as a member
ofyour team, which was omitted. Indeed, it is quite obvious that the applicant
is looking for a job at the company he is addressing, and the only other ele-
ment in the sentence, innovative direction, does not have a formulaic value
or a specific information content that would motivate its translation. It is only
another instance of boost, which would be particularly inappropriate in this
section of the letter, where formality is even higher than in the paragraphs
introducing the applicant (the second and third paragraphs of the target text).
Here, boost and self-assertiveness are actually countered by additional non-
committal strategies, such as in 'per un eventuale colloquio in merito alIa mia
Ira Torresi 51
candidatura' [if the opportunity arises for a possible interview regarding my

application] .
The following paragraph of the target text is a formula that must be added
to Italian cover letters and/or CV s following an act on personal data protection
issued in 1996 and modified in 2003. This takes us back to the importance of
knowing relevant laws and restrictions that apply to the promotional texts we
translate (§ 2.1). Finally, the closure of the letter is highly formal and formulaic,
and does not pose particular translation problems.
The resulting target text is shorter that the source one, although it has more
paragraphs, but, most notably, it contains much less boost, is more formal, and
is worded in such a way that the applicant does not appear over-confident or
even arrogant, as he would probably appear ifhe sent in a more literal transla-
tion of the original text. When working in the opposite direction, of course,
reverse strategies should be employed, or the Italian applicant would fail to
impress the American prospective employer as a self-confident individual with
strong qualities. Example 8b illustrates how this can be done.
Whereas in 7b the first paragraph had to be pruned of boost and the infor-
mation content of its last part postponed to the third and fourth chapters, the
reverse happens in example 8b. Boost is added ('ideal'), and self-confidence
is shown clearly rather than downplayed ('I believe', 'Other positions ...
will also be considered'). Additionally, the first part of the second sentence
of the target text is a boost-enriched version of the first sentence of the third
paragraph of the source text. Finally, the kind of position the applicant is ap-
plying for is specified in order to add relevance to the letter. The information
content of this specification, ' ... a managerial position in the financial areas
of <company's name>'s business. Other positions in any other areas of your
company will also be considered', should be negotiated with the client. Here,
the assumption is that the applicant is looking for a managerial position, but
is ready to settle for less and does not want to lose the opportunity to be hired
by this particular company by seeming too demanding.
In the first sentence of the second paragraph, the deliberate addition of
the verb 'cultivated' qualifies the applicant as a person who is capable of
constant and active dedication. This is equal to adding boost, because the
added notion has a positive connotation, even if this is done by manipulating
concepts rather than just words. On the other hand, 'quantitative economic
analysis, particularly concerning the application of mathematics to finance'
is factual information. It consists in the enunciation of a discipline that has
a domain-specific name and extension in both languages, plus a specific
technical qualification; it is therefore translated as accurately (or literally) as
possible, without much adding or pruning. If we were to place the phrase on
the information-to-persuasion content ratio continuum (table 2), it would be
right at the maximum-information, minimum-persuasion end.
In the last sentence of the second paragraph, significant additions include

the notion of 'put[ting] such knowledge into practice', which makes it explicit
for the prospective employer that the applicant's studies have a practical use
(and thus counts as another instance of conceptual boost), and, additionally,
several instances of boost, including 'effectively', 'several' (quantitative boost),
'major' (an over-translation of importanti, which shifts from a generic boost to
lexical boost proper), 'active and significant role', and arguably even 'as well
as', which, being a more marked conjunction than the simple 'and', makes
the two linked elements stand out as more relevant. Adding this kind of boost
in this kind of texts is reasonably safe in this particular translation direction
(Italian into American English), provided that the information content of what
one adds is sufficiently generic and cannot be easily refuted. For instance,
unless the applicant did a particularly bad job or was particularly lazy during
one of her past experiences, it is unlikely that any of her past employers would
refute her claim that she put her knowledge 'effectively' into practice, or that
she played an 'active and significant role'.
The third paragraph of example 8b recovers the last sentence of the third
paragraph of 8a, while the information content of the first sentence of the same
paragraph of 8a has been anticipated to the first paragraph of the target text.
The addition of 'how my qualification and skills may best serve ... ' conveys
an image of self-confidence, regarded as a virtue rather than a weakness in
an applicant for a job with an American company. The closure is once again
adapted to the formal conventions of the target language, and the Italian legal
formula in the fifth paragraph of the source text has of course been deleted,
assuming that the addressee of the letter is located outside Italy. If the prospec-
tive employer were an American company with an Italian branch, however,
and if selections were carried out at that branch, the formula should either be
translated literally, or left in Italian. In the latter case, it can be relocated at
the very end of the letter, and put in inverted commas to mark out that it is a
legal formula that only applies to the Italian legal situation.
4.2.3 Personal websites with a promotional purpose
Self-employed professionals and sole proprietor businesses increasingly use

the web to seek new clients, expand their markets internationally, and build an
image of reliability and professionalism. In this section, only texts promoting
individuals who provide a given service or product as professionals, rather
than promoting the service or product itself, will be taken into consideration.
Texts that promote the services or products offered by sole proprietor busi-
nesses can be considered B2B or B2C communication, depending on their
targets (chapters 5 and 7). Personal web sites that do not have a professional
use are of course excluded from the scope of this book.
Ira Torresi 53
The potential targets of personal promotion websites may be either

businesses or individuals. This largely depends on the kind of services or
products offered by the professional in question, and sometimes the website
is intended for both categories of targets. This may happen, for instance, with
a plumber working for construction companies as well as private houses, who
may live in a multilingual country or require the contents of herlhis website
to be translated from a working draft because slhe is not a native speaker of
the language of the host country. It is therefore important for the translator
to define the target together with the client, as it may be difficult to infer this
information from the kind of text one is dealing with. Knowing the target and
the kind of relationship our client wishes to establish with them is important
not only because it helps us make choices about the degree of formality and
detachment vs. friendly, emotional language that we can use. It is also important
to assess the extent to which the target knows the kind of services or products
offered by our client, that is to say, whether the target does, or does not, work
in the same field as our commissioner. Going back to the previous example of
the plumber, a webpage addressing construction companies would normally
require a much more technical and specific information content, conveyed, and
translated, in a much more concise style, than a webpage addressing private
individuals who are perhaps more interested in prices and availability and
can be addressed in a persuasive and less informative style. If our client has
mixed targets and does not have the resources to create separate sections in
the website, then a compromise has to be struck between the two strategies,
and discussed with the client.
In either case, since the main object of promotion is the producer or
provider, not the product or the service, it is likely that at least the 'About
me' page of the website will share some of the information content of CV s or
application letters, that is to say, the professional's education and work career.
The style in which it is conveyed, however, changes substantially depending
on whether the main target is expected to appreciate a truly CV-style detailed
list (which is thought to provide an impression of professionalism) or a more
narrative account, perhaps in the first person singular, which builds an emo-
tional bridge between the addresser and the addressee.
In the following example, two 'About me' pages, one in Italian (the
source text) and the other in English (the target text) are analysed. They are
extracted from the website of a professional astrologist operating in Italy,
who, after gaining a certain international renown thanks to conferences and
private contacts in the UK, contacted me through the website of the TradInFo
association to commission me to translate her site into English.
Of course, a personal promotion website can consist of many more sec-
tions, but their nature may change depending on the kind of service/product
offered, and they may have less relevance for personal promotion than for
the promotion of what the professional provides. Additionally, the 'About
me' page is usually the first page of the site, either coinciding with, or com-
ing immediately after, the homepage, and it is always present, even when the
website only consists of one or very few sections.
Example 9
BarbaraAmadori s homepage (© BarbaraAmadori) -Italian version at http://
www.barbaramadori.com
Unlike what we saw in § 4.2.1 and § 4.2.2 with CVs andjob application
letters, the text in Example 9 did not require substantial re-writing on the
translator's part. This is due to the fact that, unlike the previous two genres,
personal web sites are not usually subject to rigid conventions. Additionally,
when translating a website into English, the target cannot be clearly defined
in geographical or cultural terms, since English is commonly used as a lingua
franca for international web communication. Therefore, even if there were
specific conventions (e.g., concerning politeness, formalitylinformality, boost,
etc.) in one of the cultures that may be reached by the English version of the
website, or in the corresponding variety of English, they would not apply to all
of the potential addressees of the website, unless the commissioner specified
one or more priority geographical targets.
The target readership of the two texts is clearly composed of individuals
Ira Torresi 55
Example 9a
Italian 'Chi sono' page, with graphic adjustments (htlp:/lwww.barbaramadori.
comlchi%20sonolchisono.htm)
Barbara Amadori
Sensitiva, Master Reiki, Astrologa e giornalista, Barbara Amadori ha una
formazione culturale che spazia dalla musica classica (ha studiato presso il
Conservatorio di Musica "B. Maderna" di Cesena), a quella letteraria (Diploma
Magistrale), linguistica (First Certificate conseguito c/o British School) al
giornalismo.
Appassionata ed attenta studiosa delle discipline esoteriche quali Qabalah,
Numerologia, Astrologia Karmika, Evolutiva, al fine di completare adegua-
tamente la proprio cultura personale in merito alia Qabalah ebraica, consegue
il diploma di II livello in ebraico antico.
Da oltre 25 anni si dedica al mondo delle Dimensioni Sottili che permeano
I' esistenza di ciascuno di noi.
I seminari da lei condotti vertono su alcuni importanti aspetti della Medianita
e soprattutto si svolgono con l'intento di insegnare a tutti i partecipanti, la
possibilita di contattare, attraverso i propri doni intuitivi, la propria Guida
spirituale. Diversi pertanto i "passaggi" che vengono esaminati in merito:
prima di affrontare I' anelato momenta in cui si effettua il contatto con Ie Guide,
Barbara Amadori conduce Ie persone attraverso I' apprendimento della lettura
energetica e medianica delle fotografie, degli oggetti, dei nastri, nonche eser-
cizi pratici sulle possibilita di comunicazione fra i partecipanti del seminario
attraverso l'utilizzo di tecniche meditative e di unione con l'aura.
Inoltre sia corsi che seminari prevedono parti pratiche e teoriche e dipanano
Ie proprie forme partendo dalla teo sofia fino a giungere, seppur in modalita
breve e superficiale, a qualche elemento di fisica quantistica.
II curriculum di Barbara Amadori inerente l'affascinante mondo dell'ignoto,
vanta, ne11997, unica donna in Italia, la pubblicazione del rinomato Saggio
"L' Albero della Vita" trattato sulla Qabalah ebraica, rico no sciuto dal Centro
di Cultura Ebraica di Bmxelles e da alcune comunita rabbiniche americane.
Relatrice presso Associazioni ed Accademie italiane, nonche presso Convegni
internazionali, ultimo dei quali in Svizzera, docente di tecniche evolutive,
Barbara Amadori partecipa alia trasmissione televisiva "Maurizio Costanzo
Show" in qualita di esperta in reincarnazione. Partecipa quale sensitiva ai
Convegni Internazionali di Parapsicologia a Bellaria, Modena, Assisi, Palermo,
Milano, Locarno, Lugano, Zurigo.
Frequenta il prestigioso Arthur Findley College di Londra per confrontarsi
con i pili qualificati medium inglesi.
Tiene abitualmente conferenze e seminari in Svizzera ed in Italia.
E' in fase conclusiva "La nostra storia scritta nell'lnfinito" trattato incentrato
sulla Medianita odierna.
who probably do not know the details of astrology and mediumship, i.e. pro-
spective clients rather than colleagues of Barbara Amadori's. This accounts
for the inclusion, in the source as well as the target text, of clarifications on the
courses and seminars held by the professional, and for the use of a language
that is usually not over-technical or cryptic, so that it can be understood by
laypersons. It should be noted that, had the original author wished to impress
(rather than inform) the reader, she could have used a much more specialized
approach, building the text in such a way that her prospective clients would not
understand what she does, but only get the impression of a highly qualified,
reliable and trustworthy professional. In so doing, she would have adopted a style
and language that is more in line with B2B communication (see chapter 5), and
in translating, I should have adjusted my techniques accordingly. This kind
of approach is seldom employed in personal promotion. It might work for
professionals offering highly technical products and services, from whom the
prospective client/customer may expect data rather than explanations (and be
prepared not to understand them in full). However, such a strategy is a risk
when the target readership cannot be easily identified in terms of age, level
of education, and other indicators that may influence their inclination towards
trusting (and paying!) someone they do not understand.
In our source text, the author is clearly concerned with helping the readers
understand, without giving the impression of patronizing them. This creates
a mix of high information content anchors that require an accurate rendition
and in-depth research for lexical equivalents of specialized, often monoref-
erential, terms (e.g., numerology, karmic astrology, evolutionary astrology,
subtle dimensions, mediumship, clairvoyant reading, quantum physics, etc.)
and bits of text with lower information density that allows a freer approach,
although their limited extension does not yield easily to thorough rewriting.
Moreover, following the reader-friendly, non-cryptic approach to the client
adopted by the original author, I thought it appropriate to insert additional
clarifications for references to the Italian media (as in 'the popular Italian
talk-show, "Maurizio Costanzo Show"', 7th paragraph) and suggest literal
English translations for the titles of the author's publications, even if these
works do not circulate outside Italy.
Since this example is the first text that we have encountered in this book
to show such a rapid succession of high- and low-information content points,
it is perhaps worthwhile analysing a few paragraphs in deeper detail. Let us
take the second paragraph, which consists of one sentence only:
9a: Appassionata ed attenta studiosa delle discipline esoteriche quali

Qabalah, Numerologia, Astrologia Karmika, Evolutiva, al fine di com-
pletare adeguatamente la proprio cultura personale in merito alIa Qabalah
ebraica, consegue il diploma di II livello in ebraico antico.
Ira Torresi 57
Example 9b
English 'About Me 'page, with graphic and other minor adjustments (http://www.
barbaramadori. com/english/about% 20me/aboutme. htm)
Barbara Amadori
A Sensitive, a Reiki Master, an Astrologist and a journalist, Barbara Amadori
has a liberal education that ranges from classical music (having studied at the
"B. Maderna" Conservatoire in Cesena) to the humanities (she has a high school
degree in pedagogy), from foreign languages (she holds a Cambridge ESOL
First Certificate) to journalism.
In order to get the best possible insight into the Hebrew Kabbalah - one of
her chief interests, together with other esoteric subjects such as Numerology,
Karmic Astrology, and Evolutionary Astrology - she has obtained a 2nd-level
diploma in Ancient Hebrew.
Barbara has been studying the world of the Subtle Dimensions that permeate
our life for over 25 years.
Her workshops are focused on several important aspects of Mediumship; their
specific aim is to teach participants how to use their intuitive abilities to contact
their Guiding Spirits. This is achieved through a number of "steps" , the final one
being the long-awaited contact with one's Guide. Before that, Barbara Amadori
takes participants through intermediate steps such as the energy and clairvoyant
reading of photographs, objects and tapes, and practicing communication with
other participants through meditation and aura connection techniques.
Both courses and workshops feature theoretical as well as practical sessions
and cover a variety of disciplines, from theosophy to a quick glance at some
concepts of quantum physics.
Barbara Amadori's curriculum in the field of the fascinating world of the Unknown
also includes a yet unchallenged record - in 1997, she was the first and only Italian
woman to write a treatise on the Hebrew Kabbalah, the renowned "L' Albero della
Vita" (The Tree of Life), acknowledged by the Brussels Jewish Culture Centre and
by several American rabbinic communities.
Barbara presented papers at several ItalianAssociations and Academies as well
as at International conferences - most recently, in Switzerland; she teaches
Evolutionary Techniques and is the reincarnation expert of the popular Italian
talk -show, "Maurizio Costanzo Show". As a sensitive, she also takes part in the
International Parapsychology Conferences held in Bellaria, Modena, Assisi,
Palermo, Milan, Chieti, Locamo, Lugano, Zurich.
Being a student of London's prestigious Arthur Findlay College, she is familiar
with the most outstanding British mediums and their work.
She holds frequent conferences and workshops, both in Switzerland and
Italy.
Barbara is currently completing a new treatise on Mediumship, "La nostra storia
scritta nell'Infinito" (Our Story Written in Infinity).
Literal translation: A keen and scrupulous scholar of esoteric subjects

such as the Kabbalah, Numerology, Karmic and Evolutionary Astrology,
in order to adequately complete her personal culture about the Hebrew
Kabbalah, she obtains a 2nd-level diploma in Ancient Hebrew.
9b: In order to get the best possible insight into the Hebrew Kabbalah
- one of her chief interests, together with other esoteric subjects such
as Numerology, Karmic Astrology, and Evolutionary Astrology - she
has obtained a 2nd-level diploma in Ancient Hebrew.
Of course the sentence might have been translated in several different

ways, for instance splitting it in two for better readability. What we have in our
version of 9b, however, is one long sentence that particularly emphasizes the
Kabbalah above the other disciplines, which are reduced to 'other ... subjects'
in an interpolated clause. The choice is motivated by the further recurrence of
the Kabbalah in the 6th paragraph, where the client claims her primacy in the
field as she was 'the first and only Italian woman to write a treatise on [it]'.
In the second paragraph of 9a, too, the other disciplines are only mentioned
once and do not recur again in the text, whereas Barbara specifically men-
tions her education in Ancient Hebrew in connection with the Kabbalah. This
further justifies the transformation of the theme/rheme structure in 9b, even
in the face of the Italian syntax of9a, which apparently puts the Kabbalah on
the same level as the other subjects in the first part of the sentence (see the
literal translation).
This, in its tum, allows for the shift of boost from the client's research
activities concerning the whole group of disciplines (appassionata ed attenta
studiosa, literally, 'a keen and scrupulous scholar') to her specific commitment
to the Kabbalah ('the best possible insight into the Hebrew Kabbalah', which
more precisely translates completare adeguatamente). In the process, boost
has been increased through the deletion of personale (literally, 'personal'),
which in English might have suggested that the scope of the client's culture is
limited to her own personal knowledge rather than being valuable in absolute
terms, while in Italian it has a positive connotation, as it implies that Barbara
has actively and independently sought to broaden her knowledge instead of
receiving it from educational institutions. Further boost is then provided by
the superlative, 'the best possible insight'. Such operations make up for the
loss of boost in the under-translation of appassionata e attenta studiosa with
'her chief interests', where, despite the inherently superlative adjective 'chief',
the idea of active commitment to research is only partially conveyed by the
more neutral 'interests'.
The group of modifications that alter the boost structure of the text also
includes the change of the tense from a historical present to a past perfect,
Ira Torresi 59
which causes a shift from narration about past and concluded events to the
positive assertion of Barbara's current titles. On the other hand, the high in-
formation content parts of the paragraph, which here consist in field-specific
terms, are translated using the tools that are typical of technical or scientific
translation. The equivalents for Qabalah, Numerologia, Astrologia Karmika,
[AstrologiaJ Evolutiva, for instance, were obtained by using the web as cor-
pus. (At the time when the translation was made, no lexicological databases
or ready-made corpora were available for esoteric domains). Self-evident as
several of the equivalents may seem, such approach was vital to assess the
most reliable and consistent spelling of Kabbalah (rather than Qabbalah, Cab-
balah, Kabala, and the like).
Paragraph 5, too, is interesting for its intertwining of high and low in-
formation content parts:
9a: Inoltre sia corsi che seminari prevedono parti pratiche e teoriche
e dipanano Ie proprie forme partendo dalla teosofia fino a giungere,
seppur in modalita breve e superficiale, a qualche elemento di fisica
quantistica.
Literal translation: Moreover, both courses and workshops feature

theoretical and practical parts, and unravel their forms [structure] start-
ing from theosophy and coming, however briefly and superficially, to a
few elements of quantum physics.
9b: Both courses and workshops feature theoretical as well as practical

sessions and cover a variety of disciplines, from theosophy to a quick
glance at some concepts of quantum physics.
Two main boost-related interventions can be observed here. The first is

the replacement of the visual metaphor, dipanano Ie proprie forme partendo
da ... , with a less figurative but more assertive 'cover a variety of disciplines',
where 'cover' suggests thoroughness and 'a variety of' adds quantitative
boost, which in the original was only hinted at through the construction par-
tendo da... fino a giungere a (literally, 'starting from ... and coming to'). The
second operation of partial rewriting is the alteration of the extremely cautious
clause, seppur in modalita breve e superficiale (literally, 'however briefly and
superficially') into a much less self-diminishing 'quick glance'. Technically
speaking, the notion of treating quantum physics only in passing remains, so
there is no real addition of boost here. Rather, by avoiding negatively con-
noted words such as 'superficially', and turning the concept into a positive
one (a quick glance is better than a superficial one, or no glance at all), boost
is simply not removed.
Of course one could push the re-boosting operation further by completely
deleting the reference to 'a quick glance' and' some concepts'. This, however,
would be inadequate in this working situation, as it would dismiss the author's
clear concern about conveying an impression of reliability and professionalism
rather than inflating the readers' expectations at the risk of losing credibility.
That concern is particularly important for Barbara, given that some readers
might disbelieve not only her, but the entire field she works in. Face issues,
however, are usually relevant in all kinds of personal promotion: after all, the
object of promotion here is a person who puts her or his own personal, as well
as professional, face and credibility on the Web.
Example 9 is also a good illustration of another issue that, although not
strictly verbal, should be taken into account when translating for the Web. It
should be noted that in the online version of example 9a, the last paragraph
becomes visible only when the text is selected (for instance, to copy it). The
text that can normally be seen from the screen ends with Svizzera e Italia. This
is a perfect example of a layout issue that is recurrent in website translation
(or, as happens here, website copywriting): target text length. When frames
are used in the website, the target text cannot exceed a certain length, or its
end will just be cut off. This is exactly what happened in the source text in 9a;
the target text in 9b, being shorter, did not require trimming.
It is worth mentioning here that - probably due to the traditional ancillary
role attributed to layout and composition - commissioners may leave details
such as space constraints out when briefing the translator. For this reason, it
is important to know whether a text is intended for the web or other media
that tend to pose the same space-related issues, such as brochures or tourist
guides. If this is the case, it is better to get back to the commissioner and ask
whether specific space constraints apply to each page of the site (or brochure,
or guide), or even to single paragraphs or sections. It is also advisable to
keep all communications regarding such instructions for future reference.
For instance, should the limitations to the number of characters change after
you have started translating, an adjustment to the final price and deadline can
be negotiated, as the operation of culling what has already been translated is
time- and effort-consuming, and the responsibility for the change lies with
the commissioner or the end client.
Business-ta-Business
This chapter outlines first of all the main features of business-to-business (B2B)
promotional communication in terms of information-to-persuasion ratio and
distribution context. Next, it illustrates a variety of B2B promotional texts,
which are characterized by different information-to-persuasion ratios, which
are in turn influenced by their contexts of distribution.
5.1 B2B promotional texts
Business-to-Business (or B2B) promotional texts are produced by a com-

mercial enterprise to promote its products or services to one or more other
commercial enterprises that are regular or prospective customers of the source
company.
The bulk of B2B communication occurs between companies in the
same market segment. Since these segments may be quite specialized, target
enterprises are typically well informed about the kinds of products/services
they need. Their requirements will be mainly related to increasing produc-
tion, enhancing quality and/or cutting costs. For this reason, B2B promotion
tends to be technical and information -oriented rather than based on persuasive
devices; in other words, its information-to-persuasion ratio is rather high. The
persuasiveness of this kind of promotion is often based on the amount and
quality of information provided, and on the neutral, impartial style in which
it is presented. Additionally, target companies usually have qualified technical
staff able to assess whether or not the object of promotion meets their needs,
and whether the source company's promotional communication is accurate
and complete.
From a translator's point of view, therefore, omitting or over-generalizing
what the inexperienced reader may perceive as small technical details or
trifles, or failing to identify a translation that the source company deems fitting
for monoreferential terms (i.e. terms which have only one referent in the real
world) or other technical words, may lead to the translation being rejected
by the client (the source company), seen as inappropriate by one of the target
companies, or at the very least less functional with respect to its promotional
purpose. Any of these outcomes would cause the source company to lose
money, mainly in terms of prospective profits, even if its regular customers/
clients would probably overcome the language barrier. Obviously, this could
potentially negatively impact the translator's work and career.
The highly technical nature of B2B texts usually calls for a translation
approach that is similar to that of technical translation, making it convenient
to use CAT tools, especially when the client employs specific terminology and
62 Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Business
provides past translations or ready-made translation memories. When work-

ing with technical B2B promotional texts, it is therefore a good idea to ask
clients whether they can provide any terminological support such as transla-
tion memories, glossaries, or at least the telephone number or e-mail address
of a member of staff who can assist you with company-specific terminology.
If your client is a direct one, you can actually include a specific item in your
translator-prompted brief (see table 1). Terminology alone, however, is not
always the key to a good B2B promotional translation: it is always impor-
tant to assess whether the technical anchors that force us to stay close to the
source text are complemented by devices that serve to boost the quality of
the product/service, and might require adaptation and rewriting rather than
close rendering.
Moreover, not all B2B promotional texts are extremely technical in nature.
Some products or services offered by the source company are of a more general
nature, i.e. they can be used by various types of clientlcustomer companies, for
instance toiletries, or Internet connections. Also, the advertised product/service
may pertain to a field in which the use of creative language and persuasive
devices alongside more technical information is generally appreciated, and
the translator will find more leeway for rewriting (see § 5.1.1).
Additionally, the distribution context has an impact on the information-to-
persuasion ratio. If a text is circulated in response to a prospective customer's
specific request, or it is published on a company website that is intended to
be purposefully navigated by well-informed users, it will not need attract the
reader's attention, and will most likely include only technical information
in verbal form, possibly with pictures or technical drawings describing the
product. An advertisement published in the trade press, on the other hand,
will have to compete for the reader's attention, as it is published alongside
articles and other promotional material. It is thus more likely to rely on visual
suggestion and perhaps some emotional or creative language.
One other important point that must be mentioned about B2B communi-
cation in general is that, given their modes of circulation, such texts may be
subject to space constraints. As already seen at the end of § 4.2.3, website (and
brochure) layout may be done using frames. In the case of websites, frames
can sometimes be altered to accommodate the text, but this may come at a
cost for the end client, either financially, if the alteration has to be outsourced
to an external webmaster, or in the form of staff working time if it is done in-
house. It is therefore important that any space constraints, or the possibility
of restyling the website layout, are negotiated at an early stage with the end
clients, if the translator has direct contact with them.
Brochures often have a fixed layout that is more rigid than a website
layout, since brochure space is physically limited by the edges of the sheet of
paper it is printed on. Moreover, multilingual brochures may be laid out using
grids that allow a fixed amount of space for each paragraph of the source text
Ira Torresi 63
and its translation(s). Of course, this hinders major rewriting attempts that en-
tail major omissions or integrations, paragraph order reversal or paragraphing
revision, even when such efforts would make the target text stylistically more
functional. In any case, the layout structure may have an influence on target
text length and/or on translation choices. If you have direct contact with the
client or know the agency you are working through would appreciate initiatives
of this kind, it is advisable to inquire about how long the target text and/or its
individual paragraphs should be in order to accommodate the layout.
Length is an equally important issue in advertising. B2B advertisements
have limited space, which will most likely be taken up by the product/service's
essential technical features or simple information about its existence, perhaps
referring the reader to a website address for further details. Furthermore,
shorter advertising copy, especially headlines and payoffs, tend to attract and
retain the reader's attention more than lengthier, more boring ones. This also
goes back to the need for these texts to compete for attention with articles
and other advertisements in the same trade magazine. In B2B advertising,
however, such concerns may not be as overriding as in business-to-consumer
(B2C) or traditional advertising, and compromises tend to be struck between
the goal of capturing readers' curiosity and the need to inform them about the
technical reliability of the product/service advertised.
B2B promotional literature containing exclusively factual information,
such as price-lists, e-commerce web pages, catalogues and fact-sheets listing
only product names and a fixed number of characteristics (price, item code,
colour, size, etc), will not be taken into consideration here, even though this
also has a basic promotional purpose, served namely by its technical nature and
factual style. Similarly, unsolicited sales letters circulated via snail or electronic
mail will not be treated in this volume, as they are usually taken care of in
trade correspondence handbooks. In the following sections, text types will be
divided according to their distribution context, which, as we have just seen,
has a direct influence on their space constraints and information-to-persuasion
ratio and, as a consequence, on the translation approach they require.
The first section groups together web sites and promotional brochures,
based on the fact that both text types are circulated in distribution contexts
that do not usually require them to compete for the reader's attention. This
implies that they can be comparatively long and detailed. Differences in
information-to-persuasion ratios, however, can be observed across B2B
websites and brochures, depending on the specific market of the company,
product or service advertised. For this reason, the examples in § 5.1.1.1 and §
5.1.1.2 illustrate a range of information-to-persuasion ratios from very high
(characterized by high frequency of technical terms and numerical figures,
lists of noun phrases, and raw facts in general) to medium-low (with a more
complex interplay of specific information and evocative style, see in particular
example 14). This will hopefully serve as a reminder of the fact that one cannot
always rely on text type categorization to pre-detennine a text's infonnation-

to-persuasion ratio.
The second and final section devoted to B2B promotion (§ 5.1.2.) is about
advertisements in the specialized press. Here a few elements about advertis-
ing proper (B2C advertising in § 7.1.2) will be introduced, and we will see
how these elements can interface with the technical and infonnation-specific
nature of B2B communication.
5.1.1 Brochures and websites
As mentioned before, for the purposes of this book, B2B brochures and web-
sites can be approached in the same way; the very same texts sometimes appear
both in brochure fonnat and on the source company's website. They vary in
length and can be designed to promote a specific product or a company as a
whole. Their infonnation-to-promotion ratio varies depending on the object of
promotion and how much the target company/ies are expected to know about
it. The more the target company knows about what is being advertised, about
its purpose and how it may serve the prospective buyer, the more factual and
infonnative the text is likely to be.
Another common feature of B2B brochures and websites is that their
respective distribution contexts are both non-competitive, although different.
Brochure distribution presupposes direct contact between the source company
and the target one, as printed literature is usually sent via snail mail or handed
out to persons visiting the company or otherwise coming in contact with
people from the source company (agents, salespeople, marketing personnel,
trade fair staff, etc.). For websites, on the other hand, distribution is usually
target-initiated: the website is there for virtually anybody to visit. At the same
time, however, the explicit B2B nature of the site - i.e. allusions to products
or company types that are only interesting for other companies rather than for
the man or woman in the street - immediately selects the appropriate type of
target readership by discouraging occasional web surfers. Such a difference,
then, does not have an impact on the infonnation-to-persuasion ratio ofB2B
brochures and websites, since an infonned and purposeful target readership is
presupposed by both, and usually neither needs to compete with similar texts in
order to be noticed and collected. Additionally, brochures are increasingly made
available on company websites, in .pdf or other downloadable fonnats.
Here B2B brochures and websites are presented in two separate
sub-sections, respectively dealing with product presentation and company
presentation texts, only to arrange examples more clearly with a progression
from higher to lower specificity and infonnation -to-persuasion ratio. Brochure
and website examples will also be presented in a similar way in chapter 6 and
chapter 7.
Ira Torresi 65
5.1.1.1 Product presentation websiteslbrochures
We have just seen that the distribution contexts of product presentation web sites
and brochures are not highly competitive. Obviously in the long run, only truly
interesting promotions will be kept or remembered, but more often than not,
the assumption is that interest will stem from the product's quality and price
rather than how well the brochure or website is written and designed. For this
reason, across the commercial world, B2B product presentation brochures and
websites are usually drafted and translated so that the product's technical or
otherwise specific qualities emerge as objectively and neutrally as possible.
Translating the kind of text contained in example 10, then, is to a certain degree
comparable to technical translation; at the same time, the overall purpose of the
text is promotional, and parts of the brochure or website may contain boost-
ing elements (as happens in the part of example 10 analysed in example 11).
The excerpts in example 10 were taken from the online catalogue of an
Italian company, Oli, specializing in vibration technology. The company has
branches in Gennany, France, the USA, Spain, India, Romania and Malta, each
one with its own website, and is a member of Wamgroup, an Italian-based
corporation operating in the field of bulk solids handling and processing. lOa
is the source text; lOb is the English version that can be accessed from the
Italian homepage, it serves an international readership, and is reproduced as
such in the websites of the Indian and Maltese branches of Oli; whilelOc was
found on the website of the US branch ofOli. The Romanian, French, Spanish
and Gennan versions of lOa, extracted from the websites of the respective
branches of Oli, can be found in the Appendix (chapter 10).
In all versions of example 10, emotional language is purposefully avoided
at both the verbal and visual level. Finite verbal fonns are avoided in the last
two sections, entirely fonned by nominal clauses; and even in the first two
sections, no first- or second-person verb or pronoun is used. Similarly, the
pictures lack any kind of background; the products are displayed in such a
way as to provide a clear and detailed view of them while getting rid of all
non-essential infonnation, including the context of use that should already be
familiar to the target reader. The sense of objectivity and neutrality is further
enhanced by the fonn taken by the description of specifications in the last two
sections (a list) and the numerical data strewn across the text.
As we will see in chapter 7, § 7.1.2, technical tenns, numerical data,
diagrams, lists and objective drawings or pictures can be employed even in
business-to-consumer communication, where target readers are not supposed
to have in-depth knowledge of the subject discussed. In such cases, they are
mainly supposed to convey a sense of objectivity and present infonnation as
factual and non-negotiable. In B2B promotion, on the other hand, they are
supposed to give the reader what s/he expects, i.e. technical infonnation rather
than generic boost, in an easy-reference, down-to-earth fonnat. As such, in

translation they should nonnally be treated as technical anchors that are best
translated as accurately as possible, without creative rewriting.
This, however, does not mean that the text should not be adjusted to the
target readership's expectations and experiential context. It is interesting to note
that in lOb, which is aimed at a global readership, international measurements
are translated into feet, inches, and pounds for the benefit of non -metric-system
customers. At the same time IOc, which is meant for the American market,
offers non-metric measures as the only option. The only other difference
between lOb and IOc is the rendering of the Italian ago as 'needle' or 'tip' in
lOb and as 'head' or 'tip' in IOc, clearly responding to different traditions of
technical tenninology.
Example lOa
From http://www.olivibra.it/(the page below can be reachedJrom thealta homepage
by selecting the links 'Prodotti', 'Vibratori e agevolatori di discesa', andfinally
'VN - VNP - Vibratori immersione ad alta Jrequenza ')
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
immersione
Ira Torresi 67
Example lOb
From http://www.olivibra.it/(the page below can be reachedfrom the homepage
by first selecting the English language from the 'Lingua' menu, then the links
'Product Range', 'Vibrators and Flow Aids', and finally 'VN - VNP - High-
Frequency Internal Vibrators '). It can also be viewed following the same path
from http://www.olivibra.in/ and http://www.olivibra.com/maita/
alta
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
immersione
Generally speaking, in a B2B product presentation website or brochure,

tenninological accuracy, compliance with the company's tenninology, a non-
emotional style (short nominal sentences, lists without verbs and articles rather
than discursive descriptions) and compliance with layout constraints seem to
be more important than linguistic accuracy and stylistic flair.
In local or national companies that do not have foreign branches, but
nonetheless sell internationally, target texts may be produced or revised in-
house at the source company by non-native users of the target language. In
such cases, minor grammar or spelling deviations from the standard may be
tolerated if they do not hinder comprehension. On the other hand, since such
texts are likely to be revised by the client's in-house staff, who are used to a
certain kind of company-specific technical tenninology, revisers might consider

departures from that tenninology to be mistakes. It can tum out to be difficult
for a freelance translator to negotiate other tenninological solutions found in
external reliable sources and that fit the original tenns equally as well, or even
better than, the equivalents nonnally used within the client company. This is
especially true when the translator is not in direct contact with the end client,
but is working through an agency, or slhe is a newly employed member of
staff of the source company and does not wish to start off on the wrong foot
with herlhis supervisors. In the worst cases, clients who have not provided
the translator with any tenninological source or support might not even ac-
knowledge their responsibility in what they may judge a poor translation of
technical tenns, because they assume their own tenninology to be the only
correct one, and might claim that their level of tenninological experience in
their own field of activity is more authoritative than the translator's (which,
incidentally, is often difficult to refute).
Example tOe
From http://www.olivibrator.com/(the page below can be reached from the
homepage by selecting the links 'Product Range', 'High-Cycle Concrete Vibra-
tors', and finally 'VN - VNP - High-Frequency Internal Vibrators ')
alta
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
immersione
Ira Torresi 69
For all these reasons, before starting the translation it is important to ask
for any specific terminology the client would like the translator to use, or at
least for parallel texts, such as a multilingual company website. If no internal
source is provided and you do not trust the client (or the agency) to be impartial
in the case of terminological disputes, then it might be a good idea to keep
track of your terminological sources, so that you can argue in favour of your
diligence should claims about terminological accuracy arise.
Example lOis quite easy to locate towards the maximum information,
minimum persuasion end of the information-to-persuasion continuum (table 2).
In fact, with this kind of text, as long as one knows it is intended for a B2B
technical brochure or website focusing on a specific product or product line
rather than generically introducing the company, one might do without a
detailed brief following the model of table 1, since all information contained
in the table is either clear from the text type or irrelevant. For instance, as an
answer to question 2, we can easily infer that the target readership is made up
of organizations working in the same field as the source company, and they
are well-informed about the promoted product or service. Similarly, answers
to questions 3 to 5 emerge clearly from the objective and neutral style adopted
in the text: the company is not close, nor deferent, to the target reader, on the
other hand it appears to be detached even if not particularly authoritative (since
it is not supposed to know more about the product than the reader). Company
values come down to technical know-how, quality, precision and reliability;
and the text is aimed at persuading the prospective customer of the product's
characteristics that objectively make it something to buy. In the end, the com-
missioner should only be consulted about visuals (if not originally provided),
plus two items that were not originally included in the list: company termin-
ology and, if relevant, space constraints.
If we look closer, however, even in example 10 there are instances of boost
that may require, or allow, some rewriting, although not an extensive one. The
following example is the transcription of the second section of example lOc;
technical or informative anchors are underlined, while boost elements have
been italicized. As you may remember from § 4.1, persuasive components
should not be translated as much for accuracy as for functionality, and therefore
their rendering might actually require some rephrasing. The reverse is true for
underlined technical anchors. In this particular example, however, the close
intertwining of the two categories does not allow for substantial re-writing, as
the boost tends to refer to specific anchors that cannot be easily moved around
in the text, and the lexical meaning of boost words such as 'suitable' is closely
linked to the immediate co-text.
Additionally, some elements are both informative and persuasive, and
appear in example 11 as both italicized and underlined. For instance, in 'six
different head diameters', 'six' quite obviously counts as the prototypical kind
of objective data (precise figures), and on top of that it refers to head diameters,
i.e. a measurable technical characteristic. This phrase, then, has a high density
of objective infonnation; at the same time, it is not presented in a neutral way,
since the one-digit figure is boosted by 'different', which turns it into a wide
range of diameters that can cater to all requirements. In this context, then, the
use of 'six different' adds implicit boost as well as numerical precision. In this
case, it would be hard to creatively rewrite the phrase in such a way that the
same objective data fit into a dramatically different boost structure.
The close intertwining of boost elements and anchors can thus be an
obstacle to significantly rewording this type of B2B text; it is often much
easier and less time-consuming to limit rewriting to the minimum required
so that the target text works well in the target language and context. Such a
conservative attitude might also be safer because for clients commissioning
this kind of translation, technical accuracy is the priority, and they may not
particularly appreciate creative initiatives.
Example 11
From the 'Function' section of example 10c
The strongly increased compaction capacity of the VNP Professional Line

results in perfect elimination of air bubbles in the concrete in compliance
with modern concrete technology. With 42V / 200Hz or 230V / 200Hz and
six different head diameters the range is suitable for every kind of building
site job or for the use in concrete compaction plants (floor manufacturing).
5.1.1.2 Company presentation websiteslbrochures
The examples in this section are taken from company homepages, the only
kind of page present in all, or most, company websites. Naturally each website
has additional sections. Some of them may be recurrent across B2B sites (e.g.
'Products', 'About us', etc.), but overall they are so variable that it would be
impossible to give a full or even partial account of them here. It is important
to bear in mind, however, that different B2B website (and brochure) sections
usually have different infonnation-to-persuasion ratios. Whereas homepages
and 'About us' pages, or introductory sections to brochures, usually display a
mix of technical infonnation and boost, product- or service-related pages of
company websites intended for a well-infonned target readership are likely to
favour an infonnation-oriented communication strategy that is more similar
to that of examples 10 and 11.
Additionally, as in the previous section, here we will only be referring to
the translation of the (verbal) texts to be inserted in websites, not the local-
ization of web sites as a whole. Localization is a more complex process that
entails adapting the site structure (which requires programming skills) as well
Ira Torresi 7l
as translating its verbal contents. For an account of general localization issues,

see Sandrini 2005-2007 in the References.
The first example (12a through l2d) consists of a series of home pages of
the same company, Papertech, respectively in English (the version that appears
by typing the URL www.papertech.com). and, in the same order as they appear
at the bottom of the English homepage, in Chinese, Spanish, and Indonesian.
The range of languages stems from the geographical location of the com-
pany's paper mills: one is in Spain, one in China, and two in Indonesia. Quite
obviously, English was chosen as the site's main language in order to reach an
international pool of prospective customers. The international English text is
also likely to be the source text from which the others were translated. In fact,
Papertech is part of the multinational group Texpack, which has locations in
the US and UK, and whose website also has Chinese and Spanish versions.
Example 12 therefore reflects the trend towards glocal (global+local)
strategies that tend to adjust texts developed in global English (i.e. a kind of
English that is not conspicuously recognizable as American English, British
English, or other geographical macro-varieties of English, and thus addresses a
global readership) to other national or local languages and cultures. In this case,
the very existence of the other versions (in which, however, visuals and layout
were not changed) reflects the company's interest in appearing as an industrial
concern with roots in real geographical places, each one with its language.
This glocal strategy is especially common among large multinationals which
feel they might lose their corporate identity by presenting only an English
institutional face, disembodied from their real-world, physical presence. In
similar cases, translating from the international English version into the other
languages chosen by the company is the common translation direction.
In terms of information-to-persuasion ratio, the text contained in each
homepage shows several characteristics in common with example 11. Try
and separate the boost elements from the objective data in the same way as
was shown in example 11 (a key is provided at the end of § 5.1.1.2, but do
not look at it before trying yourself). Also, pay attention to the close interplay
of objectivity and boost. Notice, for instance, how large numbers are used
to support general boost, thus retaining their objective nature but losing in
neutrality. You can check how the translation was approached by comparing
l2a with one or more of the other versions.
One last teaser: why is it that, in all four homepages, Papertech mainly
refers to itself in the first person plural, while Oli avoids personal pronouns
altogether and when possible, even personal verbal forms? The issue of per-
sonal deictics in B2B promotion will be discussed further, with reference to
example 14, but perhaps you can reach an independent conclusion. (Hint:
where would you locate Papertech on the scale of items 4.a and 4.b of table I?
And where would Oli be on the same scale?).
Example 12a
Detail of the English homepage of Papertech, a cardboard supplier (www.
papertech com)
, "6" I 'Juv"u
~ PAPERTECH
A01 01 ..... 01 ..... r..pock <it..... 01 ~
_ .....
HOME I USERS I MARKETS I I'IIOa.a RANGE I EIMRONMENT I PAPeR MillS
Coreboard Specialists
We manufacture some of the highest quality core board in the
Horld marlcel today. Tubes made with it spin a12S,000 rpm and
reSIst extremely high tenSiOlls in aU applications .
High Ply bond
Papertech mills are committed to R&D and con 'nuous
rnprovemenl. Mosl r«:endy we have d.veloped Core HP10 and
Core A5l with p1ybond values that exceed 1,000 j/m2.
Wide Range
Up to 12 dlfferenl grades of coreboard, lallored to the specific
needs of our con. erong CIIstomers. No malter how complex
your needs, we supply the righlgrade for your operations .
Expertise and Depth
Our dependabiit, is rooled in our annual capacrty of 200,000
tons, and our 50·ye" history of responding 10 our CIIslomers'
needs by dehvering quality board with exceptional service .
Example 12b
Detail of Papertech 's Chinese homepage (www.papertechcom/papertech_
chasp)
~ PAPERTECH
Texpack lUflll ~l
Ul R!l!f R!l!f Ul xU
R!l!fl.
ttfJ1t'M1!IJ.l:U!lfl'lilllilUI.. ltIII~!t1i~1tI1.llifl'l!tIi !l.
25,OOOIVs»tfr'J;m:.It . ~f(M1I1l<I> iHU'i liollifflllih If.t.
~~Uii
1f.~!tI.rtfif9ltt>llllttt~it . Ul. !!fJnttllllElflM.lSitl,OOO
(/f-1i*fr'JHPlOll>AS1~'}I!'J!(!.Ii.!(!. .
F313i1fi:
~iW"'f uu . xU
~'lifr'J!tI.IiPi. 'I''>l1h.t.1U'pI'lfJij!j
fl'Jlf*«lfilUi . lfJn!l.If'IU·I/I~!lfl'l!ll• •
v~lR.ljj;lr
ttfJfJ:f'200,OOO'tfr)1t'll:h"50~1Q"!l~"iI'~:.PIiI~~11
~ffl~~ijt~«TIf.~&i.~fr)&M~t,
Ira Torresi 73
Example 12c
Detail of Papertech 's Spanish homepage (www.papertech.com/papertech_
sp.asp?portalid= 1)
~ PAPERTECH
MlemtltO del orupo kI,emoelonal T"p'ck
INICIO I ustJARlOS/MERCAOOS I GAMA DE PROOUCTO I MEOIOAMBlEHTE I fABRICAS
Ca rt6n para Tubos

fabricamos uno de los cattones para wbos de mayor ealidad e.n
el mundo.lO' lubo. que .e labriean con 019"an a 25.000
r.l).m. r resist61"1 tensiones extrel'l"t4damentt Wi en todas las
.pfiC8cionos .
~ 16ximo Nive l de Ply-Bond
La ••Ir.leg;' d. Pap.rt.ch •• ba.a .n la 1+0 y la m.l....
conbnua. Recientemente hemos desafrollado Core HP10 y Cor,
ASl con valore. de plybond que .obr.po.. n 10. 1.000 )1m' .
Amplia Gamo de Calidades
Hast4 12 cafidades distint.as d. C4rt.ones port tubos, adaptadas
• las necesidades especlficas de nu.stros dient.s d.dic.ados •
I. man,pulaci6n del papel. No import. 10 comolej •• Que .ean
sus necesldades, nosotros propol'Clonamos 14 cahdad Que S6
ajust6 6 Sus operaciones .
Experiendo
aasamo. nuestra fiabi,dod en nue.tro capaoded totol de
producci6n que .upera Ia. 200.000 tonelad .. on,..oie •. Durante
mas de SO .ftos hemos respondldo 6 las necesidades de
nuestros dientes suminrstr'&nddes c.art6n de c.alldad y un
servicio puntual .
Example 12d
Detail ofPapertech 's Indonesian homepage (www.papertech.com/papertech_
in. asp)
PAPER ECH
HOW: I P£lMKAvPASAR I SKAlA PIIODUK
HOW: I P£lMKAvPASAR I SKAlA PIIODUK I LmGKOOGAN I PABAIK KERTAS
Spesiolis Coreboord
Komi memproduksi beber.-pa dan coreboord kua litas terbaik di
poser dunia sekarano 101. Tubes yan", dibu&t den",annya
...._< ~,=_•• berput8r pada keoepalan 2'5,000 RPM dan tahan akan tekanan
JOI\9 '01\90 onvgi d.lom .emu••• 10000.i.
Plybond UnOOI
Po_ Popertech berd.di~ •• i uotuk mel.kukon R&D dan
penln9kat4ln Jan9 tel'\ls menerus. 8aI'U baru ini kami telah
mlngemb41ngk6n Core HP10 d4ln Core ASl denQan n1l4l1 plybond
J6n9 moiebihi 1,000 )lrnZ.
Skol. yong luo.
Sompai denoan 12' "IJrode cor.board yang barbedo, dibuat
sesuli dengan kebutuhan khusus den pelanooan conYertinQ
k.mi. 8aoamarklPun kompleksnya kebuWh.n Inda, kami
menyedllkan or6de Y¥t9 tepat untlJlc operasiona:l and •.
Keohlion yano mendolam

Kehaodolan kami berahr pad a hpultos tahunon learnl , a"o
200,000 ton, don SO ta~un JeJ6f'ah komi okon menjowob
kebutuhan p.lln"IJqan denoan men"IJinmkan board bencullitu
dengln servis yanG memulskan.
Example 13 is made up of the two homepages, one in Hindi and the other
in English, devoted to a textile product of Kamadgiri Synthetics Ltd. (KSL),
called True Value. In terms of information-to-persuasion ratio, the texts seem
to display the same features as examples 11 and 12: several high-inform a-
tion-content or objective anchors linked by a boost structure. Try and divide
the two categories of elements, as was done with the previous two examples;
this time, no key will be provided. Also, compare the effect of third-person-
singular deixis to indicate the manufacturer (,Kamadgiri Synthetics Ltd. is ... ')
with that of the first-person-plural observed in example 12.
In example 13, however, there is more than information-to-persuasion
ratio and personal deixis to be discussed. KSL is based in India, and therefore
it seems obvious for its site to feature a Hindi version that is likely to be the
source text, even if it can only be accessed from the English homepage. Since
this B2B website is meant for a global market, it also has a version in Indian
English that, while fully ensuring international readability, at the same time
proudly states the Indian identity of the company and its products. This is made
clear not only by the syntax and grammar, but more prominently by the use of
an Indian numerical unit, the lac (also transliterated as lakh).
Example 13a
Hindi homepage of KSL True Value, htlp:/lwww.ksltruevalue.comlindex-
l.html
Ira Torresi 75
Example 13b
English homepage ofKSL True Value, http://www.ksltruevalue.com
In examples 11 and 12 we have already seen how figures can be loaded

with boost even if they are presented as inherently objective data. In 60 lacs
meters, however, we do not only find the use of objective information for the
purposes of boost (6,000,000 meters offabric produced each year is, after all,
a considerable quantity). Here we find a corporate image and identity that has
its roots in a local culture that, in tum, points out its connection to the current
global economic situation in which Indian-ness has turned into a value-added
quality for industrial businesses. In example 10, quantities expressed in interna-
tional metric measurements were accompanied by their translation into inches,
feet and pounds, reflecting the company's desire to make non-metric-system
customers feel at home. The reverse applies here: it would be a rash choice to
translate lacs, a strong indicator of identity, into hundreds of thousands without
negotiating this choice with the end client. So, translators beware: a number is
not always just a number, and even in promotional translation, domestication
is not always the obvious choice.
In example 13, then, we have a new combination of global interests and
local identity. This time, the company is not a multinational one that local-
izes its corporate image in order to make sure that its local dimension is not
overlooked, as occurred in example 12. Here the company is inherently and
inescapably local, and lets this local identity show through the windows it
opens onto the world. The direction the company is moving is no longer from
global to local, but from local to global, which implies a translation direction
from the local language into English, that is, the reverse of what applies to
the glocalization observed in example 12.
Incidentally, this is the usual direction when translating promotional ma-
terial for local businesses wishing to expand their market internationally, even
for those that do not seem as proud of their local identity as KSL but only have
an English website developed from ghost local-language originals. In such
cases, local companies usually either use in-house staff or seek the assistance
of freelance translators operating in their own countries and are more easily
accessible to them, both in terms of proximity and price. This in tum implies
that, in countries where English is not one of the national languages, this kind
of B2B materials is often translated by non-native speakers of English. This
contributes both to spreading global English(es) in international business
environments and to breaking the taboo of L 1 ----> L2 translation.
The last example of B2B web sites was mainly chosen to remind readers
that the general guidelines for the text types described in this book should
always be taken with a pinch of salt. We have seen that B2B brochures and
websites can have an information-to-persuasion ratio that oscillates between
the maximum information, minimum persuasion end of the continuum and
a point that is not far from there, as visualized in table 2. It is quite rare for a
B2B text to be thoroughly rewritten, and those who commission the transla-
tion of such texts do not usually look for creative trans-creation as much as
terminological accuracy. Every rule, however, has its exception, and a transla-
tor must be ready to assess the nature of a text and the approach it requires,
independently or with the client's help, without uncritically applying what
can be found in the textbook. (This might seem a foolish thing to write, but
in my teaching experience, and a short one it is, I have heard quite a few 'But
I read it in the book' replies.)
Example 14 consists of the German, English and Italian homepages - in
the same order as they appear in the site itself - of Zoratti Studio Editoriale
(formerly Durante&Zoratti), a Germany-based, Italian-owned publishing stu-
dio specializing in international publications. The target readership and the pool
of prospective clients consist of publishing houses, i.e. companies that work
in the same field as the source company and should have a clear idea of this
type of studio's activities and the services they provide. This notwithstanding,
Eleonora Zoratti, in agreement with Raffaella Durante, the co-owner at the
time, chose to make the site a practical example of the studio's work, rather
than focusing on factual information only.
Ira Torresi 77
Example 14a
Detail of the German homepage of Zoratti Studio Editoriale, http://www.
studio-editoriale.com
Bucher s prechen viele Sprachen . Die a ssozilrtive

Sprache krelrtlver Gedanken, die log ische llberzeugender Ideen,
die unmittelbare berOhrender Bilder, die individuelle eines kultivierten
st ils , die s pielerische innerhalb etablierter Genres.
WiJ hrintjell IIHe Bucher .. ,

Entdecken Sie Ihre intern8l ionalen Leser . Zoratti studio edttoriale unterstutzt Sie mtt
langjahriger Erfahrung und einem Team hochqualifizierter, buchbegeisterter
Ubersetzer und Lektor en, GestaJter und Setzer, Redakteure u n d Produzenten .
••• ZII Lesern in .... lIer Welt.
The translation process for example 14 was rather complex. The first
source text to be developed by professional copywriters was a Gennan one,
which was then translated into English by two professional translators. The
English text in tum became the source text for the Italian translation, entrusted
to two translators, including myself. The brief was to adapt the target text as
much as possible to the target culture and the literary style of the target lan-
guage. The two Italian translators were also asked to provide multiple versions
of specific metaphors and other parts of the translation as they saw fit. The
clients would then choose from the array of proposals, and it was clear from
the start that they would do a final round of revision/rewriting. Partly due to
the clients' direct involvement in the adaptation process, and perhaps more
importantly, given that the visuals and layout had not yet been decided at the
translation stage, no space constraints were specified. Close negotiation of
individual translation choices was made possible by constant contact with the
end clients and by their manifest interest in the outcome of the project.
After the clients had all translations/adaptations in their hands, they pro-
ceeded to a sort of reverse rewriting not only of the target texts but also of the
originals, so that in the end it would be impossible to tell which was the source
text and which were the translations. They treated all three versions (some
of them including multiple solutions) as alternative proposals, and chose the
individual solutions they felt best suited the studio's image. For each version,
they kept the selected solutions and replaced the rest with translations of the
winning solutions chosen from either one of the two other versions. Finally,
the original German version and the Italian translation were re-adapted by
the clients, whereas a British professional copywriter was asked to revise and
adapt the English translation.
Example 14b
Detail ofthe English homepage ofZoratti Studio Editoriale, http://www.studio-
editoriale.comleOl-home.htm
Books s peak many languages: the asso ci ative language of

creative thought ,the logical flow of pers uasion, the directness of
touching images , the individuality of a cu~ivated style,
the play w~h establis hed genres.
(0111 hoo s ...

hoo
Discover an international readership . Our highly specialist biblIophile t eam of

translators, designers, p r oducers, t ypesetters , copy edJtors and proofreaders can
help you w~h IdeaI Idea t o finiShed book on a distant shelf .
any or every stage from in~i
... for reader Ihe wrldrld .ove l.
The final result is a multi-language site whose versions, while gener-

ally consistent, retain several points of stylistic departure, due to the need
to functionally adjust texts not only to the target language and culture, but
also to the space constraints posed by the newly developed site layout. In the
English version of the homepage, for instance, shorter solutions towards the
beginning of the final three-line copy leave room for a highly evocative coda,
from initial idea to finished product on a distant shelf, which is not present in
the other two versions. This vivid image would be perfect for the Italian target
readership, and it would translate quite well into Italian, but in 14c, precious
space is consumed by a long but stylistically functional translation of the term
Ira Torresi 79
bibliophile and other lengthy solutions that also account for the intentional
omission of the initial catchphrase and professional figures such as producers,
typesetters or proofreaders (among the few technical anchors of this text).
Zoratti's website is clearly an exception in the B2B scenario.
Example 14c
Detail ojthe Italian homepage ojZoratti Studio Editoriale, http://www.studio-
editoriale.comliOl-home.htm
Un libro parla molte lingue . Vi e illinguaggio a sso c iativo

del la creatlvltio, quello loglco della pers uasi one, I'lmmedlatezza
dl un 'lmmaglne, 11 cod Ice Individuale dl uno stile c olt o,
iI g lo c o cons apev ole con I t;Jene<'i.
I vo11 11 i iii)! i ...
Lo studio ecfrt orlale Durante & Zoratti e II partner Ideale per Ie vostre produzlonl
internazionaJi grazie alia solida esperienza e a llo staff eli t raduttori , redattori e gra fici
a ltamente qualiflcati, un~i dall'entusiasmo per i librl e per tutti i nuovi media .
... Iler i lenol i lIel mOlulo.
The texts in example 14, and Zoratti's website as a whole, are similar to
B2C texts in that they rely more on figurative language and emotional style
rather than technical or objective data. Neutrality here is decidedly not an issue,
as shown by the use of personal deixis. Let us briefly recall other examples of
B2B promotional texts: in example 10 personal pronouns and verbal forms are
carefully avoided, and the company never refers to itself in the first person;
the same happens in CVs (see example 4), which usually totally lack personal
deixis with reference to the person being promoted, and in personal promotion
websites, where the standard deictic for the professional promoting hislher
activities is the third person singular. Both the impersonal form and the third
person create detachment between the text and its object of promotion (i.e.
the source company or professional), suggesting an objective, neutral stance
vis-it-vis the contents of the text and implicitly presenting the promotion as a
series of facts to be taken for granted.
Here, on the other hand, Zoratti studio reveal themselves as a we, as

Papertech does in example 13. Unlike example 13, however, here the client,
too, is addressed directly, through a second person, the English you, that is
disambiguated to be a plural in the other two versions. Thus, the we/plural
you deixis in example 14 creates an emotional bond between the source and
target companies that is much closer than what we find in examples 10 to 13,
but at the same time does not infringe the B2B conventions of the respective
languages and cultures or irritate prospective clients with an over-friendly tone.
We find voi in Italian, without the capital V, which is typical of more official
and highly codified text types, such as formal application letters (compare
with Sua in example 8a), and the formal Sie in German.
Such plural reference to the target readership is standard across all types
ofB2B communication using personal deixis: it makes it clear that a company
in the form of a plural entity, we, is addressing a peer, another collective entity.
The degree of formality in such situations should be adjusted according to
the specific conventions that apply to the B2B context in the target language
and culture. This is an important point when translating from English into
languages that distinguish between singular and plural forms as well as the
formal and the informal you. As a rule of thumb, it is usually inappropriate to
address a company using singular or colloquial second person forms,just like
it is usually off-target to address individual consumers with a highly formal
plural form in B2C promotional communication (we will see a purposeful
exception to this in example 33c).
5.1.2 B2B advertisements
B2B advertisements share some of the characteristics of ads as we all know

them (i.e. B2C ads) - in particular, space constraints and the predominant
presence of visuals. The latter is mainly due to a distribution context that is
different from that of brochures and websites. B2B ads are mainly developed
to be circulated in the trade press, which does not only contain articles and
informative materials, but also other B2B ads. This generates a certain degree
of competition for the reader's typically short attention span. Like B2C ads,
B2B advertisements also try to generate curiosity or interest and transmit their
message in the shortest time possible, and with the least effort from the reader.
This is why visuals are preferred to verbal text: they are thought to be easier
and quicker to grasp and remember. The visual dimension of verbal elements,
too, is often emphasized with the use oflarger and/or coloured prints, or unu-
sual fonts and layouts. Following the same logic offast communication, short
nominal sentences are preferred to an argumentative or descriptive style.
On the other hand, the kind of advertising we are dealing with here is
B2B, which means that the target is usually supposed to know the object
tJj (1) ..". ~
\::)
o ;.< to'
[Please note that this is just one possible interpretation; figures, in particular, can be counted as both boost and objec- S:S'< OJ
......
....
tive/technicallinfonnative data, as only large ones have been selected to portray the company's activity. However, o~"C
....... 0 ~
(1) (1) ...... ~.
1--1-' I---" ~
from a translator's practical point of view, in this kind of text and with this kind of client, they cannot be nonnally en tv (1)
treated with the same freedom as 'nonnal' boost elements. The same applies to lexical items that, although technical § p ~
~ tJj"g
or highly infonnative in nature, have an inherently positive connotation (and, therefore, a boost value) in this con- ..... 0 "'i
..... 0 ~
en
('[)
en
~
......
1--1--
text, such as 'R&D' and 'continuous improvement'. The reverse also applies: several boost elements appear to have o...~§
infonnative value, or are so closely linked to technicallinfonnative anchors that a translator might find it difficult to b' (1) 0
"'i S ,...,
(1) (1) 0
detach himlherself from the original structure of the text.] SS-S"
"C en (1)'
::r E=l 0
~ CD =-.
Coreboard Specialists ~. ~. c:5
~ S- ~
We manufacture some of the highest quality coreboard in the world market today. Tubes made with it spin at 25,000 : : : :=-: g
0... 8. ::r
rpm and resist extremely high tensions in all applications. ::; ~ 8.
~ 0... 0
High Plybond rn '-' e:...
"C 0 ;::;-.
Papertech mills are committed to R&D and continuous improvement. Most recently we have developed Core HPI0 @~~
~ g 0
and Core A51 with plybond values that exceed 1.000 j/m2. S- ~. S
Wide Range s· (1) :=;.
...... 0... :;:;.
Up to 12 different grades of coreboard, tailored to the specific needs of our converting customers. No matter how ::r:=;'(1)
(1) ~ 0...
o ~ ~
complex your needs, we supply the right grade for your operations. ~. @ S-
Expertise and Depth .....
:::::
§ -<en
e:... 0... .
Our dependability is rooted in our annual capacity of 200,000 tons, and our 50-year history of responding to our • (1) 0"'
~g
customers 'needs by delivering quality board with exceptional service. ::::: en
(1) ......
:::::
.0... ..... O:l
'-
being advertised (or at least the category of products/services it belongs to)

and expects technical details or specific advantages compared to competing
items. In some cases, therefore, both the verbal and visual levels of B2B ads
reflect the objective and neutral stance observed for instance in example 10,
albeit with a different layout that gives prominence to the visual part of the
text and accommodates the one-page format.
Example 15 is one instance of this approach. The priority here seems to be
information rather than persuasion. The page is rather full, with several visuals
illustrating the referents of the two nominal sentences, which simply state the
categories of products depicted. Each category name is provided in Italian,
English and French, the same three languages of the multi-brand catalogue
where the ad was published. The inclusion of more than one language in the
same ad allows the company to cover a broader international readership without
resorting to multiple ads, and thus save on costs. At the same time, it imposes
significant space constraints, which might force translators to save even on
hyphens, as in 'self-propelled', which here becomes 'selfpropelled'.
Example 15
Fantini-Andreoli multilingual one-page ad, Directory of Farm Machinery,
three-language edition, Bologna (Italy), Edagricole, 2000, p. 245
Ira Torresi 83
Example 16 follows the same multilingual strategy as example 15, adding

Gennan and Spanish to the language list. Overall, however, this ad appears
much more oriented towards persuasion than the previous example. Why?
As mentioned above, the visual level is particularly important for
advertisements, because images and graphic elements do not only convey
infonnation but also carry suggestions, metaphors, and symbolic links (several
of which are culture-bound) in a denser and more direct way than verbal ele-
ments, which may take more time and effort to read and understand.
In example 15, visuals mainly provide concrete referents for the general
categories enunciated verbally, and verbal elements are rendered in a fonnat-
ting style that is more standard than that of example 16. The colour of the
print is always black, no italics are used, and capitals are employed throughout
the text, ensuring overall visibility but without emphasizing any element in
particular. Fonts, moreover, especially the one used for the product categories,
are rather square-angled; the overall impression is one of objective infonna-
tion rather than emotional involvement. This serves several purposes. First of
all, the company is presented in a way that is familiar to, thus reassuring for
people who are used to doing business in the B2B environment. Secondly, as
we have already seen in B2B brochures, the impersonal, neutral style adopted
at the verbal and visual/graphic levels conveys a no-nonsense company image
and makes product characteristics emerge apparently naturally and objectively
from what is presented as a series of facts. Thirdly, the amount of specific
infonnation conveyed by this single one-page ad, especially by its visuals, is
quantitatively comparable to that of a brochure. The reader is infonned about
the existence and names - if not technical specifications, which would not
have fit into the space - of as many as nine products, two of which are shown
in three variants each.
In example 16, on the other hand, the background picture has an impor-
tant two-fold purpose. It not only describes the scope of application of the
advertised product (agricultural rainguns), but also has an evocative quality
to it. The picture is undoubtedly a cultivated field, but it does not depict an
area of freshly tilled or sown land, the kind of soil we see in the three smaller
pictures. It is a golden field of blooming sunflowers accented by the contrast
with the dark trees on the horizon, the blue sky above, and the red of the com-
pany logo. Colour saturation and contrast make the picture, and consequently
the superimposed verbal text, more evident and likely to attract the reader's
attention. Also, the page is less crowded with specific infonnation, which is
confined to the pre-headline announcing the company's production (irrigatori,
in English 'rainguns') and the three smaller pictures depicting products of
three different categories (respectively indicated in English as 'sprinklers of
medium and small capacity', 'slow reverse rainguns', and 'gears' rainguns').
The rest of the verbal text, which again, is highlighted with the use of white
print over the saturated colours of the background picture, does not contain
any technical anchor, but consists entirely of boost: 'The widest range for
the best choice', in the sub-headline, and '50 years of quality + perfonnance
+ safety' in the payoff. It should be noted, however, that the specific layout
of the ad in example 16, with five language versions bullet-listed one after
the other, suggests that the overall layout should be kept symmetrical, since,
as mentioned before, the visual level is more important than the verbal one.
This, in tum, coupled with the extreme simplicity of the boosting nominal
sentences, advocates literal translation rather than rewriting, which is exactly
what happens in example 16.
In some cases of B2B advertising the persuasive element is much more
dominant than in example 16; the text is catchier and the language is more
emotional than neutral. Example 17, for instance, displays a layout that is
Example 16
SIME multilingual one-page ad, Directory ofFarm Machinery, three-language
edition, Bologna (Italy), Edagricole, 2000, p. 243
.,.,.,..,.". Arro...n • ••,..... • ......... .".,...,..

Ira Torresi 85
clearly designed to capture one's attention and ensure high visibility for the
text, which is even shorter that in the previous two examples. This monolin-
gual ad also has more space for the visual, and much larger print. Colours and
slanted lines are repeated several times across the ad, reinforcing each other
and making the overall message more powerful, easier to grasp and remember.
Thus, example 17, although curiously included in the 'Brochures' section of the
Trilla company website, appears to be more persuasion-oriented than example
16, and much more so than example 15. Actually, the only product-specific
information - the main benefit of the product, its advantage vis-it-vis other
competitors - is conveyed by the picture alone: the advertised steel drums are
not only 'new', as stated by the capitalized word opening the slanted part of
the copy, but also coloured. It is this characteristic that helps the addressees
enhance their product image.
Example 17
English-only ad, Trilla Corp, downloadable from http://www.trilla.com/trilla/
ENHANCE_YOUR_PRODUCTjMAGE_BROCHURE.pdf
Tril
Enhance your product

.Image ...
~~c:o.~ .
~~c:o.~ .
~~c:o.~~~c:o.~
.~ .
1~""""""",.77UII?..sm!iD
~~c:o.~ .
Here, persuasive intent emerges on a verbal as well as visual level. In

example 17, we find two imperatives, one of which is made relevant by its
initial position, Enhance, the other by the larger print, the use of italics, and
the high-visibility background, buy, in the left-hand red wedge. In advertis-
ing and low-infonnation, high-persuasion promotional genres, imperatives
and other devices, like rhetorical questions are used to elicit the addressee's
direct involvement in the message. Additionally, by using second-person verb
fonns, they address the reader directly, creating an emotional bridge between
addresser and addressee. In example 17, this is reinforced by the personal
adjective, your, which further highlights that buying the product is important
for the reader, not in general tenns.
Second person fonns, however, pose a practical translation problem when
one translates from English into a language that distinguishes between plural
and singular as well as fonnal and infonnal you fonns. We have seen in §
5.1.1.2 that, as a rule of thumb, in B2B communication, you should nonnally
be interpreted as a plural, given that the target is made up of collective entities.
This general condition still applies here, but one should also take into account
the extent to which the ad mimics B2C communication, where you is usually
singular. In cases such as example 17, then, when it is difficult to disambiguate
the nature of you, it is essential to ask clients how they wish to be portrayed
in tenns of authoritativeness and closeness/deference to the target readership
(see item 4 of table 1). If the working context makes it impossible to retrieve
such infonnation from the client, and if multiple versions are not an option,
then the only thing that can help a translator is to carefully assess the position
of the text on the infonnation-to-persuasion ratio continuum (table 2). In ex-
ample 17, as we have just seen, there are several elements, both graphic and
verbal, that suggest an intention to position the text slightly more towards the
maximum persuasion end of the continuum. In particular, the establishment of
an emotional bond between the addresser and the addressee seems to suggest
a high degree of closeness between the two. In similar B2B contexts, if the
target language favours singular and/or infonnal second person fonns in B2C
advertising, it would not be a mistake to opt for such fonns.
In the light of the latter comments and of the whole discussion about B2B
advertising, try and translate example 17 into your working language(s). Pay
special attention to space constraints, typography and layout issues (use of
capitals, etc). Remember that the use of space, geometrical shapes, and other
visual devices also carry meaning, and can be adjusted to the conventions
applying in the target language and culture. Also remember that each culture
has a visual language that may differ from the American (or more generally,
Western) one. Colour symbolism, in particular, may be an issue here or in
similar cases (see chapter 8). (See also Schopp 2002 and works on visual
semiotics, social semiotics and geosemiotics in the further reading list in the
References ).
Institutional Promotion
This chapter briefly outlines the main features of promotional material pro-
duced by institutions and addressed either to other institutions or to individuals.
It then analyses two examples of institution-to-institution (or 121) promotional
texts and a variety of institution-to-user (or 12U) promotional materials.
6.1 Institutional promotional texts
By 'institutional promotion' I mean all forms of materials that are produced by

institutions (both public and not-for-profit private ones) to acquire visibility.
They may be self-referential, e.g. inform the public about what the institu-
tion does and how to access/use its services, in which case the information
content will be higher, or present its achievements. Alternatively, they may
give visibility to something other than the institution itself, if this purpose falls
within the institution's mission. The latter case applies to materials produced
by tourist promotion boards or charities, foundations or organizations that
seek to change people's behaviour (e.g. 'Quit smoking' campaigns promoted
by hospitals, health ministries, or cancer leagues).
Institutional promotion can be circulated in all media. It is not unusual,
however, that the same materials are made available across different media
that would normally require different verbal and visual encodings: for instance,
the same text can be found as a brochure and on the institution's website. This
is a way to save money, which might be frowned upon in the case of private
companies, who risk appearing mean or even worse, poor, but is taken as a
virtue in the case of institutions, especially public ones.
For this reason, in this chapter institutional promotion material will not
be divided by medium, but by addressee. The first section will be about texts
that are produced by institutions to gain positive visibility with other, usually
superordinate, institutions. Drawing a parallel with B2B, I will call such
promotion 'institution-to-institution' (or 121). On the other hand, the target
of the texts discussed in the second section is the individual user. This type
of promotion will accordingly be called 'institution-to-user' (or 12U). In the
12U section, texts will further be divided by field (health service promotion,
tourist promotion, and awareness-raising).
Differences that can be ascribed to specific media and circulation contexts
will be accounted for in the discussion of individual examples. One media-
related characteristic, however, that applies in particular to web-circulated
materials and brochures (i.e. the totality of the examples that will be analysed
here) is space constraints. As we have seen in the previous chapters, it is always
88 Translating Promotional Material: Institutional Promotion
important to clear this aspect with the client prior to starting the translation. If
no space constraints are specified in the brief or after the translator's inquiry,
then the translator may either disclaim any responsibility concerning the
downsizing of the target text to accommodate the final layout, or accept that
responsibility as an additional commission at an additional price.
6.1.1 Institution-to-institution (121)
The addressees of institutional promotion are usually the general public, or the
users of the institution's services. Institutions, however, may need to produce
material which motivates or justifies the funds they receive from higher-level
institutions, for instance through a list of achievements that implicitly vouch
for the good use of such funds. Using a neologism, this kind of promotional
material can be called institution-to-institution or 121. Even if it is produced by
public-owned or public-funded organizations and it targets similar organiza-
tions, it is similar to B2B in at least three respects. First, it usually circulates
in narrow circles, such as other institutions or the decision-makers from
whom the existence and funding of the institution depends. Secondly (and
as a consequence of the first aspect), the information it conveys tends to be
more specific than in public campaigns. And thirdly, since it is not supposed
to be promotional but informative, it contains data presented as objective and
usually avoids emotional language.
In multilingual countries, 121 material often needs to be translated into
all national languages, or the main working language(s) of the addressed
institution(s). Even in monolingual countries, however, this kind of pro-
motional material might need to be translated whenever the addressee is an
international organization. In the EU, for instance, several national or local
organizations receive funds from European institutions and, additionally to
producing official reports, might wish to produce easy-reference literature
about their virtuous use of such funds. Such literature is made available to
the general public, but is really aimed at gaining visibility at the institutional
level. Moreover, public documents produced in the framework of European
projects are often translated into the respective languages of all participants,
in addition to the usual English translation that is provided for general and
public reference.
In a different scenario, European or international projects might aim at
supporting national or local institutions that are different from the partners
to the project, so that the documents produced by the participants need to be
translated into the nationallanguage(s) of the targeted organizations. In the
latter case, 121 takes on a different meaning; the targeted institutions do not
give out funds or support, but are the recipients of the work of the institutions
participating in the project.
The style ofI21 promotion may at times overlap with that of institutional
Ira Torresi 89
Example 18
From the homepage http://smetypo3.stage-server.del
About the p,oJect ~~
v .slo n as part of the European Ye."

The proJect $ vtslon Year or workers I·'obility
I-'obility 1$ supposed
s upposed to
support qU"'u,.
qu",U"od d work:er-s: to t(tk4t
toke: welt
we lt Infor-mod deciSions: concerning
cOnc.rnlng wklnQ w In9 up
employment In .. di fferent country, either tempOr.ltrUy or permanently.permanently, either eIther
dellberb t ely
deliberA e1v <as
( s oft c;)reer"
c(ueer" move)
mo ve) Or" out 01ot neceSSity
nee ,slty «(or
( ror Instance unemployment).
un mploy ment) . The
prOject oncour .... oe youno
proJec.t will encour younO andnd older skilled workers to oet oot work wor experience abr03d
to
t o considerably Increase their chances on the labour market. The Tho project wltl also
al50 help
european
uropean small
sma ll and medium-sized
medium -sized enterprises
ent.erprlses to recruit sui
su itable
table s taH
taff 'or their nods
needs
WhiCh g_'n.
WhiC h . .. gin, wUl
w Ul con c hlo..,. tho LJsbon ob,ecU
tribute to achieve
contribute ... es
obJectl .... $' -- competitiveness and
Job creation
creaUon ..
This proJe t.h e r e 'o.-e allns

c::tt t.h
p"'oJ e~ ahns to
t o p..-ovld
p..-o vld e
• t.er'QIeted
t ... n~eted Information on demend and supp ly slocilled labour
l y of sl<lIIed l.abour
- c.omparable d.,t",
c.ompaorab'e diilt .... to skmed workers;
work rs to help
hel p them
th m develop ... decision based on
deCision b.sed
Info.-m;,ltlon w
solid Info.-ma.tlon when
hen ththey wan t to work abroad
ey want abrood
• meterl.1 ffor
moter'al or tf"lJ1n4no
tr41n4no support
s upport ~,O help mob".
mob"e employees.
mployees. to p"epare
prepare ol'IIdeQ ..... ~.ly
~.l y for
workh,G' "brood
workh'g .... brood
• a platform for european recruitment recrultm nt of skilled wors<ers~ based
sk ill d workers~ bas d on an already
Ire dy
eXlsung
e XI$Ung and functioning database. managed by IEFK.A EFK.A
wU I o f'er
The platform will f fer an additional service: enterprises who
w ho register
re.glster and declare
declar"e
availability to ..-ec:rll
..-ecru itl t workforce coming from different countr i es, wi
countries. ll have
will ha ve the
opportunity to acquire VISibility towards European workers who w ho are Interested In
genlng
gettln9 work experience In their th Ir field
field..
Example 19
From the brochure downloadable from http://smetypo3.stage-server.del
fileadminlsmeldownload_ assetslpdflEu-brochure-do-you-want-to-work-in-
another-EU-Member-State.pdf
Introduction
Freree III
m ove ement
m e nr of pper. e rsonn " i" one
o n e o f the fundnm
th e fund nt lI freed
a m e nta fr cd o Ill unoflnt cd by
m "" g ualflnteed by
o mmunity law. l a~ . EU c itizen s ca n mo
c an m ove e to a n o the r Member
to another M e mbe r S tate
tnte in ol'der
o l'd e r to
to
work o r to s tudy
tud y thetherere.. to
t provide
pro ide or receive
re e i ser v ices, to set up a co m pa ny.• 10 to
scttl e th c re for
f o r ret il'e m ce nt
r lire nl or. in the
th easc o f cco no mica lly in" in acti
ti ve p erson n s..
s' imp ly to
to rc
resi'idc
d e the
thcrcre..
l~ h l s uide
g uid e desc ribes
d escri nl y Ih
b es. nunly le g all positio
th e lega positionn of hn 11Iig
o f p ~ r ~o n s 'w hu IlIig ,"u le ,,-ilhin
l"ule n ' ilhin
th e.. E ll
I" I'""..,
III"upcu
'u n U niun f"r" l"'cosu
ninn fur' n !'t~ of
I ·OSn .. ufclupluy nu:°..
· Iupluy .u nt1.. Its ail11
ainl is to I"rovide
is to I"r ide yyOll u
w
\ ith info rm at io n ab
information II bo ut your rig ht" aliSs a mi g rant work e r in an
worker li n eas
e as ily unde r-
under-
<;t nd
<;to "ble qu
ndobl q u e<;ttiionnand
<; a n d a nn<;w
<;wel'S f rm
I' for m.
Do you U want
\ loke uul'p an jjobb in a no
to lake n ther
th r Membe
Memb r S la ta Ic?
te? A re you wO I'king in
(lIlo Ihe
an the r M e ".lbc
n", r S ta le te and
a nd wonderin
\ nde rin g whaw h a l your
y lIr r ig hts (H'e in co mparim pa ri son
- n
w
\ llh
IIh workc l'" rs r.·om
r.·om Ihal that eo co unlry?
untry ? W hath at happc
happen;,ns if you
yo u work in o ne nc counll'y
c untry
bUI res idce in an
res id thcr"!
u l, othc r"! Thl
1~ hl " uidc
," g uid will
e "v pro ide yo
iII prov you
u '\ v ilb
tlh ans
a n s 'wcrs th s e a nd
W crs to those: nd
m a,-an
n y oth
th e~ rr qu .:=~t i o n ~.
e~ tion ~.
hi hi
h ,ss gUldc
g uide has bbccn
een Ipublis hed
u Its hcd III the
thc fmm ework of
fr.lll1cwork o f Ihe E uro pe an Ye
the Europcan ar of
Year of
W o rk e rs' Mob.lil
M o bilit y 2 006 ~
2006 ""hi
"" hi c h hn$
h a~ b een o rg
rgLinised
anised 10
to rnli s~ a\
':list! n \V.ln~ " and
Oln::nn t:s:...
t:$...'"
understAnding o f the bene
unde tanding of ben e fits
fit of
f work ing. abr
w rking Abroad
ad .
public campaigns (institution-to-user, or I2U, § 6.1.2), but sometimes it is quite

easy to tell the two apart. For instance, before reading further, compare the
excerpts in examples 18 and 19. They refer to the same issue, workers'mobility
across the EU, and both can be accessed from the same website. One of them,
however, is clearly 12U, while the other seems to have a more institutional
stance that makes the reader think that it is not primarily or exclusively targeted
at individual service users. There are several linguistic features, which have
already been mentioned in the previous chapter with reference to B2B, that tell
them apart. There are also clues that can be retrieved from the contents of the
texts. Draw a list of relevant differences between the examples before reading
the continuation of this section. If you use this book for classroom practice,
discuss these differences in class. Where do they locate the respective texts on
the information-to-persuasion ratio continuum (table 2)? And with respect to
question 4 of the model brief in table I? Please note that one of the two texts
was probably written by non-native speakers. Stylistic differences that can be
ascribed to this characteristic should not be taken into account here.
(Please do not resume reading before you have completed your list of
differences! )
First of all, a few contextual elements might make the difference clearer.
Example 19 is the introduction to the brochure 'Do you want to work in an-
other EU Member State? Find out about your rights! " issued by the European
Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal
Opportunities, available in 20 EU languages from http://bookshop.europa.
eu/uri?target=EUB:NOTICE:KE7506930:EN (the URL in the caption only
refers to the English version). The fact that EC Directorate-Generals do not
depend on external funding discourages the 121 interpretation, even if this
conclusion needs to be supported by text analysis.
On the other hand, those who are familiar with the kind of texts produced
by European-funded projects will have recognized, at the very least from
the recurrent reference to 'the project', one such text in example 18, which,
in fact, is the homepage of the Skilled Mobile European project. The site is
multilingual, with versions in seven different languages, the national languages
of the partners, plus English. European projects are proposed by organizations
that apply for European Commission funds through special calls for proposals.
The proposals are assessed by a group of specialists and the winners are then
closely monitored during all stages of the project, both in terms of results
and expenditures. For this reason, as already mentioned, several materials
originating from European projects are intended for 121 communication, even
if this is not always the case. This particular project, for instance, is intended
to have relevance for individual workers migrating across the EU as well as
for small and medium-sized enterprises hiring them.
The site also contains several downloadable materials that address the end
users of the project, some of them with more direct and emotional style than
others. In this case, therefore, context is not enough to let us decide clearly
Ira Torresi 91
whether this text is 121 or 12D. To make this decision, and therefore as transla-
tors decide whether we can address the reader as an individual or it is better to
leave the text impersonal, we have to look at the text in more detail.
The section of the homepage contained in example 18 does not seem
to seek direct contact with the end users, at least from a linguistic point of
view. For a start, the project is presented as a work-in-progress initiative,
and its final results, which should benefit individual workers and small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), had not been achieved yet at the moment
when this webpage was written. The vision is supposed to support... workers,
the project will encourage, will... help, aims to, and so on. Moreover, Lisbon
objectives, competitiveness andjob creation, are in a position that grants them
high relevance both linguistically and graphically, since they are the rheme of
the last sentence of the first paragraph, followed by a blank line. Such objec-
tives, however, are not presented in a way that has a clear practical relevance
for individual workers or enterprises. This would have entailed a different
emphasis structure, for instance,
In line with Lisbon objectives, the project will also help European small
and medium-sized enterprises to recruit staff that suit their needs, which
will contribute to making them more competitive at the same time as
they create new jobs for European workers.
Here, competitiveness is presented as a potential point of interest for SMEs and

job creation as something relevant to workers. Well-informed readers might
still link them back to the initial parenthetic clause about Lisbon objectives,
but the end users of the project's services would recognize the final pieces of
information as relevant for them as enterprises or workers, rather than in general
or for European institutions. In the original, on the other hand, the focus is on
the project's compliance with a specific institutional strategy, which seems to
imply that the primary addressees of the text are European institutions, not
European citizens or businesses.
Such considerations are confirmed by what is perhaps the most obvious
difference between examples 18 and 19 in terms of 121 vs. 12U language.
In example 19, after one and a half paragraphs which appear objective and
informative, the text starts addressing the reader as a you that is immediately
disambiguated as a singular (as a migrant worker). In other language versions
the second person plural is used, which is either more formal (as in German)
or betrays that the source institution looks at the addressee as a collective mass
rather than a set of individuals (as is usual in Italian 12U communication issued
by public bodies where personal deixis is used). Moreover, the third paragraph
of example 19 seeks the readers' active participation through three questions
that are supposed to make them identify with the situations described, and
call on them to provide an answer, i.e. to actively complete the meaning of
the message. No such devices are employed in example 18.

At the same time, examples 18 and 19 also share some common features.
For instance, the first and last paragraphs of example 19 contain information
about EU laws and the Union's official position vis-it-vis workers' mobil-
ity, presented as general statements rather than something that has special
relevance for the reader. Such institutional parts of the text are, accordingly,
rather impersonal; no personal deixis is used, no emotional bond is created,
the reader's active participation is not an issue. The latter elements are only
found in the middle part of the text. Moreover, in both example 18 and 19, the
addressers never reveal themselves in the first person, or even as organizations.
In example 18, the topic is always the project, never its participants (whose
logos and contacts, however, are displayed on the site, to the right of the text
shown in the example). In example 19, the addresser is identified as the gUide
itself, not its source institution. Both strategies convey the impression that the
two texts are intended for information only, not for persuasion. In fact, this is
exactly their purpose; we have already seen that, in institutional promotion, the
term 'promotion' often refers only to 'visibility', especially when the object
of promotion is not something that can be bought, or a change of lifestyle that
is pushed on the addressees.
Now that we have outlined differences and similarities between our 121
and 12U texts, use examples 18 and 19 as source texts for translation practice.
For a comparison with other language versions, example 18 is available at the
URL contained in the caption, as well as in the Appendix of this book (chapter
10), in six other versions (German, Finnish, Hungarian, Italian, Danish and
Slovak) provided by the national partners of the project. Example 19 can be
found in 19 other European languages also in the Appendix, while the whole
brochure 'Do you want to work in another EU Member State? Find out about
your rights!' can be downloaded in 20 EU languages from http://bookshop.
europa.eu/uri?target=EUB:NOTICE:KE7506930:EN.
6.1.2 Institution-to-user (J2U)
Institution-to-user communication originates from institutions and addresses

the end users of the institution's services, or, in the case of awareness-raising,
the general public. The addressee, therefore, is always an individual who is
not supposed to have any special knowledge about the institution's field of
activity. This accounts for a density of specific information that is generally
lower than in B2B or 121 texts. Not all 12U texts, however, resort to high-
persuasion devices such as personal deixis, emotional language, or the active
involvement of the reader through imperatives or questions that elicit the
reader's action or answer, or through tropes or puns that require a non-literal,
creative interpretation. Thus, the information-to-persuasion ratio ofI2U texts
is highly variable, depending on a number of factors.
Ira Torresi 93
For instance, in cultures where hierarchies and public face are important,
public institutions are usually more oriented towards an institutional image
that is more dignified than humanized, which prevents them from using emo-
tionallanguage or fancy wordplay. Texts produced by such sources will tend
to be more informative than persuasive, even if the information provided is
not particularly specific. Conversely, in cultures where those who hold power
are expected to wear a human face and be close to the people who depend
on them, public agencies might find it more effective to put on a friendly
image and address the reader as a peer, increasing their visibility with highly
captivating or even amusing devices at the same time as they provide useful
information. The same cultural differences apply to private organizations that
choose to portray themselves as institutions rather than companies, perhaps
because they provide services traditionally associated with the public sector, or
are partly owned by public entities, or receive public funds. Such companies,
too, will tend to keep a distance from the addressee in large-power-distance
cultures, whereas in small-power-distance cultures they are more likely to
choose a B2C-like approach.
This creates a major problem for translators, since the functional trans-
lation of an I2U text coming from a public source, or a source that imitates
public promotional discourse, can require heavy trans-creation, similar to what
we have discussed with regard to CVs and job application letters (§ 4.2.1 and
§ 4.2.2). How does one decide whether the target culture is based on small or
large power distance, and if institutions are supposed to have a friendly human
face or an impassively dignified image? Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) help us
with their investigation of cultural dimensions in 74 countries. Besides "power
distance" (ibid.: 39 and following), other relevant dimensions here are "indi-
vidualism vs. collectivism" (ibid.: 73 and following) (in collectivist societies,
institutions are supposed to serve the common good seen as an abstract entity
rather than provide services to and seek contact with individual citizens) and
"masculinity vs. femininity" (ibid.: 115 and following) (in feminine societies,
institutions are expected to be more caring and closer to citizens as service
users). It is however important to complement Hofstede and Hofstede's data,
which are not meant to suit a translator's specific needs and require some
interpretation, with real-life observations. In other words, read as many
parallel texts as possible in the target language, after making sure that they
are comparable with the text to be translated in terms of source, target, and
distribution context, including the source organization's field of activity and
whether it operates in the public or private sector.
These considerations do not necessarily apply only to those cases when
the target text is intended for users who live outside the borders of the source
institution's country, and therefore clearly belong to a different culture. Even
within the borders of a multilingual state, different language communities
may score differently on one or more cultural dimensions. For instance, Hof-
stede and Hofstede show that, compared with the total Canadian population,
Quebec is characterized by higher power distance and lower individualism
and masculinity rates. The same applies to the Flemish part of Belgium when
compared with the Walloon population. Secondly, even when the translation
is intended for migrants residing in the same country as the source institution,
translators may choose to exploit the conventions that apply in one or more of
the countries where the target language is spoken, in order to accommodate
the cultural expectations of the target readership.
It is obviously impossible to cover all fields of I2U communication. The
following sections concern the fields of healthcare, tourism, and awareness-
raising. Trade union communication was already discussed in example 1
(chapter 2), which also championed the distribution context ofI2U print ads,
and will not be discussed again here.
6.1.2.1 I2U promotion in the health care field
In addition to what has been discussed about power distance, individualist

vs. collectivist, and masculine vs. feminine cultures, there is an important
contextual element that one should take into account when translating health-
care promotion across languages and cultures. Some countries have highly
developed public-funded healthcare systems that provide citizens with services
free of charge or at low prices. In such countries, citizens tend to resort to
private healthcare institutes outside the public circuit only when local public
structures cannot grant a timely or highly specific service. Moreover, since
profit is supposed to be less of an issue for public healthcare units than for
private entities, the general assumption is that their main priority should be
citizens' health rather than economic performance. Under such circumstances,
the public tend to trust the public healthcare sector namely for its institutional
nature, and are likely to be negatively influenced by linguistic (or visual and
graphic) strategies that may be perceived to belittle the source's authority,
public face, or neutral stance.
This is particularly true for cultures that have relatively large power dis-
tance combined with relatively high scores in another cultural dimension, that
of "uncertainty avoidance", which for the purposes of this discussion can be
taken to mean a preference for everything reassuring and familiar (Hofstede
and Hofstede 2005: 163 and following). Italy is one such culture; the United
States, English-speaking Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, New Zealand and
Australia, conversely, all have low power distance and uncertainty avoidance
scores. In the following two examples we will see how this influences brochure
and website copywriting and translation.
The first example comes from the public sector. It is taken from a guide
to the services of the Forli hospital, written by the Public Relations office of
Ira Torresi 95
the Forli Local Health Unit (AUSL) and circulated both in printed fonn and
as a .pdf file available from the institution's webpage. A reduced version of
the original brochure, translated into English by a Dutch translator, is avail-
able only as a downloadable file with a simplified layout. (French, Chinese,
Albanian and Arabic versions of the reduced guide can also be downloaded
from the webpage indicated in the two captions; see Appendix for the respective
translations of example 20.) Once again, the purpose of the brochure might
seem to be only infonnative, but at a deeper level the issue here is institutional
visibility and putting on a public face that is well accepted by the citizens.
Example20a
From page 14 ofthe Italian brochure "Guida al Polo Ospedaliero 'G.B. Mor-
gagni - L. Pierantoni' Forli ", ForliA USL (Local Health Unit), downloadable
from http://www.auslfo.itltabidI444IDefault.aspx. With graphic adjustments
A chi chiedere informazioni
[... ]
Nell' atrio del padiglione "Morgagni" ci si puo rivolgere allo sportello infonna-
tivo. Gli operatori risponderanno a tutte Ie domande relative ai servizi offerti.
Possono fomire infonnazioni sulla modalita di accesso a ricoveri ed esami,
vi site ambulatoriali e in libera professione, tempi di attesa, funzionamento di
tutte Ie stmtture operative dell' Azienda e altre infonnazioni per garantire la
soluzione di problematiche relative ai servizi socio sanitari come esenzioni,
rimborsi, altre stmtture sanitarie a cui rivolgersi.
II personale favorisce I' accoglienza, edisponibile nei confronti dei cittadini per
ascoltare e comprendere Ie richieste ed offre I' aiuto necessario a limitare i disagi
che possono verificarsi durante la fmizione dei servizi e risolvere eventuali
problemi pratici collegati aile prestazioni erogate dall' Azienda.
Example20b
From page 1 ofthe English translation ofa reduced version of2Da, downloadable
from http://www.auslfo.itltabidI444IDefault.aspx. With graphic adjustments
Where to get information

[... ]
In the entrance-hall of the Section "Morgagni" you can tum to the infonnation
desk. The operators will respond to all your questions about the services offered.
They can give you infonnation about the modality of access to hospitalization
and examinations, surgery visits and private visits, waits, the functioning of all
the operative structures of the Centre and other infonnation to guarantee the
solution of problems related to social health care, such as exemptions, refund-
ing and other health services where to tum to.
Our staff gives priority to hospitality, and is at the disposal of the citizens to
listen and comprehend their requests, offers the necessary help to limit the
inconveniencies during the use of the different services and resolves practical
problems related to the services lent by the Centre.
The target text in example 20b is a literal translation of 20a, at times so

close to the original that the reading becomes awkward, e.g. in 'at the dis-
posal of the citizens to listen and comprehend their requests'. The principle
of accuracy appears to override that of functionality, except for one important
element: personal deixis.
In both languages, this excerpt of the guide is supposed to explain where
people can find information once they get to the hospital and what kind of
information they can find there. This content is very practical and is supposed
to be especially relevant for the person who has taken the initiative of picking
the brochure from an information point or downloading it from the Health
Unit's website. This is why the English text routinely turns impersonal sen-
tences into personal addresses ('you can tum to '), and adds personal pronouns
or possessives ('They can give you', 'Our staff') to make communication
personal, between a plural we and a singular you, as is in the nature of things
as well as in English conventional I2U writing.
The Italian text, on the other hand, never uses personal deixis. It does
not define the hospital as a we, which is probably due to the need to make it
clear that the source institution, AUSL, is not the same as the object of promo -
tion, i.e. the hospital, a subordinate institution. This need is clearly only felt
at the institutional level and more or less irrelevant to the common citizen.
It does not even indicate the reader as a you, as would be logical given the
target readership, the distribution context, and the apparent purpose of the
text. Instead, we only find either impersonal, generalizing sentences (ci si puo
rivolgere [one may ask]) or sentences whose subjects, topic, or theme are gli
operatori or il personale [staff]. The service user is never mentioned or even
addressed, only indirectly implied by the very existence of an information
desk staffed with people who are supposed to provide answers and solutions.
The neutral, impersonal face granted by the absence of personal addresses is
combined with a rather formal register and the use of non-elementary syntax
and lexicon: e.g. the noun clause modalita di accesso a ricoveri [mode of ac-
cess to hospitalization] could be rewritten into a more transparent come fare
se devi essere ricoveratola [what to do if you need to be hospitalized]. All
this may make the text difficult to read for non-native Italian speakers, who,
however, are the addressees of the five translated versions. It also makes the
text unappealing and builds a distance between the reader on the one hand
and both the AUSL and the hospital on the other.
The features highlighted in the previous paragraph may appear to point
to a text that claims to be I2U, but actually seems to target other institutional
Ira Torresi 97
levels and serve hidden institutional interests, such as showing AUSL top
managers that the AUSL's public relations office is doing its job. Even if this
were true, however, in this particular case it would not be terribly relevant for
the translators, since AUSL top managers are very likely to be Italian native
speakers and therefore, the only text that may fulfil the shadow purpose with
the shadow target would be the Italian one, not its translations. A translator,
then, would have no other option than to adhere to the official brief and make
the text relevant and functional for the stated readership. In the case of the
English translation, for instance, this would imply lowering the register as
well as addressing the reader directly. When confronted with similar working
situations, it might be a good idea to explain to the client that target language
and culture conventions call for a friendlier, more informal image. Only if
the client states that the source institution's dignified and authoritative image
must not be altered in any way is the translator relieved of the responsibility
of functionally adjusting the text.
On top of that, in example 20a hidden agendas can hardly be said to be
the reason why the reader is kept at a distance from both the source and the
object of promotion, and the text can hardly be said to be 121. Why? Because,
as already mentioned, from a public institution Italian readers expect more
power distance and a more dignified face than most native speakers of English
do. Italian readers, who tend to look suspiciously at what is uncertain, may
also appreciate a reassuringly traditional institutional image that changes only
slowly, without putting on a new face all of a sudden. In fact, in the past few
years Italian public health units have been managed in a more entrepreneurial,
money-driven way than in the past: the first A in the Italian acronym AUSL,
introduced in the 1990s, stands for azienda, that is to say 'business', 'enter-
prise'. Their promotional style, however, is likely to forfeit the traditional
image of a stately, somewhat bureaucratic, health authority and take on the
characteristics of nimbler B2C communication only gradually, if at all.
This is why, even in the face of an information density that is lower than
that of most B2B texts, the information-to-persuasion ratio of example 20a
still appears comparatively high, because persuasive devices of the kind used
in B2C promotion are accurately avoided. Similarly, the absence of personal
deixis and the formal, bureaucratic register, which seem to run counter to any
persuasive attempt, are consequences of the Italian target readership's cultural
and linguistic expectations, or the addresser's suppositions about them. The
translator who produced example 20b did recognize personal deixis as some-
thing that she could bring back into her English text, but did not effect more
radical changes that would have decreased the information-to-persuasion ratio
or at least simplified the information content, making the text more functional
both for native readers of English, who come from small-power-distance cul-
tures, and for the migrant population using English as a lingua franca, who
might find example 20b linguistically difficult. In theory, such changes would
have been possible here, since example 20a contains very few translational
anchors, and none of them technical or monoreferential. However, since we do
not know the details of the brief and the opportunities that the translator had
to negotiate her choices with her client, it is impossible to conclude whether
extensive rewriting or trans-creation were in fact an option in this particular
translation commission.
As mentioned before, Italy being a national health system country, Ital-
ian private healthcare centres, too, often choose to present a reassuring image
and comply with the neutral, impersonal discourse of health public authorities
rather than with B2C personal and boosting techniques. The short excerpts
in example 21 come from the homepage of a private Milan-based centre and
the corresponding Russian, Arabic and English translations, listed in the same
order in which they appear on the website. Once again, when compared with
the original, the three translations do not show significant rewriting or trans-
creation, especially in virtue of the presence of highly technical anchors in
the second paragraph. Each one of them, however, is adapted in some respect
to the expectations of the target readership. For instance, personal deixis is
introduced in the English text, but not in the Russian one, Russians being
used to even higher power distance than Italians, according to Hofstede and
Hofstede (2005). The Russian one, on the other hand, features an instance of
added lexical boost, 'rrOJIHOCThlO 060PYil:OBaH' [fully equipped], rather than
just 'equipped' or attrezzato in the original.
Example21a
From the homepage of Poliambulatorio Sanpietro, htlp://wwwpoliambulato-
riosanpietro. it
La qualit't della prestazione sanitaria si giova della presenza di apparecchiature

medicali di grande contenuto tecnologico nonche dell'elegante comfort di questa
Stmttura.
II Centro Medico, con una superficie superiore a 380 mq, eattrezzato pervisite spe-
cialistiche, diagnostica multidisciplinare e chimrgia ambulatoriale, check up, esami
clinici in un giomo, fisiochinesiterapia, trattamenti laser, Therrnage ed altro.
In conclusion, when translating Italian healthcare promotion into other

languages, although the source texts are intentionally made impersonal and
distant, almost 121-like, functional rewriting is possible and actually advisable
if the target language and culture suggest a different kind of approach to pa-
tients and prospective service users. Of course, it is always better to negotiate
radical choices with the client.
This is not only valid when one translates from large power distance
languages and cultures into small power distance ones; obviously, the reverse
applies, too. When translating healthcare promotion material from English into
Ira Torresi 99
Example21b
Russian translation of 21a, from http://www.poliambulatoriosanpietro.it/
home ru.htm
BbIcoKoe KaqeCTBO Me)l;HIIHHCKOH 3<p<peKTHBHoCTH )l;OCTHraeTCH 6JIaro)l;apH
HaJIHqHID TeXHOJIOrHqeCKH HOBoro Me)l;HIIHHCKoro 060pY)l;OBaHHH H
KOM<pOprHbIX YCJIOBHH npe)l;JIaraeMOH
rrpe)l;JIaraeMOH CTPYKrYPbI.
3TOT Me)l;HIIHHCKHH IJ;eHTp, IIJIOIIIMbID CBbIIIIe 380 KB.M., IIOJIHOCTbID
060PY)l;OBaH )l;JIJ! IIpOBe)l;eHHH CIIeIIHaJIbHbIX Me)l;OCMOTPOB, YCTaHOBJIeHMJ!
KOMIIJIeKCHOH )l;HarHOCTHKH H aM6YJIaTOpHOH xHpyprHH, )l;JIJ! KOMIIJIeKcHoro
06CJIe)l;OBaHMJ! COCTOHHMJ! 3)l;OPOBbH, )l;JIJ! C)l;aqH He06xo)l;HMbIX KJIHHHqeCKHX
aHaJIH30B B TeqeHHH 1I )l;HH, )l;JIH IIpOBe)l;eHHH <pH3HoKHHe3HTepaIIHH,
JIa3epreparrHH, TepM(l)Ka HT)l;.
Example21c
Arabic translation of 21a, with minor adjustments. From http://www.
poliambulatoriosanpietro.it/home_lb.htm
J.o.I)I JJL.J J! Lo:l Jjl;.,~~ I~ ,~)fo J...~IJ ~.wl ~I w~~1 0)J jc ~1J ~I wl..b.ll ~ jJ
.~".III.·
~ ~~i,? -- ~IU"II _Y'J
wi J_
'I..ij..~1
.
,t!J" Y"- 380'J- {b.L....lJ.-
_Y ~.iJl f '(.11
Y"
1::Ji.c ',,",~I i,?JJ;J1 ybll 'fi... Jo ~ ,~Iy,J1 wlJ..JlJ w~t.,J1 ~ ~J J!.,.J 'Joll ~ ;;.
.0J!? J 1::l.jill, J).!)IJ~ 1::Ji.c ~I JSyo. ooi...!J 4liil
Example21d
English translation of 21a, with minor adjustments. From http://www.
poliambulatoriosanpietro. it/index_ eng.html
The excellent quality of our selVices is due to the advanced technology of our
medical equipment as well as to the comfort of our Medical Center.
Our Medical Center, which is more than 380 square meters, is equipped for specific
medical examinations, image diagnostics, day surgery, check up examinations in
one day, physiokinesitherapy, laser treatments, Thermage and more.
Italian, for instance, it would be appropriate to downplay the friendly attitude

that the source institution or private centre may show in the original, make
the target text as impersonal as possible, and re-focus its theme/rheme struc-
ture. For instance, the topic of many sentences may need to be shifted from a
probable us to a neutral but authoritative general term, such as 'il Centro ' [the
Centre]. Even better, emphasis can be shifted from the source organization
to its qualities, services, equipment, staff or the like, channelling the readers'
attention into the rational arguments that should advocate the health centre's
reliability and professionalism. For instance, a sentence like We'll greet you
by name when you come to our office, because we want you to feel at home
(an adaptation from real-life websites of American private healthcare and
dentistry centres) may become in Italian 'I servizi e l'accoglienza sono sempre
personalizzati in modo da far sentire l'utenza a proprio agio' [Services and
reception are always customized in such a way that users feel at ease].
It appears, then, that healthcare promotion, like CV s and job application
letters (§ 4.2.1 and § 4.2.2), is one of those promotional genres where, for the
target text to meet its function, not only linguistic conventions, but the very
information-to-persuasion ratio of the original text may need to be adjusted to
the expectations of the target readership. In countries where uncertainty avoid-
ance is high and power distance is large, and where healthcare institutions are
perceived as authorities, this kind of promotion may resemble 121, whereas
in countries that have low uncertainty avoidance and small power distance,
public healthcare bodies produce texts that are clearly 12D. In countries where
private health centres do not tend to imitate public institutions' discourse,
perhaps because there is no established or centralized public health system,
the promotional materials of those private entities is actually more similar to
B2C, with lexical boost, questions, exclamations, imperatives, reported speech
vouching for the object of promotion, wordplay and idioms.
To provide just one example, a Google search for the phrase 'we cater
to cowards' finds hundreds of matches referring to promotional websites of
American dentists' offices and dental clinics. There is even a dentist's called
'Cater to Cowards' in Glendale, Arizona, and the conspicuous headline of
one dental website reads 'Are you a big chicken?'. Needless to say, such
catchphrases would require thorough and careful rewriting for a target that is
not used to be addressed with such familiarity, and is probably not prepared
to associate such a fun approach with sensitive topics like personal health
or the pain associated with dental care. Besides Italian, target languages
that according to Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) correspond to cultures with
high uncertainty avoidance and large power distance (but not necessarily to
countries having a public healthcare system) include French, Spanish, Portu-
guese, Greek, Korean, Japanese, Russian and most East European languages,
Turkish, and Arabic. As a rule of thumb, when translating from English into
such languages, it is better to read and analyse a certain number of original
parallel texts coming from the target culture(s) before going for a translation
that uncritically sticks to the rhetorical and information structure of the source
text. The same applies to all 12U promotional texts whose source or object of
promotion can be associated with some sort of public authority: embassies,
governmental or ministerial agencies, public-owned enterprises or private de
facto monopolies (e.g. the Italian railway company), local governments and
their emanations, chambers of commerce, etc.
Ira Torresi 101
6.1.2.2 Tourist promotion
Tourist promotion material can come in a variety of fonnats and distribution

contexts: brochures, websites, newsletters, free guides and other free ma-
terial that can usually be found at tourist promotion agencies or downloaded
from their websites. It can even be found in distribution contexts that do not
presuppose intentional contact by the addressee, like promotional posters or
advertising in the media, although for translators this is a relatively rarer case
and can be approached following the guidelines of § 7.1.2 rather than the ones
found here. Guides and other tourist material that are available at a price and
are therefore supposed to objectively infonn the reader about the strengths
and weaknesses of a given destination obviously do not qualify as promotion.
In Italy and in other countries where foreign tourism covers a considerable
proportion of the country's GDP, the tourist industry, both institutional and
B2C, can collectively be one of a translator's best commissioners.
The source ofI2U tourist promotion can be a public agency whose mission
is or includes the promotion of a nation or a given area (e.g. tourist boards), or
a private consortium of hotels or other stakeholders that promote its members
as a group and not as individual enterprises. The target is the individual tourist
who is already in the area, or preferably, from the source's point of view, the
prospective tourist who browses the web or goes to international tourist exhi-
bitions to choose the destination for the next holiday trip. In other words, the
target is a non-specialized reader who is likely to collect and compare several
materials before deciding what to see or where to go. For this reason, functional
tourist promotion texts tend to avoid over-technical content and attract and
involve the reader with emotional devices and other B2C-like strategies, even
in the face of a distribution context where contact is usually initiated by the
addressee. Consequently, although in tourist promotion infonnation can be
rather dense and at times become specific or even monoreferential (especially
in the case of longer guides that cover local cuisine, folklore, handicrafts or
other peculiar traits), the infonnation-to-persuasion ratio of this text type is,
on average, comparatively lower than that of the promotional genres we have
seen before.
We have already seen a practical example of tourist promotion translation
(example 2 in chapter 2). In that case, the focus was the importance of negotia-
tion and multiple versions when the source institution has hidden agendas that
may have to do with its institutional position rather than with the purpose of
the text. Such issues, therefore, will not be mentioned again here.
In tourist promotion,just like in healthcare promotion, cultural issues are
important to detennine the persuasive impact of the target text on the target
readership. Tourists expect to find certain things in certain destinations and
become oriented towards a country or area because they want to find there what
they expect. Good tourist promotion copywriters know this and accommodate
their source texts to the kind of tourists they want to attract. Target profiling
is vital for tourist promotion; in this regard, this genre is similar to B2C. This
is why, in countries and areas with a highly developed tourist industry, tourist
boards and consortia produce materials catering for the interests of special
categories of tourists (e.g. schools, congress convenors, gourmets, cyclists,
trekkers) or promoting selections of destinations that correspond to specific
tourist profiles (churches and monasteries, wildlife parks, castles and cities of
art, holiday farms, hotels offering special packages to families with children
and the like).
In destinations whose economy relies heavily on incoming tourism, local
identities are restyled or in some cases designed from scratch to accommodate
tourist expectations. If you work for a tourist promotion board or consortium
and you are responsible for the copywriting, revision and/or adaptation of
promotional material for a foreign target readership, choosing or revising the
selection of the local features and identity traits to be promoted is the first
step of your work. There is a vast literature on the translation or creation of
local identities for the benefit of tourists: for a sociological discussion of how
tourist experiences are actually crafted by mediators, such as tourist brochure
copywriters and translators, see Ooi (2002); for a translation-oriented perspec-
tive, see Fuentes-Luque and Kelly (2000).
The example of the Italian town of Casola Valsenio (example 22) is a
straightforward illustration of what I mean by selection of identity traits. In
this case, the selection was decided by the local administrators, but similar
marketing operations might be decided downstream by copywriters and/or
translators. Moreover, Casola is an easy case in that its selected identity is
fairly unambiguous, while larger or more complex tourist destinations, such
as Rome, London, or broader areas, can be promoted under hundreds of dif-
ferent lights, all of which virtually relevant and approved by the respective
local authorities.
Even if identity trait selection does not fall within your jurisdiction,
because you think you are just a translator and you may well want to leave
copywriters and/or board or consortium officials such a hot potato, things
may not be so easy as they seem. In the standard tourist translation scenario,
you have a ready-made source text which, in the best of possibilities, was
already developed to accommodate the interests and expectations of a care-
fully targeted kind of tourists. The target of the source text, however, is more
often than not assumed to be national tourists, while you need to produce a
text that is functional for a foreign pool of (prospective) tourists who may
well have expectations that differ from those of national tourists, not only in
terms of what to see and where to go, but also in terms of what is an appealing
visual and writing style. The moral is that in tourist promotion major rewriting
Ira Torresi 103
Example 22
Identity trait selection in tourist promotion. An easy case: Casola Valsenio
Casola Valsenio is a medieval town in the hills near Ravenna, surrounded by an
idyllic landscape. During World War II it was caught between the Nazi-fascist
retreating armies and the liberation forces, including Italian partisans, for 5
months; the nearby hills were the theatre of many battles that might be defined
as epic (one of them, particularly fierce, lasted for as many as 16 days). How-
ever, unlike other Italian towns with a similar history, Casola did not construct
a public face based either on its fancy medieval air or its painful war history.
Instead, it recently acquired a totally different image that marked it out in the
tourist scene and linked back to increasingly popular movements such as Slow
Food or sustainable farming. Building on a herbal garden originally used for
educational purposes, opened to the public in 1975 and included in the local
museum circuit as late as 2003, the town started organizing several yearly herb
and fruit festivals as well as guided tours and theme dinners on the same topic.
It also took the official title Paese delle erbe e dei frutti dimenticati [Town of
herbs and forgotten fruits], which appears prominently on the town's webpage,
http://www.comune.casolavalsenio.ra.it. A trait of a road leading to the town
was transformed into a panoramic route lined with lavender and accordingly
renamed Strada della Lavanda to reinforce the link with aromatic plants and
provide an appropriate backdrop for the town's festivals and events, mainly
clustered in the lavender flowering season. Thus, the identity traits selected for
the town's public image also impacted heavily not only on its production and
trading activities, which were directed towards traditional herbs and fruits to
make the most of incoming tourism and institutional promotion, but also on
its very landscape, not to speak of its population's memory and self-perception
as a community.
and possibly suggestions about the restyling of layout and pictures are often
necessary. Trans-creation may go as far as to involve the contents, even the
technical anchors of the text, although substantial changes in the information
content should always be negotiated with the client. If the working context
prevents negotiation, then a more conservative attitude may be preferable, but
this should never lead to an uncritically literal translation.
Once again, the only reliable way of obtaining indications on how to re-
write the text is to read and analyse as many texts as possible originally written
in the target language and for a target readership that is comparable to that of
the text to be translated. If translating tourist promotion becomes, or already
is, one of your specializations, building a corpus or a set of corpora specifi-
cally tailored to your needs can be a good investment. Comparative analysis of
original texts written in different languages is not only useful to detect specific
linguistic patterns, but also to assess the average information-to-persuasion
ratio of similar texts across different cultures and tourist markets.
An easy example of how partial rewriting may become necessary is the

treatment of realia tantum, i.e. words that refer to things that exist only in the
source culture. Realia include some, but by no means all, terms relating to local
food, folklore, handicrafts, art, and architecture and often require additional
explanations to be understood by a foreign readership. For instance, when
translating a guide to the delicacies of an Italian destination, translators will
generally not have too many problems in leaving terms such as mozzarella or
spaghetti untranslated and without a gloss, but anything beyond that will require
a choice between two alternative strategies. One has to either domesticate the
term into the nearest equivalent in the target language and lose all the flavour
of exoticism (and exotic flavour may well be the intended effect of the text), or
leave the term in the source language and add a short explanation. The second
choice is generally more functional, but to prevent the text from becoming
somewhat pedantic, boost additions, punctuation revision and rhythm adjust-
ment might be advisable, especially in those target languages where tourist
promotion traditionally has a lower information-to-persuasion ratio.
Example 23 is a case in point. It comes from my professional experience
and is a good example of several aspects of the translation process, in particular:
the functional partial rewriting of texts with a high density of realia; client col-
laboration; and the successful management of space constraints. The client was
a unit of the mixed-ownership regional tourist promotion board, the Azienda
di Promozione Turistica (APT). I kept direct contact with two extremely col-
laborative members of the APT staff, who were also directly responsible for the
publication of the brochure in all languages including Italian. Initially no space
constraints were specified, because the guide had not been laid out yet; both
the Italian and the English versions were to be laid out at the same time, and I
had received the original as a series of Word files. The brief was to make the
text enticing as well as clear for English-speaking readers and complete (i.e. I
could only suggest or negotiate, but not independently effect any information
omissions). High quality standards were required: I knew the client to be per-
fectly able to identifY their own needs and assess whether translations complied
with them. Time constraints were severe and did not leave me any leeway for
self-revision: I only had about 15 days for what turned out to be a ISO-page
pocket-sized guide, luckily including pictures. For all these reasons, I sought
the professional assistance of two British revisers whom I knew to be curious
and critical travellers. In order to make the most of my investment in terms of
my own professional image, I also immediately informed the client that I was
providing them a quality insurance service at no additional price.
In the layout phase, the two APT members of staff who kept contact with
me, and were both proficient in English and competent in tourist promotion
copywriting, downsized those parts of the guide that exceeded the allotted
frames, working directly on the page layout program file. The printout was
Ira Torresi 105
then sent back to me for proofreading and the finishing touches. In example
23b you will find the version I originally sent out, while example 23c contains
the final version after the client's downsizing and my proofreading.
Example23a
From page 57 of the guide "Citta d'Arte dell 'Emilia Romagna", 2005 edition,
Bologna: Unione di Prodotto Citta d 'Arte, Cultura e Affari. Also available as Web
text at http://www.cittadarte.emilia-romagna.it/citta/bologna/buona_tavolaphp
Narra la leggenda - una delle tante - che l'inventore del tortellino sarebbe stato
un albergatore che, anunaliato dall'ombelico di Venere apparsagli in sogno,
avrebbe cercato di riprodurlo inventando la pasta ripiena. Favola 0 realta? Di
sicuro i tortellini in brodo, famosi in tutto il mondo, sono, insieme alia Morta-
della di Bologna IGP, il piatto pili tipico della citta. Ergo: obbligo assaggiarli
nelluogo dove sono nati.
Per il resto, si sa, Bologna e popolare come "Ia grassa"! Attenzione pero:
"grasso" non si riferisce alia pesantezza del cibo, bensi alia gioia di vivere,
alia capacita di godere i piaceri della vita.
E la lista dei piaceri enogastronomici eassai lunga. Dopo i primi piatti, a base
di pasta all'uovo fatta in casa, come Ie popolari tagliatelle al ragU, arrivano i
secondi di carne. Fra i prodotti freschi ecco il vitellone bianco dell' Appennino
Centrale IGP.
Example23b
English translation of23a (original version provided by the translator). Parts
that were eliminated in the final version are marked in bold
Legend (or at least, one version of the legend) has it that tortellini were
invented by an innkeeper who, after dreaming about Venus, tried to re-create
the beauty of her navel and ended up with this world-famous shape of pasta,
stuffed with several kinds of minced meat, eggs, nutmeg and parmigiano. Maybe
it's just a fancy story, but all the same, tortellini (selVed in broth, according
to the original recipe) is one of the main specialities of Bologna, as is IGP
Mortadella di Bologna (also known elsewhere as Bologna or baloney). Local
hand-made tortellini are entirely different from the export product, so don't
waste an opportunity to taste the real thing.
After all, Bologna is called La Grassa (The Fat one), not because its cuisine
is especially heavy, but because the Bolognese love to live it up and enjoy the
pleasures oflife - and of the table. The list is long: first of all, hand-rolled pasta,
like tagliatelle al ragu, universally (and very poorly) imitated under the name of
Spaghetti Bolognese. Then, fresh meat from local certified breeds (such as the
IGP vitellone bianco dell 'Appennino Centrale, a variety of young beef) [... ]
Example23c
Final version of the translation of 23a after the client s downsizing to accom-
modate the brochure format. From page 57 ofthe English guide "Cities ofArt
ofEmiliaRomagna", 2005 edition, Bologna: Unione di Prodotto Citta d'Arte,
Cultura e Affari. Also available, with some graphic differences, at http://www.
ci ttadarte. emilia-romagna. it/cittalb o logn alb uona_tavolaphp? lang=en
Le gend has it that tortellini were invented by an innkeeper who, after dreaming
about Venus, tried to re-create the beauty of her navel and ended up with this
world-famous shape of pasta, stuffed with several kinds of minced meat, eggs,
nutmeg and parmigiano.
Maybe it's just a fancy story, but all the same, tortellini served in broth is one
of the main specialities of Bologna, as is IGP Mortadella di Bologna (also
known elsewhere as Bologna or baloney). Local hand-made tortellini are en-
tirely different from the export product, so don't waste an opportunity to taste
the real thing.
After all, Bologna is called La Grassa (The Fat), not because its cuisine is
especially heavy, but because the Bolognese love to live it up and enjoy the
pleasures of life - and of the table. The list is long: first of all, hand-rolled
pasta, like tagliatelle al ragu, universally (and very poorly) imitated under
the name of Spaghetti Bolognese. Then, fresh meat from local certified breeds
like IGP vitellone bianco dell 'Appennino Centrale [... ]
Let us start with a reale tantum that is treated in a way that would be
absolutely indefensible in a normal working context. The use of an unglossed
'IGP' instead of the English acronym PGI (Protected Geographical Indication:
a quality European label) is certainly incorrect, as both the English and Italian
terms are monoreferential equivalents (i.e. technical anchors) sanctioned by
European Union laws. In this particular case, however, the Italian acronym
featured as a picture in a 'Key to symbols and acronyms' that appeared in the
first pages of the guide and could not be eliminated or changed. The client
therefore recommended that the acronym be used as such throughout the text,
and glossed as 'Protected Geographical Indication' only in the key to symbols
at the beginning of the book.
Let us now proceed to compare the two English versions. Version 23c
was made shorter, but the layout frame allowed as many as 1186 characters;
23b has 1299, the Italian text only 883. The clients made sure that only
secondary parts were culled, so that, in the end, 23c reads more easily than
23b. It therefore responds better to the mandate to make the text enticing,
even if it is slightly less complete. Completeness, however, was secondary to
persuasion for the client, and moreover, only low-information-content parts
were eliminated. The first omission, the interpolated clause una delle tante,
originally translated as 'or at least, one version of the legend', was present
in the source text and carried the implicit boost that there are several legends
Ira Torresi 107
about tortellini, which adds to their mythical nature. The loss of this instance
of indirect boost, however, is made up for in the following, where explicit or
implicit boost is systematically added to the English text (we will see how,
and why, in a moment). The other two extensive culls are added explanations,
whose elimination, however, does not hinder the full understanding of the
corresponding realia, nor does it decrease boost. All other explanatory parts
of the original translation were left unchanged, since they are important not
only to ensure that readers uninitiated in the pleasures of Italian cuisine can
understand the topic of discussion, but also to make it relevant for them as
English speakers rooted in their own culinary cultures and markets.
The realia in the text are made relevant for the intended readership
through additions. The easiest way to explain a reale is by adding a very con-
cise description of what it is either before or after it, thus creating a couplet
consisting of the reale itself, which remains in the original language, and its
explanation. One such couplet can be found at the end of example 23c: 'fresh
meat from local certified breeds like IGP vitellone bianco dell 'Appennino
Centrale', where 'local certified breeds' glosses the original vitellone bianco
dell 'Appennino Centrale IGP.
But there are more complex additions that imply rephrasing and, most
prominently, emphasis shift. In the following, additions and substitutions will
be marked in bold and considered one by one:
23a: la pasta ripiena [i tortellini]
Literal translation: this shape of stuffed pasta
23c: this world-famous shape of pasta, stuffed with several kinds of

minced meat, eggs, nutmeg and parmigiano
The initial 'world-famous' is not, in fact, an addition but a relocation of the

phrase, famosi in tutto il mondo, that in Italian appeared in the following
sentence. The second lengthy addition is mainly explanatory: it lists the main
ingredients of tortellini filling for the benefit of those who do not know tortel-
lini and are wondering what they are, but also to give insider knowledge to
those readers who do know the shape of pasta but never quite considered the
ingredients. Revealing readers things that somebody who is inexperienced
about the promoted destination is not likely to know, sharing with them the
secrets or curiosities of the land, is a way to involve them, to give them the
impression that they already partake of the destination's (selected) identity.
Now that our readers know how tortellini are made and served, as well as their
story, they already feel more into Bolognese cuisine than the average glocal
consumer who buys industrial tortellini in supermarkets and seasons them
with canned sauce. The following example pushes this even further, stating
that one has to come to Bologna to say one has tasted the real thing:
23a: i tortellini in brodo [... ] sono [... ] il piatto pili tipico della citta. Ergo:
obbligo assaggiarli nelluogo dove sono nati.
Literal translation: tortellini served in broth are the most typical dish of
the city. Hence: tasting them where they were invented is a must.
23b and 23c: tortellini served in broth is one of the main specialities of Bo-
logna [... ]. Local hand-made tortellini are entirely different from the
export product, so don't waste an opportunity to taste the real thing.
The main plus of tortellini in the second sentence of 23 a is their being the
culinary symbol of Bologna, a must-eat for every Italian tourist who not only
wishes to eat well, but also to capture a piece of the city's identity, as well as
the very essence of tortellini. In 23c, the emphasis shifts as the element oflocal
identity disappears and the reason why one would come to eat tortellini right in
Bologna is that only there they are 'the real thing', and implicitly, something
to boast about back home. First of all, they are hand-made (an indication that
is superfluous to Italian readers, but not to people who are likely to be famil-
iar only with industrial versions) and nothing that can be found outside Italy
compares with them. Coming to Bologna without eating tortellini, then, would
be a wasted occasion. The reference to the lesser 'export product' makes the
tortellini experience something relevant (and desirable) specifically for tour-
ists coming from outside Italy, while the allusion to 'the real thing' refers to
authenticity, a key quality for any tourist experience.
The strategy of mentioning an 'export product', which makes readers
feel that the text was written specially for them, is echoed by two other
additions:
23a: Mortadella di Bologna
23b and 23c: Mortadella di Bologna (also known elsewhere as Bologna

or baloney)
and
23a: Ie popolari tagliatelle al ragli
23b and 23c: tagliatelle al ragu, universally (and very poorly) imitated
under the name of Spaghetti Bolognese
Both additions are interpolated clauses that, from a strictly linguistic point of
view, may as well have been eliminated from 23c. They were not, however,
Ira Torresi 109
because they establish a strong link of relevance with the target language
and culinary cultures. The first example highlights that in English mortadella
is often called by the popular name of Bologna or its phonetic distortion,
'baloney', thus implying that the mortadella of Bologna is, once again, the
only real thing. The second adds relevance by establishing a link between
tagliatelle al ragu and the popular recipe of Spaghetti Bolognese; at the same
time, by explicitly belittling the international version of the dish and stating
that it is an 'imitation', it implicitly boosts what is supposed to be the original
and authentic recipe. In the same example, explicit boost is also added, by
transformingpopolari [popular] into an instance oflexical boost, 'universally
... imitated'. As we have already seen, adding boost and other B2C devices
(exclamations, questions, imperatives, direct addresses, puns and the like)
has the effect of decreasing the information-to-persuasion ratio of the text not
by decreasing information density, which is difficult if one is briefed to be
as complete as possible, as I had been in example 23, but by diluting it with
persuasion-oriented strategies.
Does one really need to add boost when translating tourist promotion
material from Italian into English? Not necessarily, if one translates for a
global audience (as is often the case with tourist brochures) whose cultural
profile and linguistic conventions cannot be determined. Yes, if one is briefed
to produce a text that is enticing for English native speakers. As we have seen
(§ 6.1.2.1), unlike Italians, English native speakers are likely to expect institu-
tions to produce assertive, personal texts. Following Hofstede and Hofstede
(2005), one may say that this happens because English native speakers typi-
cally come from highly masculine countries with small power distance. This
theoretical conclusion is confirmed by practical studies on corpora of tourist
brochures such as that by Sumberg (2004), who found that French tourist
promotion texts tend to be more informative than persuasive while the British
readership is used to shorter, less dense and catchier texts.
The good news for translators is that in tourist promotion the extent to
which boost needs to be added or reduced, register to be lowered or raised,
and personal deixis to be introduced or eliminated, is usually less dramatic
than with healthcare promotion. Even in large-power-distance cultures, in
fact, tourist boards usually have softer public images: they are not generally
seen as public Molochs and are likely to keep less distance from their target
public. For instance, in Italian tourist brochures, personal deixis standards
are much more flexible than in healthcare promotion. Texts are often imper-
sonal, but readers can be addressed with a plural second person voi, which,
however, is not an indicator of formality, but rather betrays that service users
are collectively seen as a nondescript mass instead of a set of individuals. It
is not unusual to find occasional texts using the singular second person form
tu, typical of B2C, if the target is particularly young or the source wishes to
put on a particularly infonnal, friendly face. If you translate from English

into Italian, the main rules are, first of all, to adjust the deictics to the general
register and tone intended for the target text, and secondly, not to mix up the
plural and the singular, and not to shift from the impersonal to the singular tu
in the same brochure.
Before concluding the section on the translation of tourist promotion,
perhaps another short practical example can make things clearer. The excerpt
below comes from the same guide as example 23, from the 'Handicrafts' sec-
tion of the chapter about Forli and Cesena. This time, I will provide a literal
translation of the Italian text that may help readers who do not understand
Italian follow what happened in the translation process, but I will leave the
analysis to you. In particular, how is the reader addressed in the Italian and
English texts, respectively? How is explicit or implicit boost added in the
English version? Can you spot instances of lexical boost (i.e., words whose
meaning is inherently superlative, even if their grammatical fonn is not)? And
in what other ways is the target text made more assertive?
Example 24
From page 92 of the ofthe guide "Citta d'Arte dell 'Emilia Romagna" and its
English version, "Cities ofArt of Emilia Romagna ", 2005 edition, Bologna:
Unione di Prodotto Citta d'Arte, Cultura e Affari. Also available, with some
graphic differences, at http://www.cittadarte.emilia-romagna.it/citta/jorli_
cesena/artigianato_e_shopping.php and http://www.cittadarte.emilia-romagna.
itlcittalforli_ cesena/artigianato_ e_shopping.php? lang=en
Italian: La scelta del souvenir da portare a casa non e sempre facile. Ma basta
entrare in una delle varie botteghe di ceramica d'arte da Forli a Cesena, da
Modigliana a Portico di Romagna e Gambettola per non avere pili troppi dubbi.
E difficile, infatti, resistere a certi piatti con decorazioni rinascimentali 0 ad
altre maioliche, spesso a produzione limitata.
Literal translation: Choosing a souvenir to take back home is not always

easy. But it is enough to enter one of the many fine ceramics shops from F orli
to Cesena, from Modigliana to Portico di Romagna and Gambettola, to not
have too many doubts. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to resist certain dishes
with Renaissance decorations or other majolica products, [which are] often
[produced] in limited numbers.
English: Choosing a souvenir to take back home is often a difficult task, but
set foot in one of the fine ceramics shops in Forli, Cesena, Modigliana, Portico
di Romagna or Gambettola and you'll have no problem. The local ceramic or
majolica dishes with Renaissance patterns are simply irresistible, and often
production is limited, making them more valuable.
Ira Torresi 111
6.1.2.3 Awareness-raising
I2U also includes publicity produced by NGOs and governmental agencies

whose aim is to change the addressees' behaviour in respect to an issue of
public interest, in other words, awareness-raising campaigns. Examples might
be ministerial or governmental campaigns to give up smoking, cancer pre-
vention, road safety and the like; also, calls for action and awareness-raising
publications and web sites of not-for-profit organizations such as the WWF,
Greenpeace, national heritage leagues, etc.
Awareness-raising material can come in a variety of formats and dis-
tribution contexts that may presuppose intentional contact by the addressee
(brochures, leaflets, websites, newsletters) or mass distribution and uninten-
tional contact, like in aggressive forms of B2C promotion (flyers, billboards,
street stickers, Internet banners or pop-ups, and advertising in all media). As we
have seen, the two kinds of distribution context require different approaches.
If addressees are meant to intentionally seek the promotional material, mean-
ing that they are already interested in or curious about the topic and wish
to find information, then the information-to-promotion ratio is likely to be
higher than that of texts that primarily need to attract and retain the reader's
attention. Brief mass-distributed genres are best approached following the
guidelines in § 7.1.2; in this section, we will only deal with comparatively
longer texts that usually presuppose an intentional contact by the addressee,
and therefore can afford a more developed argumentation of the reasons why
one should contribute to fulfilling the source organization's mission. Persua-
sion patterns, as we will see, are usually more explicit in awareness-raising
than in the other promotional genres we have seen so far. Highly informative
parts can be clearly distinguished from highly persuasive parts, but the two
are closely linked because raw, objective facts are used as the argumentative
platform on which persuasion is based. The categories of right and wrong are
a prominent issue in awareness-raising.
Generally, the distinction between highly informative and highly persua-
sive elements is best observed at a macro-level. The source organization, for
instance, may produce reports and studies as well as calls for actions, and all
those texts collectively contribute to its overall campaigning image. In several
texts, however, both information and promotion can be found.
Example 25 is a good illustration of all this, both at the verbal and visual
levels. Here, it is quite easy to separate informative, factual chunks that con-
vey a sense of objective truth from more emotional parts. An analysis will be
provided below, but before going on reading, try and separate the paragraphs
and visual elements that are meant to be objective from those that use more
emotionally involving language. Pay special attention to personal deixis, ex-
clamations, informal expressions vs. impersonal sentences, formal or technical
language, and figures.
Example 25
Greenpeace Italy s campaign for compactjiuorescent lightbulbs (CFLs), http://
www.greenpeace.it/incandescenti/
Transcription of the verbal elements of the main text in example 25, excluding
the logo, buttons and links to other documents (emphasis as in the original,
coloured text rendered as bold):
1 Al bando Ie lampadine a incandescenza!
2 Non mandare i tuoi soldi in fumo: salva il clima adesso!

3 Egiunta I' ora di mettere al bando Ie lampadine incandescenti che man-
dano in fumo i nostri rispanni e soffocano il pianeta. Le utilizziamo da
oltre un secolo. E la tecnologia e sempre la stessa: sprecona.
4 Una lampadina incandescente tradizionale disperde sotto forma di
calore oltre il 90 per cento dell'energia elettrica: solo il 10 per cento
si trasforma in luce. Oggi sono sempre pili diffuse Ie lampade ftuore-
scenti com patte che, a parita di luce diffusa, permettono di abbattere
i consumi elettrici dell'80 per cento.
Ira Torresi 113
5 Con Ie lampade fluorescenti com patte (LFC) rispanni un sacco di

soldi in bolletta. Calcola quanto puoi risparmiare!
6 [first caption:] II risparmiometro di Greenpeace
[second caption:] INDICA A SINISTRA QUANTE LAMPADINE
VUOI CAMBIARE E SCOPRI A DESTRA QUANTO PUOI RI-
SPARMIARE PER TE E PER IL CLIMA
[followed by a calculator; the captions on the left indicate the voltage of
every traditional bulb to be replaced, the captions on the right read:]
INVESTIMENTO INIZIALE - - EURO
RISPARMIO ANNUO IN BOLLETTA - - EURO/ANNO
RISPARMIO DOPO 6 ANNI - - EURO
RISPARMIO DOPO 10 ANNI - - EURO
EMISSIONI DI C02 EVITATE - - KGC02/ANNO
7 Passare alle LFC permette di risparmiare soldi ed emissioni di gas
serra responsabili del cambiamento climatico, la pili grave emergenza
ambientale del momento.
8 In tutta Europa Greenpeace sta chiedendo di mettere al bando Ie
incandescenti, facendo pressioni su governi, produttori e rivenditori.
La grande distribuzione ha un molo cmciale nel rimuovere al pili
presto dal mercato Ie lampadine sprecone e puntare sulla vendita di
lampade a risparmio amiche del clima. II mondo non ha bisogno di
pili energia, ma di utilizzare meglio quella che gia c'e. Permettere la
vendita di prodotti altamente inefficienti e un lusso che non possiamo
pili permetterci. Al bando Ie incandescenti!
Literal translation of the verbal elements in example 25, for illustrative use
only (emphasis reproduced as in the original):
1 Away with incandescent lightbulbs!
2 Don't let your money go up in smoke: save the climate now!
3 It's time to do away with incandescent lightbulbs that send our savings
up in smoke and choke the planet. We've been using them for over a
century. and the technology is the same: wasteful.
4 A traditional incandescent bulb wastes over 90% of the power [it con-
sumes] in the form of heat: only 10% is transformed into light. Today,
there is an increasing use of compact fluorescent lamps that grant the
same amount of light with an 80% power saving.
5 With compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) you save a lot of money on

energy bills. Work out how much you can save!
6 [first caption:] Greenpeace's save-o-meter

[second caption:] MARK ON THE LEFT THE NUMBER OF BULBS
YOU WANT TO REPLACE AND FIND OUT ON THE RIGHT HOW
MUCH YOU CAN SAVE FOR YOURSELF AND THE CLIMATE
[followed by a calculator; captions on the left indicate the voltage ofevery
traditional bulb to be replaced, the captions on the right read:]
INITIAL INVESTMENT - - EURO
YEARLY SAVINGS ON ENERGY BILLS - - EUROIYEAR
SAVINGS AFTER 6 YEARS - - EURO
SAVINGS AFTER 10 YEARS - - EURO
C02 EMISSIONS SAVED - - C02 KGIYEAR
7 Switching over to CFLs is a way [literally: allows one] to save money
and lower greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change, the
most serious environmental emergency at this time.
8 All across Europe Greenpeace is asking to do away with incandescent
lightbulbs, by putting pressure on governments, producers and retailers.
The large-scale retail trade plays a crucial role in removing guzzler
bulbs from the market as soon as possible and relying on the sale of
environmentally friendly, energy-saving bulbs. The world does not
need more energy, but a better use of the energy it has. Allowing the
sale of highly inefficient products is a luxury we can no longer afford.
Away with incandescent lightbulbs!
Paragraphs 4 and 7 clearly seem to be more factual and objective than

other paragraphs. They are impersonal and devoid of exclamations, imperatives
or other devices that may elicit the reader's direct involvement. Moreover,
the register appears comparatively higher than the infonnallanguage recur-
ring elsewhere (e.g., sprecona/e in paragraphs 3 and 8, un sacco di soldi in
paragraph 5). Paragraph 4 also contains two percentages that, being figures,
count as objective data par excellence.
Other parts of the text may seem slightly more ambiguous, nonetheless
they break quite easily into infonnative and emotional parts. Take for instance
paragraph 6, which is made up of the 'save-o-meter' and its captions. We have
seen that figures and lists of noun phrases are generally presented as inherently
objective and neutral facts. This applies to the left- and right-hand columns
of the calculator, where the concept of factuality is further highlighted by the
square boxes that contrast with the rounded angles of the frame enclosing the
calculator as a whole.
The main captions placed outside and inside the calculator, on the other
hand, seem to include typically B2C features. The first caption, in particular,
is a neologism, a new word coined following productive word fonnation
rules: risparmiometro comes from risparmio [saving] plus the suffix -metro
Ira Torresi 115
[-meter], which tells us that it is something that measures savings. The fact that
it is an entirely new term, however, requires the reader's active involvement
in deciphering it. Moreover, in Italian the suffix -metro is usually attached
to classical Greek roots to form words that indicate scientific measurement
tools, as in tachimetro [speedometer] or cronometro [chronometer]. Risparmio,
however, is not a lexical root and cannot boast any classical origin, so that
risparmiometro appears ironical because of the word-formation anomaly and
the register clash between the two morphemes. Quite obviously, irony is not
typical of objective, neutral discourse, which is normally employed to persuade
the reader that its contents are serious and indisputably credible rather than
unconventional and fun.
The second caption, too, is markedly non-neutral, mainly due to the con-
spicuous use of the second person singular, which is not usual in other Italian
I2U genres, as we have seen, while it is typical of Italian B2C promotion.
The reader is addressed as a second person singular in paragraphs 2 and 5 as
well. In paragraphs 3 and 8 an even greater degree of personal involvement is
reached through the use of the inclusive we, which highlights that the addresser
and the addressee are part of the same community and context. This device,
too, is typical of B2C communication in several languages and generates a
level of identification that is second only to that of first-person accounts (of
the 'Because I'm worth it' kind). In paragraph 8, the inclusive we is further
highlighted by a particular trope that is called chiasmus: the sentence where it
is used starts and finishes with two forms of the same verb permettere. The use
of tropes is once again typical of B2C, as is the final payoff, normally a noun
clause or another instance of ellipsis. Here it reads Al banda Ie incandescenti!
[Away with incandescent lightbulbs!], with further emphasis being provided
by the bold typeface and by the exclamation mark.
At the same time, the first part of paragraph 8 is, once again, factual and
neutral. All in all, there are as many as four shifts from high information-to-
persuasion ratio parts of text to low-information-to-persuasion-ratio chunks,
and vice-versa: the first between paragraphs 3 and 4, the second between
paragraphs 4 and 5, the third between the second caption of paragraph 6 and
the 'save-o-meter', and the fourth between paragraphs 7 and 8. Needless to
say, from a translator's point of view each such shift implies a shift in the
translation approach: more objective parts of the text may require an approach
that preserves factual anchors, such as figures, and a neutral stance (although
the latter may need some adaptation when the text is transferred to other lan-
guages and cultures, as we will see in a moment); while emotional bonds and
direct addresses require full functional adaptation to make sure that the target
is moved as effectively as in the original.
It is impossible to compare example 25 with an official translation or
source text. Like other large multinational NGOs such as Amnesty Inter-
national, Save the Children, or the World Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace has
national chapters which manage their own campaigns and texts, adapting
the organization's overall mission and communication strategy to national
situations. It is a strategy that resembles that of glocalization, which we have
already seen in example 12 of § 5.1.1.2, only here it is referred to the non-profit
sector and exploited to its full potential. National chapters of Greenpeace do
not translate their websites and documents from a common source text: rather,
copies are written from scratch directly in the national languages, drawing
from the central organization's global reports and briefs. Visuals, too, may
be largely taken from a common pool produced by the central organization,
but national chapters are generally free to choose the final look as well as the
contents of their sites, brochures and ads, provided that they comply with the
organization's general image. The same strategy, as we will see in § 7.1.2,
and as emerges from example 3 in chapter 3, is followed by several large
multinational companies.
Example 26 is the closest to example 25 that can be found on Greenpeace's
international website. It is a text that, like the previous one, has the purpose
of urging readers to switch to high-efficiency lightbulbs, but this time the ac-
tion is presented as the first step in a seven-step 'energy [r] evolution , . Once
again, before reading on, try and separate factual bits of text (the kind that
was recurrent in B2B promotion) from parts characterized by the emotional
or creative devices that we have by now learnt to associate with B2C com-
munication. Can the two be separated as neatly as in example 25? Also, are
the two kinds of approaches to the reader equally recurrent in the English text
when compared to the Italian one?
(DO NOT READ HERE BEFORE LOOKING AT THE EXAMPLES!)
In example 26, factual information does not seem to be separated from
emotional calls for involvement as clearly as in example 25. Here, facts do not
seem to need impersonality and formal neutrality to be presented as credible ar-
gumentative bases. For instance, the factual nature of paragraph 5 is announced
by the bold Consider thiS, which, however, is an imperative that addresses the
reader directly and makes the following data relevant for himlher. In the same
paragraph, the objective, impersonal potential of facts and figures is further
mitigated by the inclusive we, the final exclamation, and the informal register
(notice, for instance, dirty instead of polluting). Similarly, in paragraph 9, the
sentence starting with Most governments reports factual information referred
to third persons, but at the same time contains the contraction they'll, which is
typical of informal writing. Such contractions are consistent throughout the text,
together with the inclusive we, which is a feature we have already encountered
in example 25 but here is ubiquitous: it is used whenever there is no direct
reference to ayou marking a call for action. As a whole, the English text seems
to be more consistently oriented towards a low information -to-persuasion ratio
than the Italian one, which on the other hand seems to draw a clear-cut line
between factual, informative chunks and more emotional bits.
Ira Torresi 117
Example 26
Greenpeace S 7 steps towards the Energy [RJevolution, http://www.greenpeace.
org/internationallcampaigns/c/imate-change/take_ acti on/7steps/7steps-about
Transcription of the main text, excluding logos, buttons and links to other docu-
ments (emphasis as in the original, coloured text rendered as bold):
1 Energy saving [r]evolution - first 7 steps

2 We need to kick start an energy [r]evolution! By burning fossil fuels
for energy, we're altering our atmosphere - causing climate change.
To reverse it, we'll need to stop burning so much coal and oil. Renew-
able energy like wind and solar power is part of the answer, but the
fastest (and most cost effective) way to reduce our global warming
pollution is simply use less energy.
3 What's so revolutionary about that?
4 Sure, energy efficiency is only common sense. But the idea that with
smarter technology we can have growing economies while using less and
less energy is new and bold. It's the sort of thing that might even happen
without us if we had the time to wait. But we don't. The effects of climate
change are already starting to pile up, construction begins on new power
plants literally every week and billions of energy wasting lightbulbs are
still sold every year.
5 Consider this: A simple switch to energy saving bulbs in the EU alone,
would save 20 million tonnes of C02, equal to shutting down 25 medium-
size dirty power plants; and this is before we consider the efficiency of
other household products, or even cars!
6 It's not only about changing lightbulbs
7 Specifically, it's not about your lightbulbs. Changing your lightbulbs is
just an easy way to get started. Plus, it saves you money. Think of it as
step one.
8 Revolutions start with individuals getting together for a common goal.
That's why the next steps are about sharing this idea with your friends
and community. Then you'll be ready to challenge governments and
influence businesses.
9 It's all easier than you might think. Most governments already support
energy efficiency to some degree - a few (like Canada, Australia and the
Netherlands) have already said they'll phase out energy wasting lightbulbs
eventually. With a little helpful push, we can get them to act now.
10 We're asking you to start with lightbulbs simply because they are so
wasteful, and better alternatives are so easy to install. Soon, we'll take
on other energy wasting products.
11 Why today is the day
12 Every ton of carbon dioxide pumped into the atmosphere, every coal
burning power plant built and every energy wasting lightbulb installed
makes it harder for us to stop climate change. Each one is one more thing
we'll need to undo. Better to do it right the first time. Use an energy sav-
ing CFL so we'll need less electricity, avoid building another dirty power
plant and protect our planet.
13 That's an energy revolution. Your energy revolution.
Of course two parallel texts are no basis at all to draw any kind of
conclusion about regularities in Italian and English texts promoting NGOs'
campaigns. If the characteristics outlined in examples 25 and 26 were con-
firmed in larger corpora, however, some conclusions could be drawn about
the interlinguistic and intercultural treatment of factual vs. emotional contents
in awareness-raising texts. In particular, Italian readers would seem to attach
Ira Torresi 119
more reliability and authoritativeness to facts that are universally valid rather
than especially relevant for them; specific relevance implicitly makes facts,
and the arguments based on them, non-universal, therefore less than absolutely
true. English-speaking readers, on the other hand, would tend to interpret such
universal facts as less worthy of interest, because they are abstract, and do not
refer to the immediate and local context. If such regularities emerged from
extensive corpora of comparable texts, then, it might be concluded that the
information-to-persuasion ratio of awareness-raising texts can be fine-tuned,
or even require fine-tuning, when translating between Italian and English. This
finding would, in tum, confirm Hofstede and Hofstede's (2005) classification
of English-speaking countries as cultures where power distance is relatively
small, and Italy as a country with high uncertainty avoidance accustomed to
larger power distance.
At the same time, we have seen that overall differences between Italian and
English levels of (in)formality and (non-)neutrality are not dramatic. Examples
25 and 26 show more similarities than differences: both signal the transition
to factual bits, although with different devices: the explicit Consider this, and
mainly with impersonal discourse in Italian. And both feature, although with
different degrees of consistency, the inclusive we, which has not been found in
the Italian promotional texts analyzed until now; exclamations; informal and
creative language; and a final payoff that, in the English text, is marked out by
paragraphing (whereas it was in bold in example 25), and employs repetition
and syntactic parallelism to add emphasis and facilitate memorization. In the
light of such similarities, then, is translating awareness-raising across languages
and cultures relatively straightforward? Not really. In the following chapter,
we will meet some of the features we have just listed and many more, and we
will see that they often require thorough trans-creation to function well in the
target language and culture, as is common for all texts with a low information-
to-persuasion ratio. It is in the rendering of emotional, idiomatic and creative
language, then, that lies the main difficulty of translating awareness-raising
campaigns and other I2U genres that take on B2C-like characteristics: but we
will tackle this problem in the following chapter.
Business-to-Consumer
This chapter presents and illustrates the main characteristics of business-to-

consumer (or B2C) promotional texts, focusing in particular on the creative
use oflanguage and the challenges it poses for translators. It then examines in
more detail two exemplary types ofB2C promotional translation, i.e. brochures
and websites, and advertising.
7.1 Business-to-consumer (B2C): creative and emotional

language
Business-to-Consumer (or B2C) promotion is usually issued by private

companies selling products or services, and addressed to individual prospec-
tive consumers who are not supposed to have in-depth knowledge about the
object of promotion. B2C promotion, therefore, does not tend to be technical;
when technical or highly specific language is used for a general readership,
the reasons for this choice often go beyond that of informing the reader. The
information-to-persuasion ratio ofB2C promotion, then, is quite consistently
low, even if it changes according to field (promotional texts for technologi-
cal and medical products or services, for instance, may have slightly higher
information-to-persuasion ratios) and target group (usually, the narrower and
better defined the target, the more specific the information provided). This
accounts for more immediate, boastful, creative and catchy language and tells
translators that B2C translation is usually best approached with functional
trans-creation than with the kind of close translation required by most B2B
texts or other texts where anchors make rewriting difficult or less desirable by
the client. When anchors are not an issue, either because they are not present
in the source text, or because the brief is to ignore them and provide a creative
translation, the emotional effect of the text on the addressee, the generation of
interest or curiosity or desire towards the object of promotion, in other words
the motivation to buy it, is virtually the only thing that matters.
The ability to recreate that motivation to buy in B2C translation can only
be achieved through the critical observation of large amounts of B2C texts
in the target language and culture. This arguably applies to all kinds of texts,
promotional or otherwise, but it is particularly relevant for the translation
of B2C and other promotional genres that require thorough rewriting. For
example, to be able to translate B2C websites in a functional way, one should
navigate and read as many B2C websites of the same kind as the source
text, originally written in the target language for the target culture. And no
Ira Torresi 121
advertising translator can afford not to look at ads in magazines, or to switch

channel when commercials are broadcast on TV or the radio. If promotional
advertising becomes a constant source of income, building and comparing
corpora ofB2C texts in one's source and target languages may well become a
good investment. What follows in this chapter is meant as a series of general
indications, not as a replacement for direct observation.
Before we move on to some practical examples, it is worth explaining
what I mean by the tenns 'creative language' and 'emotional language', two
groups of stylistic features that are particularly important in advertising and
B2C as a whole. Let us start with creative language. What I will call 'creative'
language or style should actually be tenned 'purposeful use of non-standard
language'. This definition simply means that language is not used in nonnal
(grammatical or logical) ways, but this does not constitute a mistake, because
this non-standard usage follows alternative rules, like the rules of games,
which are alternative to those of the real world. Several tropes or figures of
speech are instances of creative language. Creative language captures the ad-
dressees' attention and enhances memorization by actively involving them in
the (re )construction of meaning. The translation of creative devices requires
trans-creation; it often happens that what appears as a metaphor in the source
text cannot be possibly rendered with a metaphor - not even an entirely dif-
ferent one - in the target text without losing its effectiveness. This, however,
is not a problem for an agile translator (§ 2.1) because instances of creative
language are interchangeable. If creativity and addressee involvement is what
makes the metaphor in the source text important, then that metaphor can be
replaced with another creative device that engages the reader with equal
intensity. On the other hand, the translator can choose to use non-creative
language instead of the problematic metaphor, and introduce a new instance
of creative language elsewhere. Either way, the rendering of creative language
is the perfect example of the usefulness of alternative versions for both com-
missioners and translators (who can evade the responsibility of choosing one
single solution that has fewer chances of being accepted, and use the multiple
versions as tangible proof of the higher effort required by promotional transla-
tion, and negotiate a price accordingly).
One creative use of both verbal and visual language is metaphor. A meta-
phor is the transfer of a quality from a primary subject to a secondary subject.
For instance: crude oil (primary subject) is often called 'black gold', where
gold is the secondary subject: the transferred quality is preciousness. The same
applies to 'time is money', 'she's a pearl', etc. Well-thought out metaphors are
powerful indicators of the naturalness and efficacy of a promotional text, but
extremely difficult to translate as they require re-contextualization and often
thorough re-writing. Metaphors can sometimes be difficult to detect because
frequent usage wears them out, until they die. That is, people do not perceive
122 Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Consumer
them as metaphors any longer, and use them routinely, usually as idioms, as
happens with 'black gold', 'time is money' and 'she's a pearl'. Dead metaphors,
however, can be brought back to life; this process makes them more involv-
ing for the reader who suddenly realizes the oddity and irony of their literal
meaning, usually taken at face value. Dead metaphors can be revitalized by
expansion, e.g. 'She's a rose of a girl, but what about her bunch of friends?'.
Another way to bring a dead metaphor back to life is through a literal visual
translation: for instance, if a non-precious product is called' a jewel', and the
accompanying visual shows a woman wearing it around her neck, the jewel
metaphor is interpreted literally and the reader becomes aware of its usual
non-literal meaning. In such a case, if the jewel metaphor does not work in
the target language but changing the visual is an unfavourable option or not an
option at all, a different metaphor or other creative device must be developed
around the same visual, perhaps selecting the neck element rather than the
jewel concept. The same principle applies to all other instances of verbal-visual
interaction that do not work in the target language.
Another creative device is punning. One makes a pun by switching a
word that would normally be used in that context with another one having
the same sound, but different spelling (homophony) or the same written form,
but a different meaning (homonymy). One example of the creative use of
homophones is Baloo the bear's song in Disney's The Jungle Book, 'Look
for the bear necessities'; and in the mid-1990s, a British ad for Stella Artois
beer featured the headline, 'Poor homme', accompanied by a black-and-white
picture of a man's naked torso and head that would have been perfect in an
ad for a perfume pour homme. This case of interlinguistic homophony is also
an example of intertextuality between beer ads and perfume ads (see below).
An example of how homonyms can be used in advertising is the headline in a
British ad for Jacob's crackers from the mid-1990s, 'You can wear anything
when you're crackers', where the visual depicted cracker biscuits wearing
toppings arranged to resemble clothes.
A third device is the creation of new words or neologisms, which is
frequent in the creation of brand-names which carry semantic meaning. In
English, neologisms can be created using prefixes or suffixes, some of which
are separated with a dash, as in Juice-o-matic, Fruit-tella or Jell-o. Less vis-
ible, but equally important, neologisms are created using more productive
affixes, such as in 'ultra-matte' (an adjective used in English advertising and
product names to describe cosmetic foundations that are supposed to give the
skin a non-shiny, non-oily look). Compounding produces brand-names such
as PlayStation, ColorFix, or the adjective 'stay-fresh'. Sometimes it is dif-
ficult to tell if a word is the result of compounding or affixation: for instance,
the '(-o)-rama' suffix is derived from the word 'panorama' and often carries
the meaning not of the Greek root, -orama [view] but of pan- [all], as in the
Ira Torresi 123
name of the restaurant chain Steak-o-rama, which probably means 'all types
of steaks', rather than 'come and see our steaks'. Similar to compounds, but
with phonological and graphic contraction, are the so-called portmanteau
words that result from the process of blending: examples include Swatch
(Swiss watch) and Intellution (Intelligent solution). Clipping or shortening
is another productive way to produce informal-sounding neologisms, as in
Crocs (' croc' being short for' crocodile'; an American brand of plastic clogs).
A form of neologism creation that is particularly sought after in brand -naming
and advertising is the grammatical shift that turns proper names (brand names
or company names) into common nouns, adjectives or verbs of everyday use.
Historical examples are the verb '(to) hoover', which means 'to clean a carpet
or floor with a vacuum cleaner', and 'kleenex', which refers to 'a small paper
handkerchief'. Of course this grammatical shift ensures that the general public
is constantly reminded that the brand in question is the brand in its field; this
is why advertising may try to force the process in jingles and payoffs, as in
'make it a Blockbuster night'.
Using language creatively does not only mean playing with words (and
visuals), but also with sounds, for instance, through assonance and consonance,
i.e. the repetition of the same vowel or consonant sounds, of which rhyming is
an advanced version. The payoff 'Have a break, have a Kit-Kat' is an example
of consonance, further highlighted by the repetition of 'have a'. Alliteration,
on the other hand, does not involve sounds but written letters, as in 'Zurich.
Because change happenz', which is also an ironical play on (Swiss) German
pronunciation. Onomatopoeias or transcribed sounds are also present in B2C,
as in 'Pringles. Once you pop, you can't stop', where the onomatopoeia 'pop'
rhymes with 'stop'.
Another level where one can play with language is syntax, for instance
through parallelism. Parallelism is often reinforced by verbatim repetition,
which achieves cohesion, enhances memorization and gives more relevance to
the repeated element. Examples of both devices are the slogans 'Open minds.
OpenAmstels'; 'Pure clean. Pure beautiful. Pure me' (Ivory soap); 'To know
your bank, know your man. Down to earth, down to business' (ABN Bank).
Syntactic parallelism without repetition can be observed in 'It Tastes Good.
It Costs Less' (Basic cigarettes).
Syntax can be further used in non-standard (although not particularly
playful) ways by generating free-standing incomplete or elliptical clauses
that, like metaphors, require the addressee's active reconstruction of meaning
from the non-linguistic context. This is especially common in headlines and
payoffs, such as in 'Shell. Made to move'; 'Aromatherapy by Fairy'; or 'Dry,
oily skin?' (Johnson's Clean&Clear, which also contains a question, see the
section on emotional language below).
Play with language, however, does not end with syntax; it can go as far
as the textual level, where it takes the name of intertextuality. Intertextuality
is the reference to another text genre, either through verbatim or modified

quotation, or through the adoption of the stylistic conventions of that genre.
For instance, advertising may borrow (pseudo) scientific or (pseudo) technical
jargon to achieve an impression of reliability; or an ad for convenience food
can be masked as a recipe. The Stella Artois ad described above exploits the
irony generated by the clash between the imitated text type (perfume ads) and
the nature of the object of promotion (beer, which is clearly contrasted with
perfume). The use of proverbs can also be listed in this category, as proverbs
are texts in their own right that have the advantage of being immediately
recognizable as something familiar by virtually all native speakers of a given
language. In any case, it is important that the intertextual reference can be
easily decoded by the target readership, or the ad will appear pedantic or just
strange. For instance, when Levi's launched an international TV commercial
based on lines from Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night s Dream, after a few
unsuccessful showings a subtitle carrying the Italian title of the play had to be
added for the benefit of the Italian audience. A Midsummer Night s Dream, in
fact, is not as popular in Italy as in English-speaking countries, and the com-
mercial did not feature any visual cues that might have helped viewers decode
the reference, since the actors were dressed and acted as contemporary young
people in an urban ghetto.
But what should a translator do when faced with an intertextual refer-
ence? First of all, one should be able to identify it, which is not a simple task,
as shown by the case of the Levi's commercial. The popularity of genres and
single works may not travel well across cultures. Then, if reference is made
to an entire genre rather than a single specific work, the translator should
reproduce the conventions of the imitated text type that apply in the target
language, which may differ from those of the source text. Think about the
difference between Italian and American CV s and application letters pointed
out in § 4.1; the genre label is the same, but the actual texts might look rather
different. At that point, however, translation difficulties and opportunities are
not specific of promotional or advertising language, but of the text type that is
reproduced. If the imitated text type is not established in the target language or
genre system, as might happen for instance with Haiku poetry or Limericks, or
if the imitated work is not immediately recognizable by the target readership,
as happened with Shakespeare in the Levi's commercial, then this should be
pointed out to the commissioner, and negotiations for a different intertextual
reference or an altogether different approach (and consequently, better remu-
neration and longer deadlines) may be initiated.
Example 27 is an excerpt from a Sony Vaio C-series website that is writ-
ten to resemble the style of fashion magazines, as is further highlighted by
the visual at the top of the page. The choice of the imitated genre is functional
to the way in which the target is profiled: the advertised notebook is specifi-
cally targeted to young women who care for their looks. Example 28, on the
Ira Torresi 125
other hand, verbally and visually mimics American comic books in order to
ironically associate the boost provided by exclamations, exaggerated expres-
sions, and graphic emphasis with a trivial situation such as oven cleaning. The
reference to the (pseudo) medical field is less structural, but nonetheless it
contributes to extend the medical metaphor which is present in the product's
brand-name, Dr. Beckmann Rescue, and reiterated in the payoff, 'First aid for
ovens', complemented by the visual symbol of the Greek cross.
Use examples 27 and 28 as translation exercises from English into your
active working language(s), rewriting the copies so that they resemble a
fashion magazine article and a comic, respectively. Pay particular attention to
the rendering (or substitution, or neutralization where necessary) of instances
of creative language. Before translating, it might be useful to identify and
perhaps underline such instances to make sure that they are not overlooked.
You can also come back to examples 27 and 28 after reading the following
on emotional language, which is also extensively used in the two examples,
especially in example 27.
Example 27
Intertextuality: Sony Vaio C-Series website
Transcription of the 'Design' section:
Express your inner VAIO®

Just like the clothes you wear, your notebook PC can reflect your sense of style
and taste. With slick lines, a slim design and five hip new colors to choose from,
the VAIO® C Notebook is a functional fashion statement, helping you get the
job done while separating you from the crowd.
Design Look and feel

When we talk about the VAIO® C Notebook's hip new design, we're not just
talking about its exterior. On the inside, a complimentary accent color frames
the touch pad and bottom trim of the PC while a unique dimpled texture adds
a surprising element of class and individuality to the palm rest.
Go from drab to delicious

You crave individuality. You exude style and take pride in your taste. So why
buy a notebook that looks like all the rest? Designed for those who aren't afraid
to add a touch of color to their computer, the VAIO® C Notebook offers five
unique, hip styles to accessorize and energize your life with power, portability
and pizzazz.
Espresso Black
Sleek and professional, the Espresso Black VAIO® C Notebook has striking
copper accents, invigorating the touch pad and base.
Urban Gray
Sleek as a racecar, the Urban Gray VAIO® C Notebook has vibrant orange
accents, to match your active lifestyle.
Glacier Blue
Calming yet playful, the blue/gray tones of the Glacier Blue VAIO® C Notebook
reflect peaceful feelings of rediscovery and inner balance.
Blush Pink
Playfully chic, the Blush Pink VAIO® C Notebook is for free-spirited, fun-
loving fashionistas and romantics who feel pretty in pink.
Spring Green
The Spring Green VAIO® C Notebook emits an organic Zen-like feeling of
growth, renewal, health, and calmness.
Seashell Silver
Convey a light, wholesome impression with grace and elegance. The Seashell
Silver VAIO® C Notebook will refresh your mind and impress your friends.
Ira Torresi 127
Example 28
Intertextuality: Dr. Beckmann Rescue ad, Good Housekeeping UK December
1998, p. 374
After identifying the
stylistic features of ac-
tion comic books in your
target language, includ-
ing punctuation, the use
of bold script, and the
treatment of the 'sigh'
onomatopoeia, make a
copy of this page, cover
the ballooned text with
correction fluid, and write
your translation in the
balloons trying to imitate
the kind of lettering that is
used in action comics in
yourtargetlanguage. This
will help you see if your
target text is too long.
You can also experiment
with the bodycopy be-
tween the comic and the
packshot (i.e. the image of
the product), progressively
introducing or reducing the
amount of boost, emotion-
al language, and creative
devices. What version(s)
sound better in your target
language? Why do you
think they do?
Transcription of the body-
copy:
'Dr Beckmann Rescue is
the powerful remedy for
baked on grease and grime.
And unlike other oven and
grill cleaners, it's safe on
the skin and releases no
harmful vapours. Simply
spray on, leave, then wipe
off to a brilliant finish. '
Leaving aside creative language for the moment, emotional language is

another important part of advertising discourse. The most obvious instances
of emotional style are emotionally charged terms such as 'dream', 'fantas-
tic', 'magic' and the like; superlatives and comparatives, lexical boost (i.e.
inherently superlative terms that are not grammatically superlative, such as
'paramount', 'number one'); and terms with clear positive or negative con-
notations. A similar instance of emotional language is the use of the definite
article the, which makes the object of promotion or its producer/provider
unique, wiping out competitors from the scene. All such devices focus on
the qualities of the advertised product or service. There are several other
strategies, however, that focus on the reader rather than the product; they can
be used to involve addressees emotionally, making the object of promotion
relevant for them.
One such strategy, which we have already extensively observed in chapters
4-6, is the use of first- and second-person personal deictics (I/we, you, my/our,
your), which creates the intimacy of face-to-face conversation. Particularly
binding forms are the inclusive we that brings together the addresser and the
addressee, or first-person reported accounts that promote identification between
the addressee and the person allegedly vouching for the product, as in L'Oreal's
payoff, 'Because I'm worth it'. Other deictics (indications of place, time, etc.)
such as this, that, so, such, today/yesterday, and the like suggest that the ad-
dresser and addressee share the same space and time, the same attitudes and
judgement about something, or even a secret. For instance, if 'those days' are
mentioned without an explicit referent in an ad for sanitary towels or tampons,
the assumption is that the reader can interpret the reference as 'menstruation';
if the reference is not recognized, then the reader surely does not belong to
the target group of that particular ad.
Two devices that address the reader directly, thus eliciting personal in-
volvement, are imperatives and questions, both real and rhetorical. Examples
abound, here are just two of them: 'Drink Cuervo Gold today' (which also
contains the time deictic 'today'), and 'Do you want caffeine ... or decaf with
that headache?' (Tylenol caffeine-free pain reliever).
Generally speaking, in B2C, in order to involve addressees and shorten
the distance between them and the addresser, style and register are usually
kept informal and tend to resemble oral speech. This, however, does not apply
uniformly across languages and cultures: in German advertising, for instance,
register can be more formal than in English or Italian ads, and even personal
deixis is more often oriented towards the formal second person plural rather
than the second person singular, except in ads or promotional campaigns
specifically targeting young audiences. Where the general principles of infor-
mality and quasi-orality apply, however, these are achieved through a number
of devices, some of which may be:
Ira Torresi 129
- high-frequency, generic, colloquial and short terms which are more

immediate and add rhythm. In English, these are usually mono-
syllabic Germanic (as opposed to Latinate) words such as 'new',
'good', 'get', 'give', 'take', 'feel', 'find'. In Italian, adverbs ending
in -mente (which are the majority) are usually avoided in favour of
shorter, more basic ones;
- simple verbal forms. In English and Italian B2C texts, the simple
present is favoured in bodycopies because of its immediacy and be-
cause it places the product and its qualities out of time, while shorter
non-finite forms (infinitives, gerunds, or participles) are more usual in
headlines and payoffs. This also links back to the use of ellipsis (see
above, in the part about creative language);
- lack of grammatical cohesion, preference for implicit coordination
through juxtaposition and punctuation rather than subordination. This,
too, often borders with syntactic ellipsis, as in 'Boddingtons. The
cream of Manchester' .
In the following sections, text types will be divided according to their dis-
tribution context. Once again, websites and brochures (§ 7.1.1) will be grouped
together because their distribution context presupposes that contact is initiated
by the addressee, although, arguably, B2C brochures are also often handed out
rather than picked up independently by the addressee. Web sites and brochures
are also comparatively longer than ads, which means that potentially they
can contain more information, presented in a more argumentative way. Print
advertising (§ 7.1.2), on the other hand, due to more severe space constraints
and fiercer competition for the addressee's attention and memory, makes the
most of the visual level as well as of emotional and creative language. As
anticipated in § 1.5, advertisements meant for media other than the press will
not be treated here. While this book is intended to be a general introduction
to the main issues of promotional and advertising translation, discussing the
translation of promotional and advertising material across different media
would require an in-depth analysis of the constraints and opportunities for
trans-creation offered by each medium. If you are interested in the translation
of TV orradio commercials, the indications of this book can be complemented
with those contained in Diaz Cintas and Remael (2007).
7.1.1 B2C brochures and websites
B2C web sites and brochures are longer texts than ads; for this reason, they
can afford a slightly more narrative or argumentative style, but ideally should
never overtax the reader's attention with very dense or specific information,
except when information density or specificity is what is expected (e.g. in
websites or brochures for products whose main benefit is being high-tech or
professional). We have seen that, even in the website of a technological product

such as a PC where technicality is not the main claim (example 27), technical
specifications can be presented as secondary to other characteristics that are
thought to be more relevant for a non-geek target. The Vaio C-series website
does include more technically-oriented sections that were not transcribed in
example 27, but they, too, are interspersed with non-objective, non-technical
persuasive language; moreover, they appear below the Design section and,
unlike it, do not contain visuals.
One big risk in B2C website or brochure copywriting and translation is
to be tempted by the amount of space potentially available and bore readers
with long descriptions, thus losing their attention along the text. For this rea-
son, the verbal texts of B2C brochures and websites are often kept short and
persuasive and complemented with prominent visuals which attract attention
but, at the same time, also carry both information (i.e. the visual description
of the product) and persuasion (enticing the viewer through the use of lights,
angles, etc.). Images and layout, then, are an integral part of the promotional
text as a whole, and should never be ignored when translating a B2C text.
Albeit to a lesser extent, this also applies to promotional texts in general (see
for instance example I in chapter 2).
Examples 29a through 29f (reproduced here in the same order as the
respective languages appear on the English main website) were accessed by
navigating Intersport's site www.wherefootballstarts.com. which in August
2008 carried the UEFA Euro 2008 Adidas campaign. The English text (29a)
is to be considered the source text of all other versions, but these were adapted
by native speakers of the respective languages who might have looked at other
non-English versions, too.
The six examples promote the official UEFA championship ball, therefore
they contain specific terminology that is likely to be familiar to football fans
but perhaps not to the general public. In the previous sections, we have learnt
to treat such terminology as translation anchors that force the translator to go
for a close translation rather than creative rewriting. To a certain extent, this
applies here too, meaning that monoreferential terms are rendered rather ac-
curately in all versions, but stylistic features - what we have called creative
or emotional devices - seem to hold sway over accuracy, sometimes leading
to strategic omissions or expansions for the sake of syntactic symmetry or
other stylistic effects. This persuasion-oriented approach is the reverse of
what we have encountered in B2B websites and brochures (with the notable
exception of Zoratti's website), where information generally has priority over
persuasive style, i.e. accuracy of rendition is usually more appreciated than
creative rewriting.
Before reading on, compare the English text with any other version you
understand, separating field-specific or semi-specific terms from creative
Ira Torresi 131
and emotional language (for instance, underlining them in different colours).

Note how the two categories were approached in translation. Remember that
punctuation, grammar and syntax may contribute to boost and creative or
emotional style as substantially as the lexical level.
Example29a
Adidas Europass football web page, English version, htlp://www.adidas.
com/campaigns/eurocup08/content/adipuresilver/index.asp?strCountry_
adidascom=com
Transcription of the verbal text:
THE SCIENCE OF CONTROL

EUROPASS
THE OFFICIAL MATCH BALL OF UEFA EURO 2008™
MORE TEXTURE, MORE CONTROL, MORE GOALS
The EUROPASS is the most accurate football ever. No other ball delivers more
power, swerve and control, shot after dribble after pass, in the air and on the
ground, regardless of the weather.
Faster attacks, crisper crosses, more accurate passing and more precise, powerful
shots on goal are yours to be enjoyed! Explore and discover the science behind
the world's first flawless football!
Example29b
Adidas Europass football web page, French version, htlp://www.adidas.
adidascom=fr
LE CONTROLE ULTIME
EUROPASS
LE BALLON OFFICIEL DE L'UEFA EURO 2008™
NOUVEAU REvETEMENT, PLUS DE CONTROLE, PLUS DE BUTS
L'EUROPASS est Ie ballon de football Ie plus precis des tous les temps. Aucun
autre ballon n' offre autant de puissance, d' effets et de contr6le, tir apres drible
apres passe, au sol ou en I' air, et par tous les temps. U ne plus grande rapidite en
attaque, une plus grande precision des centres, des tirs au but ultra puissants ...
voila ce qui t'attend! Decouvre la science qui a donne naissance au premier
ballon de foot parfait!
Ira Torresi 133
Example 29c
Aclidas E uropass footba ll web page, German version, http ://www.
aclidas. com / ca m pa i gns/ e u roc up DB/ conten tladipu resi Ive rli n dex.
asp?strCountry_ adidascom =de
Transcription of the verbal tex1::
DIE WISSENSCHAFT DER BALLKONTROLLE

EUROPASS
DER OFFZIELLE SPIELBALL DER UEFA EURO 2008™
OCH MEHR STRUKTUR. NOCH MEHR KONTROLLE.
Der EUROPASS ist der praziseste BaH, den es je gab. Mit keinem anderen
Ball hast du so vie I Schusskraft, Drall und Ballkontrolle. Jeder Spielzug, jedes
Dribbling, jeder Pass lind jeder Kopfball wird mit diesem BaH effektiver. Und
das beijedem Wetter. GUillZe durch verbesserte Schllsskraft und gr6fiere Sclmel-
ligkeit, prazisere Passe und hartere Torschiisse! Probier ilm alls lind entdecke
den teclmologischen Vorteil des ersten wirklich perfekten FuBbaHs.
Example29d
Adidas Europass football web page, Spanish version, http://
www.adidas.com/campaigns/eurocup08/content/adipuresi lver/index.
asp?strCountry_ adidascom=es
LA CIENCIA DEL CONTROL

EUROPASS
EL BALON OFICIAL DE LA UEFA EURO 2008™
MAs TEXTURA, MAs CONTROL, MAs GOLES
El EUROPASS es el bal6n de flitbol mas perfecto que existe. Ningful otro bal6n
ofrece mayor potencia, regate y control. Disparo despues del regate y tras el pase,
tanto en el aire como sobre el terreno, indipendientemente del clima. Podras
disfmtar de ataques mas rapidos, centros mas energicos, pases mas precisos y
disparos mas directos y potentes para conseguir el gol. Explora y descubre la
ciencia que se oculta tras el primer bal6n de flitbol perfecto.
Ira Torresi 135
Example2ge
Adidas Europass football web page, Italian version, htlp://www.adidas.
adidascom=it
LA SCIENZA DEL CONTROLLO

EUROPASS
IL PALLONE UFFICIALE DELL'UEFAEURO 2008™
PIU RESISTENZA, PIU CONTROLLO, PIU GOAL
EUROPASS eil pallone pili preciso mai realizzato. Nessun altro pallone offre
maggiore potenza, controllo ed effetto, conclusioni a rete dopo un dribbling
o un passaggio, in aria 0 sui terreno di gioco, indipendentemente dalle condi-
zioni climatiche. Attacchi pili rapidi, cross pili calibrati, passaggi pili precisi
e accurati, tiri potenti: ora e tutto a tua disposizione! Scopri Ie tecnologie che
stanno dietro al primo pallone al mondo privo di difetti!
Example29f
Adidas Europass football web page, Dutch version, htlp://www.adidas.
adidascom=nl
DE WETENSCHAP VAN CONTROLE

EUROPASS
DE OFFICIELE WEDSTRIJDBAL VAN UEFAEURO 2008™
MEER STRUCTUUR, MEER CONTROLE, MEER DOELPUNTEN
De EUROPASS is de nauwkeurigste voetbal ooit. Er bestaat geen enkele bal

die meer kracht, wendbaarheid en controle biedt, schot na dribbel na pass, in de
lucht en op de grond, ongeacht de weersomstandigheden. Snellere aanvallen,
perfecte voorzetten, zuiverder passes en nauwkeuriger, krachtiger schoten op
het doel. Ontdek de wetenschap achter's werelds eerste perfecte voetbal!
The fact that the way in which anchors are approached here is different
from what happens in B2B emerges right from some of the headlines. As you
might have noticed in example 27, in B2C websites and brochures (and, as we
Ira Torresi 137
will see, in ads) headlines, emphasized titles that break the copy, and payoffs
or final sentences are the points where creative and emotional devices tend to
cluster and to stand out more prominently, mainly thanks to more conspicuous
layout. These parts, therefore, are the ones to be approached more functionally,
and the ones for which clients are more likely to require a higher number of
alternative versions.
The first headline, The science of control in 29a, is rendered closely in
all versions except the French one, where it becomes 'Contr6le ultime' [Ulti-
mate control]: the science element is omitted. This omission, however, does
not seem to alter the meaning in any significant way: in this headline, the
term science is meant to add objectivity to the claim, a generic notion that is
perfectly conveyed by the lexical boost contained in 'ultime'.
More interesting is the treatment of the sub-headline More texture, more
control, more goals, where the problematic term texture is variously rendered
as 'textura' (Spanish), 'Stmktur' and 'structuur' (German and Dutch), 're-
sistenza' (Italian: notice that resistance is a quality resulting from texture or
structure, but not synonymous with them), and 'revetement' (French: here,
too, there is a metonymical shift, since the covering of the ball is mentioned
instead of its qualities - texture or structure). Once again, what matters here
is not the closeness of the translation of a potential anchor, but the inherently
positive connotation of each term and the parallelism of the three noun clauses,
reinforced by the repetition of more.
In the German translation, apparently, an additional concern was to make
the sub-headline fit into one line; for this reason, the last of the three elements
was simply cut out, and the parallelism of the remaining two parts was further
highlighted by the use of full stops that mark longer rhythmical pauses than
commas. In B2B, this would count as a major omission and, more likely than
not, it would be contested by the commissioner: after all, goals is a very field-
specific term and scoring more goals is certainly a key benefit for footballers.
In this text, however, the result is a sub-headline that appears more effective
than those which take up two lines, and even than the English, Spanish and
Italian ones which do fit in one line each, but whose claims appear to have
slightly less impact. In B2C, then, it would seem that less (quantity) often
spells more (effect).
Compare the German solution with the French one, where all three
elements are retained, but the clause More texture is translated as 'Nouveau
revetement' [new covering], which is certainly not a bad translation in itself,
but breaks the triple repetition and parallelism. In such a case, then, one other
solution might have been to omit the first part of the sub-headline, leaving a
shorter but more effective 'plus de contr6le, plus de buts'; the 'revetement' ele-
ment, then, could have been recovered in the bodycopy below, space constraints
permitting. It is impossible, however, to judge a translation without knowing
the working situation in which it was produced: in this case, for instance, the
texture element of the English version might have been indicated as one of
the highlights of the promotion, and its omission in the sub-headline might
have been discouraged by the commissioner.
One other characteristic of example 29 is the peculiar way in which gram-
mar and syntax are used to add boost. In the bodycopy of 29a, for instance,
elements are arranged in incremental structures that build up impact and posi-
tive connotations into a general impression of absolute performance. Boosting
nouns come first by the three, as in power, swerve and control, and then by the
four, as in Faster attacks, crisper crosses, more accurate passing and more
precise, powerful shots on goal. In the latter series, phrases start having two ele-
ments bound by consonance (ja§1er a!1ack§., cri§JJer crosse!i.), and then become
longer and longer, reaching a sort of boosting climax. The same incremental
effect is achieved by juxtaposing specific syntactic constructions such as the
symmetric repetition shot after dribble after pass, which suggests a very long
succession of actions, or the parallelism of in the air and on the ground, where
two non-gradable opposites are presented together to cover all play situations.
In the same sentence we also find two structures that participate in building the
boosting climax: No other ball delivers more ... , which categorically excludes
all competitors from the level of performance of this ball, and regardless of,
which encompasses all kinds of (weather) conditions.
This kind of boosting climax is present in all versions, even when major
restructuring is carried out. In the French text, for instance, the four-element
series of boosting noun phrases is downsized by one element, probably to ac-
commodate space constraints: 'Une plus grande rapidite en attaque, une plus
grande precision des centres, des tirs au but ultra puissants'. The climax-building
potential lost with the fourth element, however, is recovered by increasing
the boost of the last element, which becomes a more absolute 'des tirs au but
ultra puissants' [ultra powerful shots on goal] rather than just more precise,
powerful shots on goal. Moreover, the list of performance enhancements is
made virtually endless by the three dots; and instead of the crosses and passes
of the English version, in 29b we find 'centres', perhaps less appealing for a
defender but much more relevant for an attacker and in general for the young
amateurs who play one-to-one football in their backyards (and probably are
the main target of the promotion). Once again, in B2C completeness and
accuracy of rendition are not as important as the overall persuasive effect of
the target text, and the order in which informative and persuasive bits appear
in the source text is often irrelevant: losing and then regaining boost is just as
effective as preserving it in the same position as in the original text.
In all versions, the boost-piling is further complemented by more obvious
instances oflexical boost such as, in English, the ... first andflawless, superla-
tives such as the most accurate ... ever, and a number of comparatives that
Ira Torresi 139
implicitly compare the object of promotion with all other footballs produced
to this day. In the headline, the definite article is used to highlight the unique-
ness of the product, as it is The [only] official match ball of the European
championship; this device is reproduced in all versions. Personal addresses
that highlight why buying the advertised football would be particularly relevant
for the reader are concentrated towards the end of the text, to capitalize on
the boost built to that point, the message being more or less 'this is the best
football ever - and you can have it'. Second person deictics are complemented
by imperatives and two exclamations, although the latter change across the
six versions: the Spanish page does without them, in Dutch only the second
one is preserved, while the German version retains the first exclamation but
ends with a full stop.
This variation is likely to be connected with whether the individual adapt-
ers thought that as many as two exclamations might seem too much in the
target culture. Exclamations (like graphic emphasis relying on large character
size or heavy bolding) are a particularly explicit, little-refined kind of boost
that is usually unsuitable for products, brands or fields that are promoted or
perceived as elegant, up-market or authoritative, especially in cultures with
large power distance. Thus, if in the target culture football is an elitist sport,
or wherever the advertised ball is clearly positioned in the up-market segment
(away from the purchasing power of children and teenagers, for instance),
then it is better to avoid exclamations or keep them to a minimum. The same
applies if on a given market the brand is assigned a consistently cool, self-
conscious face that would be threatened by blunt addresses such as exclamatory
imperative sentences.
In the particular case of the Adidas ball, however, and in similarly glocal-
ized instances of promotion, such considerations are left to national marketing
departments rather than decided at a centralized level. It is difficult, then, to
establish if the Spanish decision to eliminate exclamations was more influenced
by the Spanish market's perception of the Europass ball, Adidas, and football,
than by what Adidas national marketing managers thought about the Spanish
market's perceptions, or even by their personal stylistic preferences. In a real
working situation, then, to tackle issues such as exclamations and other blunt
promotional devices, a translator should infer or ask the commissioner as
many details as possible about the target (including age, education and income
level), the brand's and product's intended positioning on the target market, and
the addresser's position vis-it-vis the addressee (items 2-4 of the model brief
in table I). If such information is not clear enough, then translation choices
may be negotiated with the end client when possible; or, if multiple versions
are foreseen in the brief, each version might contain a different treatment of
such devices. Each alternative version should of course be carefully motivated
specifying the kind of target and productlbrand image it is meant for.
7.1.2 B2C advertisements
One might assume that the only B2C advertising campaigns that need trans-
lation are those launched by large multinationals that are present on several
national markets. National-only or even highly local B2C companies, too,
however, may require multilingual advertising if they operate in countries that
are officially or unofficially multilingual. In such cases, copies and visuals
may be developed in-house, with results of varying quality. Example 30, for
instance, is a campaign circulated on several local free papers of the Italian
region of Emilia-Romagna between January and March and September and
October of 2005. The source company is Moreno, a used-car dealer based in
Faenza, a town near Forli. Although the source text of the three versions (a
simple sentence that runs, more or less, 'at our dealer you will find cars in
perfect conditions and at low prices') was in Italian, no Italian corresponding
text was circulated, as Moreno's Italian ads are usually less straightforward
and rely more on creative devices. The three texts in example 30, on the other
hand, are aimed at migrants living in Italy, who are not familiar with Italian
and might even use Russian, Chinese or Arabic as linguae francae. For this
reason, creative style, whose comprehension can be difficult for non-native
speakers, is avoided.
Example30a
Moreno S 2005 Russian ad on the loealfree press ofEmilia-Romagna
a¢1ef/
__
, ''-_ ' OCCASIONI AUTLET FAENZA VIA CELLE I (Angolo via Emilia Ponente) 0546.610917
Ira Torresi 141
Example30b
Moreno S 2005 Chinese ad on the local free press ofEmilia-Romagna
MORENO MOTOR COMPANY
~Jifle~
, OCCASIONI AUTlET FAENZA VIA CElLE I (Angolo via Emilia PORente) 0546.620917
Example30c
Moreno S 2005 Arabic ad on the local free press ofEmilia-Romagna
~..#
, ~ OCCASIONI AUTlET FAENZA VIA CELlE I (Angolo via Emilia Ponente) 0546.620917
Leaving the local for the multinational level, it often happens that the
copywriting, translation and adaptation of large international advertising cam-
paigns are managed by specialized agencies. Such agencies usually require
translators first of all to be as creative as possible and adjust the target text to
the target culture, and secondly to provide multiple versions, often with literal
back -translations and detailed comments about any deviation from the original
(e.g. omissions, puns introduced in the target language, revitalized metaphors
or idioms, etc.). Ready-made grids can be sent as part of the brief to make sure
that every version and element is clearly labelled. A simple working grid is
provided in table 3 at the end of this chapter: you can use it for your transla-
tion exercises. Remember that fewer alternative versions might be required
for bodycopies, while thorough trans-creation and more versions are usually
expected for headlines and payoffs.
Sometimes, however, trans-creation does not necessarily entail the use
of creative language. Instead of relying on creativity, some ads give out in-
formation and raw facts, with a preference for figures and (pseudo) scientific
or medical terms, so that the superiority of the product or service comes out
naturally. This is a technique that we have already encountered in B2B (§ 4.2)
and in the factual parts of awareness-raising texts (§ 4.3.2.3). Neutral, objective
advertising style works particularly well with products advertised as high-tech
or scientific, especially when their image includes other traits associated with
no-nonsense rationality and reliability: for instance, if they are made by a Ger-
man brand that is internationally expected to go for functionality rather than
fanciness (see chapter 5 for the exploitation of national identities as advertising
benefits). In such ads, neutrality and impersonality build a distance between
the addressee and the advertised object or brand, thus connoting the latter as
an authority in its field. Even if thorough rewriting remains a valid option,
in such cases it is rarely aimed at introducing creative devices, unless this is
stated in the brief. More frequently it is aimed at reproducing an objective,
neutral style that appears to state facts rather than catch attention or elicit
identification. The neutral, impersonal stance can be safely altered only when
retaining it would clearly sell poorly: for instance, if the target market has a
different profile than the one for which the source text was developed, or when
the brand or national identity the source campaign relies on has a negative
connotation in the target culture, or when the kind of product presented under
a neutral and factual light would clearly require a more emotional approach
to meet target consumer expectations.
Consider for instance example 31. The headline contains a revitalized
metaphor (an idiom) and the sub-headline features one instance of explicit
lexical boost; lexical boost can also be found in the last sentence of the body-
copy. The bodycopy, however, mainly lists technical specifications in noun
clauses separated by full stops, with only one subordinate clause containing
one finite verb and no first- or second-person deixis. On the other hand, it has
Ira Torresi 143
as many as four figures, some of which count as instances of implicit boost,

and several technical tenns arranged in non -oral-like constructions that would
not be out of place in the appliance user's manual, such as tuba flessibile in-
tegrato, sistema di jiltraggio,filtro di classe 'S', accessori in dotazione, plus
two popular science words, acari and microparticelle.
The visuals also serve the same purpose: the main one depicts the ap-
pliance with its outstanding feature (the flexible hose) in evidence, while the
three smaller pictures at the top of the page describe three possible uses of the
product. Although a human figure is present in the three small photographs,
the element in the foreground is the appliance, not the woman, and there is
no eye contact between the reader and the woman in the photos, who is never
portrayed in a close-up. In fact, in two of the pictures we cannot even see her
head, and in the third one we find her looking away from the reader at the
nozzle of the product, the main focus of the image. Thus, even in the visuals,
emotional involvement and identification do not seem to be an issue; the object
of promotion is the only thing that matters and its qualities are not argued for
but shown as absolute facts, not as something that is especially relevant for
the reader. This is in line with the image that Siemens has created for itself in
Italy, capitalizing on its Gennanness.
If Italian is one of your passive languages, translate example 31 into
your active language(s) using the grid in table 3 to provide three versions
with different degrees of infonnality and objectivity. Remember that the ad
is intended for mid-market, non-glossy women's periodicals targeted at adult
women with all kinds of education and income status. The answers to items
3, 4 and 5 of the model brief in table 1 can be inferred from the text itself.
Which of your versions do you think would be more persuasive for the in-
tended target group and brand image in your target culture(s), and why? Do
all of your versions fit in well with the visuals? If not, how should the visuals
be changed to match the verbal text? Do you think it would be worthwhile for
the end client to invest money in new visuals, i.e. would your versions that
require new images sell significantly more products than the other versions
that do not entail visual modifications?
Intennediate approaches that combine figures and technical tenninology
with more emotional structures are also possible. Example 32 is a case in point:
the bodycopy is written as a first-person singular narrated account, and we are
led to think that the narrating subject is the woman who looks directly at us
from the top of the page. This is aimed at generating the reader's identifica-
tion and emotional participation in the account, which is made relevant for a
supposedly real woman who uses the infonnal, sometimes spoken-like style
that she would use with a friend (So it was ajoy to hear ... , comes top, What s
more, and the like), except when she refers to product characteristics, as in
while re-circulating the water for minimum detergent wastage or the Acoustic
Example 31
Siemens Converto Italian ad. From Donna Moderna, September 8, 1999,
page 14
Transcription:
[Headline] Mette il naso dappertutto.
[Sub-headline] CONVERTO. L'unica scopa aspirante* con tubo flessibile
integrato.
[Bodycopy] Tubo flessibile integrato estensibile fino a 1,20 metri (Mod. VR
42A20 e VR 41A20).
Ultrapotente: 1.300 Watt (Mod. VR 42A20).
Sistema di filtraggio a 6 stadi con il filtro di classe "S" che trattiene acari e
microparticelle restituendo aria pura al 99,997% (Mod. VR 42A20).
Estremamente versatile grazie agli accessori in dotazione.
* Della gamma Siemens.
[The payoff position is not transcribed as it relates to country-specific
information]
Literal English translation:
[Headline] Pokes its nose everywhere.
[Sub-headline] CONVERTO. The only floor cleaner* with an integrated flex-
ible hose.
[Bodycopy] Integrated flexible hose extensible to 1.20 metres (Mod. VR 42A20
and VR 41A20).
Ira Torresi 145
Extra powerful: 1,300 Watt (Mod. VR 42A20).

6-stage filtering system with "s" -class filter that keeps in mites and micro-
particles letting out 99.997% pure air (Mod. VR 42A20).
Extremely versatile thanks to the accessories supplied in the kit.
* Of the Siemens range.
[The payoff position is not transcribed as it relates to country-specific
information]
Comfort technology decreases noise level by 25%. In this way, a compromise

is struck between objective data, supported by three figures in the form of
percentages, and the reader's involvement. The typography of the headline,
sub-headline, and logo, where square fonts and capitals are mixed with curvy
lines and typeface resembling handwriting, also confirm that both the product
and the brand image are a blend of solid reliability and user friendliness.
Using the grid in table 3, translate example 32 into your passive work-
ing language(s), providing at least three different versions. Remember that
the target and media plan are the same as in example 31 and here, too, the
degree of closeness/distance to the reader and authority can be deduced by
what we have just pointed out about the source text. In the first version of the
headline, try and recreate the parallelism and repetition that you find in the
source text, while in the remaining versions you can experiment with other
creative devices or make the headline less creative but more emotional, by
introducing, for example, first-person singular deixis. In all versions of the
sub-headline, leave the model name - Candy Activa - unchanged, but provide
target-language solutions for the 'Acoustic Comfort' technology (tip: it does
not need to be two words in all versions, although it is better to keep it as short
as possible, and the concept of quietness should not be lost). In the bodycopy,
experiment with different kind of deixis or impersonal discourse and, depend-
ing on the degree of closeness to the reader induced by the deictics you use
(remember to make them consistent throughout the text), increase or decrease
the amount of boost, creative and emotional devices. Accordingly adjust the
degree of creativity and emotional appeal of the payoff, too, remembering that
it does not refer only to the advertised product, but to the brand as a whole.
For this exercise, the first alternative version of all parts should be as close to
the original as possible, but already functional in the target text and culture;
successive versions should introduce incremental changes, until the last
version is thoroughly trans-created. You can go as far as suggesting layout
variations or modifications to the visuals; in this case, write a motivation for
such suggestions.
Example 32
Candy Activa British ad. From Good Housekeeping UK, October 1998,
page 246
Transcription (emphasis in the body copy as in the original, check the visual
for different graphic encodings in the other parts):
[Headline] Top marks for the top performer.
[Sub-headline] New Candy Activa

Acoustic Comfort
[Bodycopy] I expect nothing less than a spotless perlormance from my
washing machine. So it was a joy to hear that my new Candy Activa comes
top in the cleaning stakes.
The double speed wash makes for a Grade A wash performance. Plus the
Activa wash system guarantees perfect cleaning results, while re-circulating
the water for minimum detergent wastage. All the while using 30% less water.
Nothing short of brilliant.
What's more, the Acoustic Comfort Technology decreases noise level by 25%,
making my Activa one of the quietest machines around.
With a washing machine I can rely on 100%, my life has taken a tum for the
better. That's why I've chosen. It's Candy.
[PayoiJ] Candy. Choices for life.
Ira Torresi 147
In examples 31 and 32 we have had a sample of the importance of the

visual level on the interpretation and rendering of B2C ads. It is now time to
see how pictures and layout not only influence translation choices, but can
actually be exploited as translation materials and tools.
In example 29 we have seen how what we had previously treated as tech-
nical or semi-technical anchors to be rendered as closely as possible, in B2C
become more malleable material that can be omitted, substituted or altered
in other functional ways. The same applies to images (as shown by example
3 in chapter 3) and even to factual or descriptive qualities attributed to them.
In other words: even when a visual cannot be changed, in some cases I can
just give it the meaning I need. This is better shown through an example than
explained. In the three versions of example 33, you will find the same picture
with different captions. Look closely at them.
Example33a
British Maybelline Smooth Foundation print ad, circulated on glossy magazines
such as Marie Claire in early 2002
for the graphic encoding of other parts):
[Caption] Melina Kanakaredes
Melina is wearing Smooth Result in Apricot Beige.
[Headline] Smooth away your first tiny lines. A younger look instantly.
Smooth Result
[Bodycopy] It does more than smooth away the appearance of those first
tiny lines.
Enriched with a triple complex of Vitamins A, C and E, it also boosts your
complexion thanks to its light refracting particles and moisturising agents.
Sun protection: SPF 18. Lightweight formula.
The result: Reduced appearance of lines. For a youthful radiant looking you.
[PayoiJ] Maybe she's born with it. Maybe it's Maybelline.
Maybelline New York
Example33b
ltalian M aybelline Smooth Foundation print ad, circulated on g lossy magazines
such as Marie Claire in early 2002
Transcription (emphasis in the bodycopy as in the original, check the visual

[Caption] " Una pelle piu liscia, piu radiosa ... sei tu piu giovane.'
Melina Kanakaredes
Melina indossa Smooth Result Nude n° 21
Ira Torresi 149
[Headline] New Maybelline Smooth Result
Fondotinta levigante effetto ringiovanente
[Bodycopy] Fa molto pili che minimizzare Ie piccole rughe.
Agenti idratanti e un mix di vitamine A,E,C risvegliano la luminosita del tuo

viso.
L'indice di protezione solare IP 18 protegge il futuro della tua pelle. Formula

ultraleggera.
II risultato? Neanche pili l'ombra di una ruga ... sei tu pili giovane.
[PayoiJ] II make-up W 1 negli U.SA

Maybelline New York Gemey
It's you. It's new. It's Maybelline New York.
Literal translation:
[Caption] "A smoother, more radiant skin... It's a younger you."

Melina Kanakaredes
Melina is wearing Smooth Result Nude n° 21
[Headline] New Maybelline Smooth Result
The smoothing foundation that makes you look younger [literally: Younger-
making effect smoothing foundation]
[Bodycopy] It does much more than minimize tiny lines.
Moisturising agents and a mix of vitamins A,E,C highlight your complexion

[literally: awaken the luminosity of your face].
The sun protection index SPF 18 protects the future of your skin. Ultra-
lightweight formula.
The result? Not a shadow of a line left ... it's a younger you.
[PayoiJ] The N° 1 make-up in the U.SA

Maybelline New York Gemey
It's you. It's new. It's Maybelline New York.
Example33c
Russian Maybelline Smooth Foundation print ad, circulated on glossy maga-
zines such as Marie Claire in early 2002
[Caption] MeJIHHa KaHaKape)l;eC

www.maybelline.com
MeJIHHa HCrrOJTh3)'eT Pa3rJIIDKHBaroru:HH TOHaJIbHbIH KpeM CMYC Pe3aJIT OTTeHOK

OrraJIOBbIH H rroMa)l;y KOJIOp'H <PHKC OTTeHOK 17 KarryqHHO.
[Headline] IIepBbIe MOpru:HHKH?

Pa3rJIa)l;bTe. OMOJIO)l;HTecb.
HOBHHKa
Smooth Result
Pa3rJIIDKHBaroru:HH TOHaJThHbIH KpeM CMYC Pe3aJIT
[Bodycopy] OH MO)l(eT 60JIbIIIe qeM rrpocTO Pa3rJIa)l;HTb BaIIIH rrepBbIe MOp-

ru:HHKH ...
YBJIIDKHIDOru:He Beru:eCTBa + KOMrrJIeKC BHTaMHHOB A, E, C - H IIBeT JIHIIa
rrpo6Y)l()l;aeTcH.
<PHJIbTP UVB 18. 3aru:HTHT KO)I(J H o6eCrreQHT eH 6e3yrrpeQHOe 6Yil:Yru:ee.

B03il:YIIIHM <poPMYJIa.
Ira Torresi 151
Pe3YJIbTaT: HM TeHM OT MOPl.I(MHKH. Bam l(BeT JIMl(a M3rryQaeT MOJIO)l;OCTb.

[PayoiJ] Bce B BocTopre OT Te6J!. A TbI OT M3ii6eJIJIMH.
M3ii6eJIJIMH HMo-HopK
Literal translation:
[Caption] Melina Kanakaredes
www.maybelline.com
Melina uses the smoothing foundation Smooth Result shade Opal and the
lipstick Color'n'Fix shade 17 Cappuccino.
[Headline] First tiny lines?
Smooth away. Get younger. [second person plural imperatives]
New
Smooth Result [in Latin letters]
Smoothing foundation Smooth Result
[Bodycopy] It can do more than just smooth away Your jplural] first tiny
lines ...
Moisturizing substances + A, E, C vitamin complex - and the complexion
blossoms [literally: the colour of the face awakens].
UVB 18 filter. Protects the skin and grants it an impeccable future. Air-light
formula.
The result: not a shadow of a line. Your jplural] complexion radiates youth.
[PayoiJ] All crazy for you [singular]. And you [singular] for Maybelline.
Maybelline New York
As you may have noticed, the actress endorsing the foundation is said to
be wearing three different shades of the product. Clearly, the colour mentioned
in each ad is the one which is expected to sell best in the respective target
market, and is advertised as the celebrity's choice. This kind of operation has
the advantage of accommodating local marketing needs and does not require
any substantial modification of the visual, except perhaps slightly darken-
ing or lightening it depending on the foundation shade that is mentioned. Of
course the responsibility for choosing which models, colours or versions of
a product should be advertised on the target market does not lie with transla-
tors; and the fact that the variable here is a foundation colour is not a central
point. What this example shows is that the relationship between images and
verbal elements can be manipulated to generate more effective target texts.
(For more details about pictures as signs that can be used by translators, see
Torresi 2008, from which example 33 is taken.)
Let us take another, more subtle but perhaps more fitting instance of how
the visual-verbal interaction can be altered. Whereas at the verbal level the
English and Russian Maybelline texts promote the reader's identification and
emotional involvement only by addressing her with second-person deictics,
the Italian version includes a statement that is presented as Kanakaredes'
reported speech, although it does not explicitly include first-person deixis: it
is in quotation marks, placed directly under the photograph, and the actress's
name follows it in the way that is customary to indicate the author of a quota-
tion or aphorism. This personalization of the message is in line with the use
of the second person singular both in the alleged quotation and throughout
33b, and also with the way in which the picture is encoded: it is a very close
shot of Kanakaredes, who looks out of the page making direct eye contact
with the reader, thus promoting her identification and involvement. In 33b,
then, we can conclude that the verbal text expands the sense of intimacy that
is inherent in the visual; probably the new element of the reported quotation
would have seemed more awkward with a less participatory picture.
Inherently intimacy-inducing as the picture may be, the interpretation
provided in 33b is not the only possible one. The same visual, in fact, is an
equally fitting match for the Russian ad, where the reader is addressed with a
formal plural Bbl, which does not foster identification or closeness between
the addresser and the reader (and, incidentally, contrasts with the singular
mbl repeated twice in the payoff). The Russian formality is not accidental: at
the time when the campaign was issued, the pricing and brand positioning
of Maybelline were comparatively higher in Russia than in Great Britain and
Italy. This accounts for a more refined brand image that finds tangible expres-
sions not only in more formal personal deixis, but also in the visibly more
sober layout of 33c. The verbal elements of the Russian Maybelline ad are
never in bold and, unlike in the Italian text, here the New element, H06uHKa,
is in lower case, smaller non-slanted print, and in shaded white rather than
dark red, which makes it less blatantly conspicuous. Quite clearly, then, the
Russian translators or trans-creators attributed a different meaning to the pic-
ture simply by changing the layout and formality level of the verbal text. Of
course a new visual that could reinforce the refined image that accommodates
Maybelline Russia's specific marketing needs would lead the product to sell
better on the target market. On the other hand, advertising pictures, especially
those involving celebrities, have high production and copyright costs, and
the end client is likely to accept a suggestion to change a ready-made visual
only if using it would be disastrous for the brand image in the target culture
(see chapter 5) or if the additional sales induced by a more carefully targeted
ad can cover the expenses. Maybelline Russia's example shows how minor
problems of visual re-targeting can be overcome and also teaches us that lay-
out changes, such as re-arranging emphasis patterns, can be employed rather
freely in advertising translation, especially when they do not entail additional
expenses for the end client.
Ira Torresi 153
The three texts in example 33 also differ in a number of other aspects. This
campaign is another instance of glocalization - the development of national
or local versions from an international brief, set of visuals, and generally an
English original draft that may very loosely count as a source text but is gener-
ally not circulated as such. This leaves the adapters who work at or with the
relevant marketing departments of the multinational commissioner relatively
free to omit or change even technical anchors, for instance the light refract-
ing particles that appear in the British version but not in the other ones. The
Russian and Italian versions, in tum, feature a virtue of the sun protection
factor that is especially relevant to cultures with high uncertainty avoidance,
namely that it protects the skin from future lines (protegge il futuro della tua
pelle, o6ecne'Jum eu 6e3ynpe'JHoe 6yoyUfee). And stating that the product
will 'smooth away all traces of lines' (Neanche piit I'omb ra di una ruga, HU
meHU om MOPUfUHKU) is not just opting for more boost - it is a radically dif-
ferent claim from Reduced appearance of lines, and a potentially dangerous
one, since all customers may see for themselves that traces of their lines do
remain even after using the foundation. Once again, this shows that what in
other texts would be seen as informational or factual anchors can be modi-
fied more freely in B2C ads. An even more radical choice can be observed in
example 3 (chapter 3), where the very name and nature of the main ingredient
of the advertised product was changed to accommodate the expectations of
the respective target markets and cultures.
A less technical but equally important element that we do not find uni-
formly distributed across all versions is the product's Americanness, which
is hinted at by the choice of the actress endorsing the product and explicitly
stated in the brand name (Maybelline New York), but significantly expanded
in the Italian text. In 33b, several additional text parts reinforce the brand's
national identity, starting from the initial line of the payoff, 11 make-up N° 1
negli U.S.A .. Additionally, English language - which in this context counts
as a metonymical trait of the product's American identity - is employed in
two points of the Italian text. In the headline, we find a New in bold slanted
capitals; it is printed in the same dark red as N° 1 below, so that the colour
code links two reminders of Americanness. English also appears in the pay-
off It s you. It s new. It s Maybelline New York that, interestingly, is not used
in the British version. Being American, therefore, is clearly presented as an
inherently positive trait of the brand identity, conveying a certain cool and
state-of-the-art quality. The product's Americanness, however, is only boasted
in the Italian ad, while it is kept to a minimum of visibility in the British and
Russian ones. This suggests that the implication that a make-up product is
superior to competitors because it is American might have failed to convince
British and Russian readers, due to different stereotypes associated with the
American national identity in the respective target cultures.
Even if not all campaigns are glocalized rather than translated, cases such
as examples 33 and 3 show that when translating B2C ads, translators and
adapters are substantially more free than in any other promotional text type, and
that even in dealing with technical or highly infonnative texts or parts of texts,
accuracy of rendition is secondary to the intended purpose. Translating an ad
might mean re-writing it for a completely different target if the commissioner
indicates that the product in question is positioned differently in the target
market with respect to the market for which the source text was developed.
As we have seen, layout and images become tools that translators and editors
can, and sometimes must, use to achieve coherence and cohesion across all
modes of expression, both verbal and visual. Of course, in a scenario that is
so rich in potential opportunities, but also in potential pitfalls, negotiation
and a correct use of alternative versions for different targets or brand/product
images become vital (§ 2.2).
Additionally, as shown by the case of the Americanness trait, product
characteristics that are seen as positive among a given target and in a given
culture may be less appealing for other targets and cultures. For this reason,
in advertising translation, cultural aspects are even more important than in
the translation of other promotional genres, because the target culture influ-
ences addressees' expectations not only in tenns of the linguistic style to be
employed, but with regard to the very values and stereotypes to be exploited
to generate a motivation to buy. Once again, one might think that deciding on
which values a campaign should be based is not a translator's responsibility.
In advertising translation and promotional translation in general, however, a
translator is not just a translator (§ 2.1), but partakes of the copywriter's sta-
tus. Being able to suggest changes that are motivated by one's knowledge of
the target culture as well as the target (verbal and visual) language is usually
appreciated, and sometimes required, by agencies and end clients with some
experience in international advertising and localization. Some key cultural
aspects of advertising and promotional translation will be discussed in the
following chapter.
~
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Table 3. Working gridfor B2C advertising translation OJ
....
~
~.
Translation Back-translation (literal) Comments
1.
2.
3.
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v,
v,
8. Translating Persuasion across Cultures
In this chapter, the tenn 'culture' means the set of values, traditions, beliefs
and attitudes that are shared by the majority of people living in a country or,
alternatively, in a local community that is distinguished from the rest of the
national society by major traits such as language, religion, or political and legal
system. All translators know that conveying a message across languages also
usually means carrying it across cultures, meaning that different cultures may
have different ways of encoding infonnation, emotion expression/elicitation
and the like. Sometimes the concept of cultural expectations overlaps with
that of language-specific genre conventions. We have seen, for instance, that
British tourists seem to expect to be persuaded and enthused by tourist bro-
chures, while the French primarily seek infonnation in the same promotional
text type (see § 6.1.2.2 and Sumberg 2004). Similarly, American employers
and interviewers usually expect to find much more boost in CVs and cover
letters than Italian applicants are prepared to put in their personal promotion
literature (§ 4.2.1 and § 4.2.2). And Italian patients would find it difficult to
trust private healthcare or dental centres promoting themselves through funny,
creative, B2C-like communication of the kind that is, conversely, popular in
American private healthcare promotion (§ 6.1.2.1). We have already discussed
how Hofstede and Hofstede's (2005) notion of cultural dimensions can help
explain such cross-language differences among genre conventions in tenns
of cultural expectations.
Another, more generalized cultural convention that is not strictly genre-
specific but can be applied to the whole of low infonnation-to-persuasion
ratio promotional text types (such as B2C, prominently ads) is the national or
local degree of acceptance of highly creative and emotional texts. In § 7.1 we
have discussed the prominent role that creative and emotional language has
in B2C copywriting and translation. Creative devices involve readers in the
(re )creation of the advertising message and thus ensure better attention and
message retention; emotional devices promote identification and participation,
thus making the message relevant for the target. For this reason, it is important
that promotional and advertising translators learn how to render creative and
emotional style in the target language in a way that is equally creative and
emotional as in the source text. That, for instance, may well be the brief when
one translates advertisements.
It should also be clear, however, that the overall amount of creativity
and/or emotional appeal that is usual or expected in B2C and other low
infonnation-to-persuasion promotional text types varies across cultures. For
instance, creative language is very common in British and American advertis-
ing as a whole, even in ads for products of everyday use. In Italy, on the other
hand, advertisers complain that, with the exception of some notable up-market
Ira Torresi 157
product categories such as fashion and spirits, their client companies generally
tend to go for less brilliant but more reassuring solutions based on traditional
values that are seldom presented under an ironical light, such as the family,
the pursue of a high social status, and the like (Brancati 2002).
This also accounts for Italian ads offering a picture of social relations
that tends to remain behind the times. When it comes to gender relations, for
instance, at the time when I am writing it is still very uncommon for men to
be depicted in Italian advertising doing housework or caring for babies (e.g.
in ads for diapers or homogenized food). This contrasts with the recent de-
velopments of Italian society: for instance, separated husbands' associations
have long lobbied for, and obtained, the legal institution of affido congiunto,
meaning that after separation both ex-spouses have equal responsibility towards
their offspring; children, even small ones, live alternately with each parent.
Responsible fatherhood, however, does not seem to have been digested by
advertising yet, perhaps in the fear that this cultural trait has yet been fully
assimilated and families would not be attracted by a brand of diapers or
homogenized food promoted as 'daddy's choice'.
This trend towards formally duller and conceptually more traditional
advertising can be traced back to Italy scoring higher than English-speaking
countries on Hofstede and Hofstede's (2005) uncertainty avoidance scale. From
the viewpoint of translation practice, this tells us that, when the source text
sounds or looks too creative for the target culture, at least one of the multiple
versions we are allowed to provide might be encoded in a less creative way,
explaining the reasons for this choice. The reverse applies when the source text
is judged too bland for the target culture: in this case, creative devices (perhaps
inspired by the visual) may be introduced in one or more of the alternative
versions. If alternative versions are not allowed, then translation choices may
be negotiated with the client or, if this too is impossible, one might suggest in
a separate comment a way in which the target text could be better adapted to
the expectations of the target readers.
The same applies to emotional language: German advertising, for instance,
perhaps with the exception of ads targeted only at young audiences, often uses
formal register and the formal plural second person, while we have seen that
in English and Italian the standard is informal register, emotional language,
and the second person singular. When translating a German ad into Italian
or English, or when localizing an English dummy ad created by a German
client for a glocal campaign, the target version might therefore need to be
personalized and made more informal; the reverse applies when translating
into German. Of course, such invasive changes, which also have an impact
on the brand and product image, might need to be explained to the client and
carefully argued for in a comment or accompanying e-mail.
But how does one assess the degree of creativity and emotional appeal that
the target culture is prepared to accept? Once again, the only valid indication
158 Translating Persuasion across Cultures
in a world where national advertising trends change by the month is to keep a

constantly keen eye on the advertising and promotional material circulated in
one's working languages, collecting corpora of texts, looking at them critically
and taking into account the verbal as well as the visual level, with particularly
attention to the devices described in § 7.1.
A more obvious way in which the cultural dimension can impact the ef-
ficacy of a promotional text is the use of culture-specific references, which
make the text specifically relevant for one culture. Of course, such references
require heavy adaptation in order to avoid "culture bumps" (Leppihalme 1997)
that would make it clear that the target text refers to a reality that is not relevant
for the target culture. Culture bumps are perfectly acceptable in genres where
overt translation (the opposite of covert translation) and foreignization are
valid choices, but should normally be avoided in any consumer-oriented genre
unless they are purposefully and conspicuously introduced to achieve an ironical
effect, in which case they count as intertextual references to other cultures.
Examples of culture-specific references are realia tantum, whose render-
ing in tourist brochures we have already discussed in § 6.1.2.2, but which are
carefully avoided in B2C whenever the particular national identity indicated
by them is not an element of the product's identity or claim. In such cases, if
the generic element of culture-specificity carried by the reale is important, then
it can be replaced with a reale that is recognizably specific to the target culture
and fits in the target context; otherwise, it can be neutralized and replaced by
a non-culture-specific term. To give a simple food-connected example, in the
1980s a popular jingle for an Italian digestif, Digestivo Antonetto, went spa-
ghetti, pallo, peperoni, tre polpette, sei bigne [spaghetti, chicken, peppers, three
meatballs, six cream puffs], a parody of a popular song by the Italian singer
Fred Bongusto, where spaghetti was not used to specifically convey Italianness
but only as a typical first course in a typical, albeit heavy, meal. To the best of
my knowledge, that jingle has never been translated into other languages, but
if it had been, spaghetti would of course have been replaced with the standard
meal opening in the target community. Similarly, the division of the meal into
a first and second course plus a side dish and dessert is typically Italian and
would have been adjusted to the culinary habits of the target country. In fact,
the only two elements to be left unchanged would have been, first, the generic
meaning of 'complete and rather heavy meal', and second, the adjustment to
(and possibly, the parody of) the accompanying tune - which, in its own tum,
would ideally have been borrowed from local popular music.
Another instance of culture-specific references is the reference to national
habits or traditions that may be present, but not equally widespread in other
cultures. For example, in several former USSR republics, riding a bicycle is
not perceived as a means of transport for people of all ages but as a children's
game. Clearly, in such countries advertising a product through non-ironical
visuals depicting adults on bicycles or metaphors based on cycling would
Ira Torresi 159
not be a good marketing choice, unless the translator saved the visual and
rewrote the copy around the involuntary ironical tum that it would acquire in
the target culture.
Similarly, what in one community is a national sport, or a team sport
usually played by children, in another community may be practised only by
small groups or elites. In this sense, football (soccer) is to Italy as baseball is to
the USA (compare the discussion of football as a popular vs. elitist sport in §
7.1.1). Now concentrate on your own mother culture and answer the following
question in the most obvious way that you can think of: what is the sport that
is popular with children and implies a lot of physical movement, including
staining one's clothes with earth and possibly grass, grazing one's elbows and
knees, and sweating a lot? If your answer was different from rugby (being
Italian, for instance, I would have answered football), then Persil Performance
Tablets would need to provide the kids in example 34 with different shirts if
they were to advertise in your country.
Example 34
Persil Performance Tablets ad, from Good Housekeeping UK, August 1998,
page 131
.Q.Sports kjt is
eas, to clean,
isn't it?
A: RI'II/() ?
•lilt! bo~:' 1II111!)
/)(Il'/' )011 "J.'(u/)t·J
I'l'C!'III(J.I
New Persil Performance Tablets.
Culture-specific references also include visual or verbal taboos or words

and concepts that are neutral or positively connoted in the source culture but
negative in the target one, and as such are better avoided in translation. We
have seen instances of this in § 3.1 with regard to brand name adaptation,
e.g. the pronunciation of the Sega videogames brand in Italian commercials
or the British misadventures of White Elephant batteries. Taboos and nega-
tive connotations are in no way limited to the verbal level only: colour and
visual symbolism is a well-known source of intercultural misunderstandings.
For instance, distinguished as the choice might appear to an Asian company,
a website or company logo where the colour purple is associated with white
chrysanthemums would only spell a death omen to Italian eyes.
A third way in which culture interacts with promotion has to do with the
representation of national identities. We have already mentioned how some
specific products are normally associated with national identities, because they
are known to have been invented or are thought to be of better quality in a given
country. This association can be exploited in brand-names (see the beginning
§ 3.1): for instance, giving an Italian-sounding name to French-made pasta,
or an (American) English-sounding name to Italian-made chewing-gum or
denims. Additionally, certain national identities are attributed, internationally
or in given cultures, specific positive traits that are automatically transferred
onto products or brands that capitalize on their real or fictitious origin. Thus,
as we have seen in example 31, a German brand can choose to advertise its
products in a neutral, objective way rather than insisting on creativity and emo-
tionallanguage, thus voluntarily confirming the international stereotype of the
unemotional, over-serious, perhaps even boring, German. As a consequence,
the ad implicitly confirms another trait of Germanness that is beneficial for the
product and brand image: that of maximum professionalism, reliability and
rationality, all positive qualities when associated with technical products and
appliances. Conversely, in example 33b the Italian version of a Maybelline
ad - unlike the British and Russian versions of the same campaign - stresses
Americanness as a carrier of traits such as being metropolitan, hype, in fashion.
(For more examples of how a national identity, specifically Italianness, can
become a marketing capital, see Chiaro 2004.)
And finally, culture plays a fundamental role in advertising and all those
promotional texts whose claim is based on widespread and uncritically accepted
values and fears. Such crystallized values and fears can be called 'cultural
stereotypes', i.e. assumptions that are not subject to conscious rational judge-
ment but are handed down as naturally occurring and universal facts from
parents to children, and passed on in peer groups. This does not only refer to
negative or positive stereotypes that can be associated with a given national-
ity (as the ones mentioned above) or group of people, but to all pre-logical
assumptions that we usually take for granted and expect to see confirmed in
the media as well as in our daily experience. For instance, in most societies, if
one has not taken religious vows, having a family is generally seen as a better
or even more virtuous condition than living as a childless single person until
Ira Torresi 161
the end of one's life. In some cultures more than others, ageing as a child-
less single person is seen as a personal failure. This is why the happy family,
made up of a varying number or members depending on the target culture,
features regularly in advertising across the globe; the message is not only that
the product is for families, but at a deeper, more unconscious level, that the
product can help consumers fulfil the personal dream and social requirement
of having a perfect family.
It is difficult to detect the culture-specificity of cultural stereotypes because
they are often seen as universals by most members of a given culture, and may
resist cross-cultural contact and rational arguments. Thus, many Italians will
insist that doing without bidets and cleaning a regularly used bathtub less than
once in a week connotes a whole people as dirty, which, they will maintain,
is an inherently negative quality even if infectious disease incidence rates
are not significantly higher among some of the world's bidetless, encmsted-
bathtub national communities (while these might spend less time in household
chores). Quite clearly, then, a home's cleanliness is to Italians a virtue that
is transferred upon the people living in that home and a standard by which a
person, and even a whole people, can be judged. Accordingly, in Italian ads for
detergents, cleaning one's home is often presented as a moral duty, especially
for women (!), and dirt or stains are variously visualized as devils or monsters,
making it clear that they are evil. Such representations would completely miss
the point in other cultures that are more relaxed about home cleaning and do
not see it as a moral duty, nor as a standard by which a person or community
can be judged. Italian translators or marketing managers, however, might fail
to acknowledge the need to adjust the advertising message to such a culture,
because they might perceive the moral virtue of cleanliness as a universal rather
than as a cultural variable. (For more about the inter-cultural comparison of
ads for cleaning products, see Torresi 2004.)
Advertising and B2C promotion would have a completely different face
today if they did not rely on cultural stereotypes to sell products. Being pre-
logical assumptions that can be taken for granted and simply hinted at to build
a background that is familiar to the target, cultural stereotypes are a vital asset
for short promotional genres such as advertisements. Moreover, culture goes
as far as influencing consumer trends and desires. For instance, if culture is
highly masculine, real jewellery sales will be predictably high, regardless of
national income rates (De Mooij 1998/2005).
Thus, when translating advertising or promotional texts, the cultural
stereotypes of the target culture, just like the standards and conventions of
the target language and semiotic system, should be breached only with a clear
purpose, after careful assessment, and never without informing the commis-
sioner or negotiating with the end client. When the cultural target is missed,
the advertising or promotional campaign is doomed. As a consequence of
the marketing failure, the end client will not be very happy about losing
the advertising investment, and will probably start looking for the person
responsible for the disaster, or else for a scapegoat - and remember that for
an advertising and promotional translator, invoking the 'I'm just a translator'
defence strategy is rarely a good idea, because one is not expected to be 'just
a translator' (except perhaps by some B2B clients).
And of course, there is no ready-made intercultural map of cultural
stereotypes: the only way to become aware about them is, once again, to
compare corpora of advertisements or other promotional texts collected in
the cultures of one's working languages, and look very closely at the values
and fears they rely on at the visual as well as the verbal levels. Boring as
this might seem at first sight, it is a precious occasion to dig into one's own
cultural and consumer values; a sort of treasure hunt that leads to ever new
and unexpected findings.
Appendix
This appendix collects the additional versions of examples 10, 18, 19 and
20 for which there was no room in the main body of the book, but which are
nonetheless interesting, especially for speakers of the languages accounted
for by such examples.
Example 10: other language versions, respectively downloadedfrom:

http://www.olifrance.com/
http://www.oligmbh.del
http://www.oliromania.ro/
http://www.olispain.es/
French
·n· ou·
alta
alta
Extras
Photos d'applcaoon
164 Appendix
German
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
Romanian
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
immersione
Ira Torresi 165
Spanish
alta
alta
alta
alta
immersione
Example 18: other language versions, downloadedfrom:

http://smetypo3.stage-server.del
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166 Appendix
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Dpnnp plattorm tllbydpr pn pk~trl'l sprvlcp' VlrksomhPder. dpr bllvpr rf?qlc:>tr~pt og pr

Interesseret I at rekruttere arbejdskratt fra andre IlInde, vII have mullghed tor at opnl!
~ynlJuhed overfor eurOpd:!iske ~.ubeJdefe, ~orn er Inleres~elt!l I ul f~ iJrbeld::.erfdfing
Indenfor <.Iere" fell.
Finnish
AhOlJtth~r:u-oJp.c:t
Projektl on osa hanketta, Jo"ka avullo outetaan arrvnattltaltolsla tyOntekljOltO

hdk"ulurnddn lOlhln lol;.""n curooPPdldlc;ccn Ilkr.;hdf1 joko PY<;YVd<~lI ldl 1IIdj)8i!;C'... 1I
Projektl rohkelsee sekl! nuorle ettl! v8nhemple errvnettHhmlsl1! hankklmeen

tyOkokemusto ulkomallta, ja slten parontamaan mahdolllsuukslaan tyOmarkklnolllo.
SdnldllCi proJck llr1 ldvt"llllccn on c:Julldd PK-~cklorln lyOndnldlld rt."k,yloilllddn
t"tpAI<;llr,<;" <;oplv" ... ty6volm"l!1 jll tukP" L I"<;,,bonln <;oplmuks..,.. tllvollt~ ltl!l -
kllpellukyvyn je tyOpeikkojen lisl!l!ntymlstl!.
Proi kin t , voin e lH.'" o n tuoU ' a

• l~~rtldll(,HOd dlrUflcilliU:tllOi'..,cn ly()vOllo,cWt ldllonnd'... ld jd ldrpC<..'"... ld
• vprt"lIukplpol"tl!l Ilplo" "mm"IIlt"IIol"llI~ tyOntpkljOlllp, jon" nllmll volvllt tphdll
p!l!ltOksl!l ulkomeille sllrtymlsest!l luotettevelte pohjelte .
• olnelstoo tukemoon IIlkkulion tyOvOlmon volmlstoutumlsto ulkomollio
LyOc.kcntclyyn
• FFKAn h ... lIJnnolm~, jo tolmlvlIII ...n tlptokoPVitl.t~n ppnJ'C1.tptt"vlll Aluc;t~
lImmllttltllltolsen tyOvolmlln rekrytolmlstll v ....ten Luroopassll.
Alust<l torjooo IIstlp<llvelun , reklsterOltyvOt )0 ITIlJlsto molsto holuttovon

lyOvoi rndldrp("I(',1",Ct kr'rI tlVd l Ylityk~.C"1 ·,..-t~Vdt IldkyvyyttH. Jokd k./;1lldd k()i(o "'UI()()J)dl
~llJPplla kllnc;.Alnv.Mllc;ta kokpmuc;tlt hi'tluitvlt;t, flmmattltltltofc;.pt tyOntP.i<lj<'t
JolllJ klJnslJinvillbW lyOvolrnlJn IIlkkuvuullu jtl VtllhtOtl voldodn e<.li"Wil lehokkUdsll,

p l ojrktl k("'~,klllyy IICllylhin I Oln1[~I'lpil('"I~.llri 1<1 lyOkdlujcn IUOlltuniti("pn. Nllclen dvulld
pyrltlllln hplpott.Am.A"n tyOvolm"n IIlkkuml<;t" m"""t" tol<;"""n
Ira Torresi 167
German
About the project
Moblllt~t von Arbeltnehmern In Handwerks- sowle klelnen und mittleren Betrleben
(KI'1U) unterstiltzen
1m Rahmen des Europalschen Jahres der ~lobllitat der Arbeltnehmer will das S- I-I-E
Projekt quallflzlerte Arbeltnehmer dabel unterstOtzen, gut Informlerte Entscheldungen
bel der Aufnahme elnes neuen Arbeltsplatzes In elnem anderen Land zu treffen. S - ~l -E
bezleht ~Ich sowohl auf 50g. vorObergehende und permanente Schrltte -
Ka rrlere schrltte bzw. Ausweg aus der Arbeltsloslgkelt.
Arbeltskr.:me aller Altersklassen sollen ermutlgt w erden, Berufserfahrung 1m Ausland

zu sammeln, urn schlussendllch mit dleser Erfahrung auch auf dem helmlschen
Arbeltsmarkt wieder elne Chance zu haben . Ebenfalls 1m Rahmen des S -~I-E ProJekts
w lrd europlilschen K~lU 's bel der Rekrutlerung geelgneten Personals geholfen - eln
wlchtlges Ziel der europ~lschen Strategle fUr mehr Wachstum und Beschaftlgung
Ziele des S-M-E ProJekts,

• Analyse von Angebot und Nachfrage quallflzlerter Arbeltskrlifte;
• Bereltstellung von geelgnetem Datenmaterlal , damlt quallflzlerte Arbeltsk r~fte
elne Entscheldung fOr das Ausland mit zu verllisslger Information begrOnden
k(lnnen ;
• Erstellung von Schulungsma terlal ;
• Ausbau elner berelts exlstlerenden Datenbank der EFKA Suhl , damlt dlese 1m
Sinne der europa w elten Rekrutlerung von quallflzlerten Arbeltskrliften nutzbar
wlrd.
Hungarian
About the project
Dolgozok mobilitasanak tamogatasa az Europal Unloban
A project kO ldetese az, hogy szakkepzett dolgoz6k eleg Informacl6val

rendelkezhessenek ahhoz, hogy mas orszagban va llalhassanak munkiH, akar
(lnszantukb6 I, saJat karrlerjUk feJlesztese erdekeben , akar esetleg a munkanelkUliseg
elkerOlese erdekeben . A program batontanl akarja a f1atal es Idosebb munka vallalokat
arra , hogy kUlfo ldon vegzett munka soran noveljek tapasztalatalkat, feJlesszek
Ismeretelket, ezaltal no ve lve munkaero-piaci eselyOket. ~1lndez lehetove teszl az unlOs
va llalkoza~oknak, hogy megfelelo munkaerot toborozhassanak a IIs.zabonl celoknak
megfelelc5en, a versenykepesseg nove lese es a munkahel yteremtes erdekeben.
Eze rt a project celJal a kovetkez6k,

• Pontos Informa clOk nyuJtasa munkaero szOksegletre es feleslegre vonatkozoan
• Informaclo nyUJtasa szakkepzett emberek szamara azert. hog y elegendo
Informacloval rendelkezzenek akkor, amlkor kOlfoldon kivannanak munkat
valla lnl ,
• Kepzes l anyagok kldolgozasa annak erdekeben, hogy a dolgozok megfelelo en
tudJanak fe lkeszUlnl kU lfoldl munkak vallalasara.
• Az EFKA altai fenntartott, mar letezo adatbazis szamara platformot blztosltanl.
A platform meg a k(lvetkezCi szo lgaltatast Is felaJ<1nlja : azok a v<1 l1alatok, vallalkoza sok,
ame lyek reglszt ra ltatjak magukat, lehetCiseget kapnak arra , hogy az adatbazlsban
szerepe lve kOlf(lldl munkaerot toborozhassanak .
168 Appendix
Italian
AlJuullllt= IJrU J
MOBil ITII'DrI I AVORATORr QUAI Irlr:ATO rURoprO

Supporto <1"<1 mobillt.!! d,,1 I"vor"torl QlJ"llnc"tl " "II" Plccol,-" M"dl" Im..,.-... ' ..
Nell'Anno Europeo della MobilltO del Lavoratorl, II progetto "SKILLED MOBILE EUROPEAN"
ha I'oblettlvo dl offrlre supporto a lavor"torl quallf)catl nel prendere la declslone dl
Iltvorllrc- In l.n·~ltro P&:"'oI"'.i."';. In modo t~mporltnc:o 0 pcrmi!llrit:nt~. c.ome !".cf'~ltlll Q rx:-r
nCO:"-....;~ll-:l 11 prOtJCllO Intclide pCrldrilo inc.:or.:H;JOldfC IdvOrdlOrl qucdlflcdti. OiOVdfll c
iJdulll, ud inll~PlttlidQIt:! Uf'''·Q~P':t'Jlen.liJ dl I"-Ivoro ull''I:!'::tl'-!:ro P'=l:1 uCXlw~cert:l Ie 1010
opportunltb oOC1Jpazlonall nel mercato del lavoro, ravorlsce lnoltre Ie Plccole e Medle
1m.,...,.;", a rpdut"r.. ppr<;on"lp adpgullto .. lip lora p.;lqpn7P, contrlbupndo In t,,1 modo ..
rdt;jt;jlunr"lCrc t;jll oblClllvl dl U~ond, corllpclltlvlld C crc<ulonc dl ptJ'..lI dl l",vOla.
Principali obiettM del p,"ogeno sono I'offe'"ta di:

• Il1rOl"rnu.liOni IIlirtile ~ulltl dOillUndU f:' Orrerlcl dl IdVOrO tlutlllnCulO d IIvelio europeo~
• conoscenze speclflche per alutare I I.. vor.. torl qu"lIf1catl " prendere I.. declslone dl
18VOrllrp. all'p:l=i.tpro;
• m~tcrlalc per II ~upporto dll~ form.~zlone per ~o'jtC'nC'rc I lavordtori nc-I prc~r.ar:.1
tJdeouul.t.lln.erlle pel Ull Iuvolo tJll~e':llerO;
• una plattatorma per II redutamento dl lavoratorl qualltlcotl a IIvelio europeo,
bR~"t8 Ci.U un datl"b8lC',;f?I', 0111 p!=:ic;;tpntp po fun,.lon.antP j
QP~tlto dll [rKA (coordinfltor~
tC'd~co JX"f tuttc' 1~ m~dlc. plccolC' C'- mIcro ImprC'''',C'!. orqanl77d7ionl (" a ........oda7ionl
Inl~Ie':i'.:loclle u conltJlU. ooopeloU,lIone e :iCtJlnbf u Ilvello ~IJIOpeo)
Ld pldlldforrrld offlll'& dUe Irnpre~c chc ':...1 rCQisllcrdnno e dichlttrcrdrviO di~POJ1lbilild d

reclulure 10'.1<1 luvoro du ullll Pu"~I, I'opporlunllu dl <lCqul~Ir" vh.iblillu vtlr"o luvOluloli
europe I Interess"tl " t ..re un·esperlenz" dl lavoro nel loro settore.
Example 19: other versions of page 5 of the brochure "Do you want to
work in another EU Member State? Find out about your rights!", issued
by the European Commission Directorate-General for Employment, Social
Affairs and Equal Opportunities. Downloaded from http://bookshop.europa.
eu/uri?target=EUB:NOTICE:KE7506930:EN. Languages appear here in
alphabetical order.
Czech
Uvod
Volny pohyb osob je jednou ze zakladnich svobod zarucenych pravem
Spolecenstvi. ObCan6 EU se mohou presouvat do jin6ho clensk6ho statu, aby
tam pracovali nebo studovali, poskytovali nebo si nechavali poskytovat sluzby,
zalozili spolecnost, usadili se tam na penzi nebo, pokudjsou nerydelecnymi
osobami, tam pouze pobyvali.
Tato prirucka popisuje pouze pravni postaveni osob, ktere se presou- vaji
v nimci Evropske unie z duvodu zamestnani. Jejim cHem je poskytnout
yam infonnace 0 vasich pravech migrujiciho pracovnika v podoM snadno
srozumitelnych otazek a odpovedi.
Ira Torresi 169
Chcete ziskat zamestmini v jin6m clensk6m state? Pracujete v jin6m clensk6m

state, anevite,jakajsou vase prava ve srovnani s pracovniky z dotcen6 zeme?
Jak to funguje, kdyz pracujete v jedn6 zemi, ale pobyvate v jin6? Tato pi'imcka
yam poskytne odpovedi na tyto a mnoM dalSi otazky.
Tato primcka byla vydana v ramci Evropsk6ho roku mobility pracovnikil

2006, je poradan s cHem zrysit povedomi a porozumeni ohledne ryhod prace
v zahranici.
Danish
Indledning
Den frie bevregelighed for personer er en af de gmndlreggende frihedsret-
tigheder, som EU-Iovgivningen sikrer. Borgere i EU kan fiytte til en anden
medlemsstat for at arbejde eller studere, levere eller modtage tjenesteydelser,
starte en virksomhed, bosrette sig som pensionister eller for simpelthen at
bosrette sig, selv om de ikke er 0konomisk aktive.
I denne vejledning redeg0fes der kun for retsstillingen for personer, som
fiytter inden for EU pa grund af deres arbejde. I form af letforstaelige
sp0fgsmal og svar indeholder den oplysninger om dine rettigheder som van-
drende arbejdstager.
0nsker du at arbejde i en anden medlemsstat? Arbejder du allerede i en anden

medlemsstat og vii geme vide, hvilke rettigheder du har sammenlignet med
de indf0dte arbejdstagere? Hvad sker der, hvis du arbejder i 6t land, men
bor i et andet? I denne vejledning finder du svar pa disse og mange andre
sp0fgsmal.
Denne vejledning udgives i forbindelse med det europreiske ar for arbejd-

stagemes mobilitet 2006, som er blevet organiseret for at 0ge kendskabet til
og forstaelsen af fordelene ved at arbejde i udlandet.
Dutch
Inleiding
Het vrije verkeer van personen is een van de fundamentele vrijheden die in
het EU -recht zijn verankerd. De burgers van de EU kunnen naar een andere
lid staat gaan om daar te werken of te studeren, diensten te verlenen of te
ontvangen, een bedrijf op te richten of, voor gepensioneerden of economisch
niet-actieve personen, gewoon om daar te gaan wonen.
In deze gids wordt aIleen de rechtspositie beschreven van personen die binnen
170 Appendix
de Europese Unie migreren om arbeidsredenen. Het is de bedoeling u in

de vonn van gemakkelijk te begrijpen vragen en antwoorden infonnatie over
uw rechten als migrerende werknemer te verstrekken.
Wilt u een baan in een andere lid staat aannemen? Werkt u in een andere lid-
staat en vraagt u zich af wat uw rechten zijn in vergelijking met werknemers
van dat land zelf? Wat gebeurt er als u in een ander land woont dan het land
waar u werkt? De antwoorden op die en nog vee I andere vragen vindt u in
deze gids.
Deze gids is gepubliceerd in het kader van het Europees Jaar van de mobiliteit
van werknemers 2006, dat is georganiseerd om de voordelen van werken in
het buitenland onder de aandacht te brengen en te verduidelijken.
Estonian
Sissejuhatus
Isikute vaba liikumine on Uks uhenduse 6igusega tagatud p6hivabadustest.

Euroopa Liidu kodanikud v6ivad umber asuda teise liikmesriiki, et seal t66tada
v6i 6ppida, teenuseid osutada v6i saada, iiriuhing asutada, sinna pensioni ajaks
elama asuda v6i kui tegemist on majanduslikult mitteaktiivsete inimestega,
siis ka lihtsalt elada.
Selles juhendis kirjeldatakse iiksnes nende isikute 6iguslikku olukorda, kes

liiguvad Euroopa Liidu piires tOotamise eesmargil. Juhendis jagatakse Teile
lihtsalt m6istetavas kusimuste ja vastuste vonnis teavet selle kohta, millised
on Teie 6igused v66rt66tajana.
Kas soovite asuda t66le m6nes teises liikmesriigis? Kas t66tate teises liikmes-
riigis ja Teid huvitab, millised on Teie 6igused samast riigist parit t66tajatega
v6rreldes? Mis juhtub, kui Te t66tate uhes riigis, aga elate teises? Siit leiate
vastused nii nendele kui ka mitmetele muudele kusimustele.
Juhend avaldati t66tajate liikuvuse Euroopa aasta 2006 raames, mis korral-
dati eesmiirgiga suurendada teadlikkust ja parandada amsaamist valismaal
tootamisega kaasnevatest soodustustest.
Finnish
Johdanto
Henkiloiden vapaa liikkuvuus on yksi yhteison lainsaadannon takaamista
kansalaisten pemsvapauksista. EU:n kansalainen voi muuttaa toiseen EU-
maahan tyoskentelemaan tai opiskelemaan, tmjoamaan tai ottamaan vastaan
Ira Torresi 171
palveluja, pemstamaan yrityksen, asettua sinne eliikevuosikseen tai - jos hiin

on tyoeliimiin ulkopuolella - vaikka vain asumaan.
T iissii oppaassa kuvataan vain sellaisten ihmisten oikeudellinen tilanne, jotka

muuttavat Euroopan unionin sisalla tyohon liittyvista syista. Tarkoituk-
sena on antaa tietoja siirtotyoliiisen oikeuksista selkeinii kysymyksinii ja
vastauksina.
Kiinnostaako tyonteko toisessa EU-maassa? Mitkii ovat toisesta EUmaasta

tulleen tyontekijiin oikeudet verrattuna isiintiimaan kotimaisten tyontekijoi-
den oikeuksiin? Entiijos tyoskentelee eri maassa kuin asuu? Tiissii oppaassa
vastataan niiihinja moniin muihin kysymyksiin.
Opas onjulkaistu osana Euroopan tyontekijoiden liikkuvuuden teemavuoteen

2006 liittyviiii toimintaa. Teemavuoden tavoitteena on lisiitii ihmisten tietoja
ulkomailla tyoskentelyn eduista.
French
Introduction
La libre circulation des personnes est une des libertes fondamentales inscrites
dans Ie droit communautaire. Les citoyens de l'Union europeenne (UE) ont la
possibilite de se rendre dans un autre Etat membre pour y travailler, y etudier,
y foumir ou y obtenir des services, y creer une entreprise, s'y etablir lors de
leur retraite ou, dans Ie cas de personnes economiquement inactives, simple-
ment y resider.
Ce guide decrit uniquement Ie statut juridique des personnes qui migrent

au sein de l'Union europeenne pour des raisons professionnelles. II a pour
objectif de vous informer sur vos droits en tant que travailleur migrant, sous
la forme de questions et reponses facilement comprehensibles.
Vous voulez occuper un emploi dans un autre Etat membre? Vous travaillez
dans un autre Etat membre et vous vous demandez quels sont vos droits par
rapport aux travailleurs de ce pays? Que se passe-t-il si vous travaillez dans
un pays mais residez dans un autre? Ce guide repond it ces questions et it bien
d'autres encore.
II est publie dans Ie cadre de l' Annee europeenne de la mobilite des travailleurs
- 2006 - , organisee pour sensibiliser les citoyens aux avantages du travail
it l'etranger et pour en ameliorer leur comprehension.
172 Appendix
German
Einfiihrung
Der freie Personenverkehr zahlt zu den yom Gemeinschaftsrecht garantierten

Gmndfreiheiten. EU -Burger konnen sich in einen anderen Mitgliedstaat be-
geben, um dort zu arbeiten oder zu studieren, Dienstleistungen zu erbringen
oder zu empfangen, ein Untemehmen zu grunden, um dort ihr Rentenalter zu
verbringen oder, wenn sie nicht erwerbstatig sind, ganz einfach zu leben.
Dieser Leitfaden beschreibt ausschliefilich die rechtliche Stellung von Biirgern,

die sich der Arbeit wegen in einen anderen Mitgliedstaat der Europaischen
Union begeben. Er infonniert Sie in leicht verstiindlicher Fonn anhand von
Fragen und Antworten uber Ihre Rechte als Wanderarbeitnehmer.
Mochten Sie gem eine Arbeit in einem anderen Mitgliedstaat aufnehmen?

Oder arbeiten Sie bereits in einem anderen Mitgliedstaat und wiissten gem,
welche Rechte Sie im Vergleich zuArbeitnehmem dieses Landes haben? Wie
verhalt es sich, wenn Sie in einem Land arbeiten, doch in einem anderen Land
Ihren Wohnsitz haben? Hier erhalten Sie Antwort auf diese und zahlreiche
weitere Fragen.
Dieser Leitfaden wurde im Rahmen des Europaischen Jahres der Mobilitat

der Arbeitnehmer 2006 veroffentlicht, das ausgemfen wurde, um den Burgem
die Vorzuge einer Beschaftigung im Ausland naherzubringen.
Greek
EumyroYll
H £A£u8£Pll KUKAo<popia 'TOW npoaO:l1rcov civat Ilia ana 'TV; 8£Il£Atw8w;
£A£u8£pi£e; nou £yyDu'Tat 'TO KOlVOTlKO 8iKalO. Ot nOAlT£e; 'Tlle; EE Il7rOPOUV va
llE'TaKtV1l80uv a£ aAAO KpU'TOe; ~Aoe; IlE aKono va £pyaa'Touv il va anou8uaouv
a' amo, va napuaxouv il va AU~OUV unllP£ai£e;, va aua'Tilaouv £'Tatpcia, va
£yKa'Ta0'Ta80uv Ka'TU 'Tll O1)v'Ta~1086'Tllail 'TOUe; il, 0'TllV n£pinTco01l OlKOVO IltKWe;
av£v£pywv npoawncov, anAWe; va Ka'TOlKilaouv £K£l.
Amoe; 0 0811yoe; n£ptypu<p£l J.10VO 'Tll vOlltKil Ka'TUa'Taall 'TCOV npo(Jronrov

nou ()1(lK1VOUV'[(U EV'TO~ Tll~ Eupron(llKll~ 'Evro(Jll~ AOyro (In(l(JxoAll(Jll~.
L'TOXOe; 'TOU civat va aae; nAllPo<popila£l aX£TlKU IlE 'Ta 8tKatWlla'TU aae; coe;
8taKtVOUIl£VOU £pya~o~vou 11£ Eva £uKoAa Ka'TaVOll'TO EV'TUnO uno IlOP<Pil
£pco'Tila£cov Kat anav'Tila£cov.
Ira Torresi 173
aAAo Kpa'We; ~AOe; Kat aVapCO'TlEO",[£ 'Tl 8tKatWJ.La'[a EX£'[£ 0"£ O"UYKPtO"ll J.L£ '[oue;
£pya~o~voue; '[lle; O"uYK£Kpt~V1le; xwpae;; Tt O"uJ.L~aiv£t £av £pya~£O"'T£ 0"£ J.Lta
xwpa aAAa Ka'WtK£lT£ 0"£ aAAll; Amoe; 0 08llyoe; 8a O"ae; anaV'TllO"£l 0"' amEe;
Kat 0"£ nOAAEe; aAA£e; £pCO'TllO"£te;.
o napwv 08llyoe; 8llJ.L00"l£U'[llK£ O"'[a nAaiO"ta 'WU £upconalKou £'Wue;

KtV1l'TlKo'[ll'[ae; '[cov £pya~OJ.LEVCOV 2006, '[0 on01o oPyavw8llK£ yta va ~£A'TlWO"£l
'[llV £niyvcoO"ll Kat '[llV Ka'[avollO"ll '[cov nA£Ov£K'[llJ.La'[cov '[lle; £pyaO"iae; 0",[0
£~CO'[£ptKO.
Hungarian
Bevezetes
A szemelyek szabad mozgasa a kozossegijog altaI biztositott alapveto szabad-

sagok egyike. Az EU polgarai munkavallalas vagy tanulas, szolgaltatasnyujtas
vagy szolgaltatas igenybevetele, eegalapitas es nyugdijaskentvaloletelepedes,
illetve - gazdasagilag inaktiv szemelyek eseteben - egyszeriien tartozkodas
eeljab61 is atkoltozhetnek egy masik tagallamba.
Ez az utmutato csak azon szemelyekjogi helyzetet irja Ie, akik az Europai

Union beliil foglalkoztatasi okokbOl vandorolnak. Celja, hogy migrans
munkavallaloi jogairol konnyen ertheto, kerdes-felelet formaban tajekoz-
tassa Ont.
Egy masik EU -tag allamb an szeretne munkat vallalni? Egy masik tagallamban
dolgozik, es szeretne tudni, milyenjogai vannak az adott orszag munkavalla-
loihoz viszonyitva? Mi tortenik, ha mas orszagban lakik, mint ahol dolgozik?
Ez az utmutato ezekre es sok egyeb kerdesre ad valaszt Onnek.
Ezt a kiadvanyt a munkavallalok mobilitasanak 2006-os europai eve kereteben

tettek kozze, amelyet azert szerveztek, hogy a polgarok meg
inkabb tudataban legyenek es jobban megertsek a kiilfoldon valo munkaval-
lalas elonyeit.
Italian
Introduzione
La libera eireolazione delle persone euna delle liberta fondamentali garantite
dal diritto eomunitario. I eittadini dell'Unione europe a possono trasferirsi in
un altro Stato membro per lavoro 0 per studio, per offrire servizi 0 usufmime,
per ere are un'impresa, per traseorrervi la pensione 0, nel easo di persone
eeonomieamente inattive, semplieemente per soggiomarvi.
174 Appendix
Questa guida descrive unicamente la posizione giuridica delle persone che

si spostano all'interno dell'Unione europea per motivi di lavoro. Intende
fomire infonnazioni, sotto fonna di domande e risposte di facile comprensione,
sui diritti dei lavoratori migranti.
Volete iniziare a lavorare in un altro Stato membro? Lavorate gia in un altro

Stato membro e volete sapere quali sono i vostri diritti rispetto ai lavoratori
di quel paese? Cos a succede se lavorate in un paese ma risiedete in un altro?
La guida risponde a queste e a molte altre domande.
Essa e stata pubblicata in occasione dell' Anno europeo della mobilita dei la-
voratori 2006, organizzato per fare meglio comprendere ai cittadini i vantaggi
derivanti dallavorare all' estero.
Latvian
Ievads
Personu brlva parvietosanas ir viena no pamatbrlvlbiim, ko nodrosina Ko-

pienas tieslbas. ES pils01,li var doties uz citu dallbvalsti, lai tur stradatu vai
studetu, sniegtu vai savemtu pakalpojumus, nodibinatu uZ1,lemumu, apmestos
pensijas vecuma vai - ekonomiski neaktlvu personu gadljuma - vienkarsi
tur uzturetos.
Sl pamaclba raksturo tikai tiesisko stavokli, kas ir personam, kuras

parvietojas Eiropas Savienlbas robezas darba de). Pamaclbas merl}is ir
viegli saprotamujautajumu un atbiliu veida sniegt infonnaciju par tieslbiim,
kas jums ir ka migrejosam darba 1,lemejam.
Vai velaties pie1,lemt darba piedavajumu cita dallbvalstl? Vai stradajat cita
dallbvalstl un velaties zinat, kadas ir jiisu tieslbas salldzinajuma ar tas valsts
darba 1,lemejiem? Kas notiek, ja stradajat viena valstl, bet dZlvojat cita? Sl
pamac1ba jums sniegs atbildes uz siem un daudziem citiem jautajumiem.
Sl pamaclba izdota Eiropas Darba 1,lemeju mobilitates 2006. gada ietvaros, kas
tika organizets, lai infonnetu un radltu sapratni par darba iirvalstls pozitlvajiem
aspektiem.
Lithuanian
lvadas
Laisvas asmenq judejimas yra viena is pagrindiniq laisviq, kuri'l uztikrina

Bendrijos teise. ES pilieCiai gali isvykti i kit'l valstyb~ nar~ dirbti arba studi-
Ira Torresi 175
juoti, teikti paslaugq ar jomis naudotis, isteigti ten bendrov~, isikurti isej~ i
pensij'l arba, jei yra ekonomiskai neaktyvus, tiesiog gyventi.
Siame vadove apibreziamas teisinis status as tik tt! asment!, kurie migruoja
Europos S~ungoje profesiniais tikslais. Informacija apie jusq, kaip
migruojancio darbuotojo, teises pateikiama lengvai suprantama klausimq ir
atsakymq forma.
Norite isidarbinti kitoje valstybeje nareje? Jau dirbate kitoje valstybeje nareje
ir norite zinoti, kokios Jusq teises, palyginti su tos saIies darbuotojq teisemis?
Kas bus, jeigu dirbsite vienoje salyje, 0 gyvensite kitoje? Sis vadovas pades
rasti atsakymus i siuos ir i daugeli kitq klausimq.
Sis vadovas skelbiamas Europos darbuotojq judumo metais (2006), sieki-

ant informuoti ES piIiecius ir padeti jiems geriau suvokti darbo kitojesalyje
teikiamus privalumus.
Maltese
Introduzzjoni
Il-moviment hieles tal-persuni huwa wiehed mil-Iibertajiet fundamentaIi ga-

rantitmil-Iigi tal-Komunita. Ic-cittadini ta' I-UEjistghujmorru fi Stat Membru
iehor biexjahdmujew jistudjaw hemmhekk, biex iwaqqfu xi kumpanija, biex
jistabbiIixxu ruhhom u jirtiraw hemmhekk jew, f'kaz ta' persuni Ii ma jkunux
attivi ekonomikament, sempIiciment biexjghixu hemmhekk.
Din il-gwida tiddeskrivi biss il-pozizzjoni legaIi tal-persuni Ii jiccaqilqu fi

hdan I-Unjoni Ewropea ghal ragunijiet ta' impjieg. L-ghan taghha huwa
Ii, f' ghamla ta' mistoqsijiet u twegibiet Ii huma fadi biex wiehed jifhimhom,
tipprovdilek l-informazzjoni dwar id-drittijiet tieghek bhala haddiem Ii se
tmur tahdem f'pajjiz iehor.
Tixtieq tibda tahdem fi Stat Membru iehor? Qed tahdem fi Stat Membru
iehor u qed tistaqsi x'inhuma d-drittijiet tieghek meta mqabbla ma' dawk
ta' haddiema minn dak il-pajjiz? X'jigrijekk inti tahdem f'pajjiz imma tkun
residenti f'pajjiz iehor? Din il-gwida se tipprovdilek it-twegibiet ghal dawn
il-mistoqsijiet u ghal hafna ohrajn.
Din il-gwida giet ippubbIikata fil-qafas tas-Sena Ewropea tal-Moviment tal-

ltaddiema 2006, Ii giet organizzata biex tqajjem kuxjenza u biex wiehed jifhem
iktar il-beneficcji tal-hidma barra mill-pajjiz.
176 Appendix
Polish
WSTFtP
Swobodny przeplyw osob to jedna z podstawowych swob6d gwarantow-
anych przez prawo wspolnotowe. Obywatele UE mog'l udac si~ do innego
panstwa czlonkowskiego, aby tam pracowac lub studiowac, swiadczyc lub
otrzymywac uslugi, zaloZyc firm~, osiedlic si~ po przejsciu na emerytur~ lub
- w przypadku osob nieaktywnych zawodowo - po prostu w celu pobytu na
terytorium wybranego panstwa.
Niniejszy przewodnik opisuje jedynie sytuacj~ prawn'l os6b przemieszcza-

j~cych si~ w obr~bie Unii Europejskiej w zwhtzku z zatrudnieniem. Celem
niniej szego opracowania jest przedstawienie informacji 0 prawach pracownika
migruj'lcego w latwo przyst~pnej formie pytan i odpowiedzi.
Czy chcesz podj'lc prac~ w innym panstwie czlonkowskim UE? Czy pracujesz
w innym panstwie czlonkowskim UE i zastanawiasz si~, jakie masz prawa
w porownaniu z pracownikami pochodz'lcymi z tego kraju? Jakajest Twoja
sytuacja, jesli pracujesz w jednym kraju, ale mieszkasz w innym? Niniejszy
przewodnik zawiera odpowiedzi na te i wiele innych pytan.
Niniejszy przewodnik zostal opublikowany w ramach Europejskiego Roku

Mobilnosci Pracownikow 2006, ogloszonego w celu szerzenia swiadomosci
i wiedzy 0 korzysciach wynikaj'lcych z pracy zagraniq.
Portuguese
Introdu.;ao
A livre circulayao de pessoas euma das liberdades fundamentais consagradas

no direito comunitario. Os cidadaos da UE podem deslocar-se para outro
Estado-Membro para ai trabalhar ou prosseguir estudos, prestar ou receber
serviyos, criar uma empresa, fixar-se apos a reform a ou, no caso de pessoas
economicamente inactivas, simplesmente residir.
o presente guia descreve unicamente a situayao juridica de pessoas que

migram no territ6rio da UnHio Europeia por motivos profissionais. 0 seu
objectivo eprestar-Ihe informayoes sobre os seus direitos enquanto trabalhador
migrante, sob a forma de perguntas e respostas facilmente compreensiveis.
Gostaria de trabalhar noutro Estado-Membro da UE? Trabalha num outro

Estado-Membro e quer saber quais sao os seus direitos comparativamente aos
Ira Torresi 177
trabalhadores origimirios desse pais? E se trabalha num pais e reside noutro?

o presente guia dar-Ihe-a repostas a estas e a muitas outras perguntas.
o guia foi publicado no funbito do Ano Europeu da Mobilidade Profissional
(2006), organizado no intuito de dar a conhecer aos cidadiios as vantagens de
trabalhar no estrangeiro.
Slovak
Uvod
Vol'ny pohyb osob je jednou zo zakladnych slobOd zamcenych pravnymi

predpismi Spolocenstva. ObCania ED mozu ist' do in6ho clensk6ho statu,
ak v nom chcu pracovat' alebo studovat', poskytovat' alebo vyuzivat' sluzby,
zalozit' si spolocnost', ak sa v nom chcu usadit' v dochodku alebo v pripade
ekonomicky neaktivnych osob jednoducho byvat'.
Tato primcka opisuje iba zakonn6 postavenie osob, ktore sa pohybuju v

nirnci Europskej unie z dovodov zarnestnania. Jej ciel'om je poskytnut'
yam informacie 0 vasich pravach migmjuceho pracovnika vo forme l'ahko
zrozumitel'nych otazok a odpovedi.
Chcete zacat' vykonavat' pracu v inom clenskom state? Pracujete v inom

clenskom state a chcete vediet', ak6 su vase prava v porovnani s pracovnikmi
z danej krajiny? Co sa stane, ak pracujete v jednej krajine, ale byvate v inej
krajine? Tato primcka yam poskytne odpovede na tieto a mnoho d'alSich
otazok.
Tato primcka bola uverejnena v ramci Eur6pskeho roka vol'n6ho pohybu
pracovnej sily 2006, ktory bol zorganizovany s ciel'om zvYsit' informovanost'
o prinosoch prace v zahranici a prispiet' k ich lepsiemu porozumeniu.
Slovenian
Uvod
Prosto gibanje oseb je ena temeljnih svobosCin, zapisanih v zakonodaji
Skupnosti. Dr.zavljani EU se lahko preselijo v dmgo dr.zavo clanico, kjer
lahko delajo ali studirajo, nudijo ali uporabljajo storitve, ustanovijo podjetje,
prezivljajo pokoj ali, v primem ekonomsko neaktivnih oseb, tam preprosto
prebivajo.
Ta prirocnik opisuje sarno pravni polozaj oseb, ki se selijo znotraj Evropske

unije zaradi zaposlitve. Namenjenje temu, da yam v enostavni obliki vprasanj
in odgovorov poda informacije 0 pravicah, ki jih imate kot del avec migrant.
178 Appendix
Se zelite zaposliti v dmgi drZavi clanici? Ali delate v dmgi drZavi clanici in
se sprasujete, kaksne so vase pravice v primerjavi s pravicami delavcev, ki
imajo stalno prebivalisce v isti drZavi? Kako ravnati v primem, ko delate v
eni drZavi, medtem ko imate stalno prebivalisce v dmgi drZavi? Ta prirocnik
yam bo odgovoril na ta in na mnoga dmga vprasanja.
Prirocnikje bil objavljen v okvim Evropskega leta mobilnosti delavcev -leta

2006 - katerega cilj je poglobiti zavest in izboljsati poznavanje prednosti dela
v tujini.
Spanish
Introduccion
La libre circulacion de personas es una de las libertades fundamentales inscri-
tas en el Derecho comunitario. Los ciudadanos de la Union Europea tienen
la posibilidad de desplazarse a otro Estado miembro para trabajar, estudiar,
proporcionar u obtener servicios, crear una empresa, establecerse tras su jubi-
lacion 0, en el caso de las personas economicamente inactivas, sencillamente
residir en 61.
La presente guia describe tinicamente la situacion juridica de las personas

que migran dentro de la Union Europea por motivos de empleo. Su ob-
jeto es informarle sobre sus derechos como trabajador migrante, en forma de
preguntas y respuestas facilmente comprensibles.
i,Desea trabajar en otro Estado miembro? i, Trabaja en otro Estado miembro

y se pregunta cuales son sus derechos con respecto a los trabajadores de ese
pais? i,Qu6 ocurre si trabaja en un pais pero reside en otro? La presente guia
responde a estas y otras muchas preguntas.
Esta guia se ha publicado en el marco del Ano Europeo de la Movilidad de

los Trabajadores (2006), organizado para dar a conocer a los ciudadanos las
ventajas de trabajar en el extranjero.
Swedish
Inledning
Den fria rorligheten for personer ar en av de gmndlaggande friheter som

gemenskapslagstiftningen ger oss. Medborgare i EU kan fiyrta till en annan
medlemsstat for art arbeta eller studera, tillhandahiUla eller utnyrtja tjanster,
starta eget, bosarta sig dar som pensionar eller helt enkelt for art vistas dar
aven om man inte forvarvsarbetar.
Ira Torresi 179
Denna handbok galler enbart den rattsliga stallningen for personer som
fiyttar inom Europeiska unionen i samband med arbete. Den innehiUler
infonnation till dig om dina rattigheter som migrerande arbetstagare, i fonn
av fragor och svar for att underlatta lasningen.
Vill du ta anstallning i en annan medlemsstat? Arbetar du redan i en annan

medlemsstat och vill veta vilka rattigheter du har jiimfort med inhemska
anstallda? Vad galler om du arbetar i ett land och bor i ett annat? I den har
handboken hittar du svaren pa dessa fragor och manga andra.
Handboken ges ut i sam band med Europeiska aret for arbetstagares rorlighet
2006, som har udysts for att skapa storre medvetenhet och kunskap om forde-
lama med att arbeta utomlands.
Example 20: Other language versions, downloadedfrom:

http://www.auslfo.it/tabid/444/Default. aspx
French
A qui demander des informations
800.033.033
C' est Ie numero vert gratuit it contacter pour reyevoir des infonnations sur
l'hOpital.
Dans Ie hall du Pavillon« Morgagni» on peut s'adresser au guichet des in-

fonnations. Les operateurs reponderont it toutes les questions relatives aux
services offerts. Ils peuvent foumir des infonnations sur les modalites d' acces
aux hospitalisations et analyses, visites et en lbre profession, temps d' attente,
fonctionnement de toutes les structures operationnelles et autres infonnations
pour garantir la solution des problemes relatifs aux services socio-sanitaires
comme l'exemption, remboursements, autres structures sanitaires it qui
s' adresser. Le personnel favorise I' accueil, et il est disponible it l' egard des
citoyens pour les ecouter et comprendre leurs exigences, offre l'aide neces-
saire pour limiter les incommodites qui peuvent apparaitre quand on beneficie
de ces services et resoudre eventuels problemes pratiques lies aux prestations
effectuees par l'entreprise.
180 Appendix
Chinese
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Albanian
Ku dhe si te kerkoni informacione
• 800 033 033 eshte numri i telefonit pa pagese qe mund te therrisni

per t'u informuar mbi spitalin.
• _ Ne hyrjen e Pavijonit Morgagni (Padiglione Morgagni) mund
te drejtoheni tek sporteli i informacioneve. Punonjesit do t'u
pergjigjen te gjitha pyetjeve ne lidhje me sherbimet e ofruara. Ata
mund te japin informacione mbi menyrat e shtrimit ne spital, berjen
e analizave, vizitat mjekesore, sherbimet private, kohet e pritjes,
funksionimin e te gjitha strukturave shendetesore te Shoqerise
USL. Gjithashtu, punonjesit mund te japin informacione te tjera
per te garantuar rrugezgjidhjen e problem eve qe lidhen me sher-
bimet sociale e shendetesore si p.sh.: mospagimin a rimborsimin
i sherbimit apo orientimin ne strukturat e tjera shendetesore. Per-
soneli mundeson pritjen e qytetareve, eshte i gatshem per degjimin
dhe kuptimin e kerkesave te tyre, jep ndihmen e duhur per te pa-
kesuar veshtiresite qe mund te shfaqen gjate dhenies se sherbimeve
shendetesore dhe ndihmon ne zgjidhjen e problemet te mundshme
qe lidhen me sherbimet e dhena nga Shoqeria USL.
Ira Torresi 181
Arabic
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A Glossary of Terms
Active (working) language: a language that one is able to translate into.
Adaptation: a fonn of translation that accommodates the conventions of the

target language and culture, the canons of literary genres thereof, and the ex-
pectations of the target readership/audience. Commonly used as a hypernym
of localization and trans-creation, it also subsumes the concepts of covert
translation and domestication. It is commonly viewed as the preferred ap-
proach to consumer-oriented translation.
Agility: one of the qualities often required of advertising and promotional

translators. It is the ability to recognize the pattern in which functions and
purposes shift in the source text and follow or modifY such pattern according
to the use and function of the target text, without losing sight of coherence
and cohesion.
Alternative versions: see multiple versions.
Anchor: a tenn used in this book only. An anchor is a usually technical or

highly infonnative chunk of text (down to the word level) that nonnally re-
quires close rendition in order to preserve its purpose. Anchors tend to make
extensive rewriting difficult for the immediately surrounding text as well (hence
the name), except in advertising and other low information-to-persuasion
ratio texts, where they might be omitted, or changed, if this is thought to make
the target text work better. Monoreferential terms and numerical data are
examples of translation anchors.
B2B: see business-to-business.
B2C: see business-to-consumer.
Bodycopy (or body copy): in a print advertisement, it is the longer part of

verbal text that follows the headline and precedes the payoff; it is printed in
smaller or otherwise less visible characters.
Boost: as used in this book, this tenn generically indicates the use of words
with a markedly positive connotation (but not necessarily a superlative mean-
ing) in connection with the object of promotion. A hypernym, not a synonym,
of lexical boost.
Brief: the infonnation provided to the translator by the client and/or the agency
or other intennediaries about their expectations regarding the target text. It
Ira Torresi 183
may include the target audience (which is important for translation choices
concerning personal deixis, lexis and register), the media plan (which is im-
portant for register and also for text length), and other specific requirements
such as the recommendation to use specific keywords, concepts or puns that
are linked to the brand or product image. In promotional translation more than
in other translation types, the brief should always be respected or negotiated
with the final client before handing in the target text. Intentional departures
from the brief should always be motivated and offered as an alternative to one
or more versions that adhere to it.
Business-to-business (or B2B): the promotion of goods or services done by

businesses and aimed other businesses.
Business-to-consumer (or B2C): the promotion of goods or services done by

businesses and aimed at individuals.
Consumer-oriented texts: a working category of texts that are focused on

readers as consumers or users of something. They aim to affect consum-
ers' behaviour in various ways and include a variety of genres, such as user
manuals, tourist brochures, recipe books, and promotional texts. They require
a purpose-oriented translation approach. (Hervey and Higgins 1992/2002;
Hervey et aI1995/2006).
Consumer-oriented translation: the translation of consumer-oriented texts,

whose aim is to serve in the target language and culture the same purpose
fulfilled by the original texts in the source language and culture.
Copywriting: the act, or profession, of developing the copy, i.e., the verbal
part of advertising texts. A copywriter usually works in close contact with an
art director, who is responsible for the visual part of the same texts.
Covert translation: a concept developed by House (1977/1981) and closely

linked to the concepts of domestication and the translator's invisibility (Venuti
1995). It means that the target text is not, or is not intended to be, recogniz-
able as a translation, but is meant to appear as natural as possible in the target
language and culture. The opposite of overt translation, a concept related
to foreignization.
Creativity: one of the qualities often required of advertising and promotional

translators. It is the ability to devise clever texts that play with language and
visual cues, often within an extremely limited time frame. It also subsumes
the ability to trans-create texts.
Domestication: a concept developed by Lawrence Venuti (1995, 1998a, 1998b)

184 Glossary
with main reference to literary texts and in opposition to foreignization. A

domesticated text is translated in such a way that it is inserted as seamlessly
as possible in the genre it is ascribed to in the target culture and language.
In the process, the translator remains largely invisible and the author of the
source text is given sole authorship.
Flexibility: one of the qualities often required of advertising and promotional

translators. It means that translators should not be too fussy in terms of the ex-
tent to which their work is acknowledged. The target text may be transformed,
further trans-created or even left aside by the end client. Visibility is seldom
an option in advertising and promotional translation. This should not lead to
frustration or spoil the translator's relationship with the client. Note that cli-
ents may give the term a variety of other meanings (e.g., readiness to accept
low prices, adjust to impossible deadlines, etc.) that do not help promotional
translators in their professional careers.
Foreignization: a concept developed by Lawrence Venuti (1995, 1998a,

1998b) with main reference to literary texts and in opposition to domestication.
In the process of foreignization, the source text is translated in a way that does
not accommodate the established canons of the target literature and language,
but contributes to bringing about diversification in them. The translator thus
acquires an active, visible role and authorship status.
Functionalism (in translation): see Skopostheorie.
Glocalization: a term used by Adab (2000:224) for the practice, adopted by

several multinational companies, of developing local campaigns simultan-
eously from a brief that is as little culture-specific as possible.
Headline: the slogan at the opening of a print advertisement, usually appearing

in larger or otherwise more visible characters.
121: see institution-to-institution.
I2U: see institution-to-user.
Information-to-persuasion ratio: a term used in this book only. It indicates

the ratio between the information content and the explicitly persuasive intent of
a text. In high information-to-persuasion ratio texts, such as CVs or business-
to-business product information, persuasion is subordinate to (and sometimes
dependent on) the specific or technical information conveyed by the text. Such
texts usually require closer rendition than low information-to-persuasion
ratio texts, and they are more likely to contain several translation anchors.
Conversely, in the translation of low information-to-persuasion ratio texts,
Ira Torresi 185
such as most business-to-consumer advertising, persuasiveness and extensive

rewriting are usually more appreciated. See table 2 for a tentative collocation
of promotional genres on the information-to-persuasion ratio continuum.
Institution-to-institution (or 121): a term coined for this book (after business-
to-business) to indicate texts that institutions produce to promote themselves
with upper-level and/or funding institutions.
Institution-to-user (or 12U): a term coined for this book (after business-to-
consumer) to indicate institutional promotion aimed at the general public.
Laws and restrictions: specific legal restraints about advertising and publicly
distributed material that may apply in the target markets. Knowing them is
often required of advertising and promotional translators who work in-house
at agencies and companies, although freelance translators do not usually share
this responsibility.
Lexical boost: a term first used by Teh (1986) and made more widely known
by Bhatia (1993:51-52), which describes words that, although devoid of a
superlative form, have an inherently superlative meaning. 'Superlative' is
one such word: nothing can be *more superlative than something else, or
*the most superlative. Other examples include 'optimize', 'maximize', 'mini-
mize', 'absolute', 'winner', 'first', 'matchless'. The notion can be extended
to phrases such as 'to have no/without equals', 'N° 1', and the like. The term
is not synonymous with the term boost as used in this book.
Localization: the same as adaptation, but the term is market- rather than
culture-oriented and only used for specific text types: for instance, websites,
software, videogames, and advertising. The use of the term is motivated by
the fact that a part of such texts is originally developed by multinationals that
aim at global diffusion. When the texts reach local markets, however, they
need to be adjusted to the conventions and expectations of each target market,
not only from the verbal and cultural points of view, but also with reference to
interfaces, navigation tools, visuals, and any other formal element.
Media plan: the detailed list of all media on which the advertising/promotional
text or campaign will be distributed.
Monoreferential terms: terms that have only one referent in a given language.
They are usually quite technical and in high information-to-persuasion ratio
genres they often constitute translational anchors that do not lend themselves
to rewriting.
Multiple versions: additional versions of a text or one part of it that may

186 Glossary
be required by the client, especially with texts with lower information-to-

persuasion ratio such as advertisements. The client can choose between
alternatives that have different nuances and therefore adjust to partly differ-
ent target groups or convey partly different product images. See example 2
for a practical illustration of how the provision of multiple versions may be
negotiated between the translator and hislher client.
Negotiation: any initiative that helps shape, integrate or modifY the translation
commission with a view to ensuring that the translator carries out hislher work
as well as possible, or the client receives the best possible service (from the
respective points of view). Eliciting a brief, asking for deadline extensions
or for terminological assistance are examples of translator-initiated negotia-
tion. Asking for a discount, alternative versions or revisions are examples of
client-initiated negotiation. See example 2 for a practical illustration and §
2.2 for a detailed account.
Non-verbal elements: anything that constitutes a text apart from words. In the
text types discussed in this book, examples of relevant non-verbal elements
include visuals, layout, colours, typeface, and website navigability.
Overt translation: a term introduced by House (1977/1981) to refer to the

opposite of covert translation. An overt translation is clearly recognizable
as a translated rather than an original text in the target language and culture.
It is closely linked to the concept offoreignization (Venuti 1995).
Passive (working) language: a language that one is able to translate from.
Payoff: the slogan at the end of a print advertisement, usually appearing in

larger or otherwise more visible characters. While it was once given the func-
tion of facilitating product memorization, e.g., through rhymes, puns or the
repetition of the same motto across different campaigns, in more recent times
it is often replaced by a logo, website address, or other contact information
(not necessarily in highly visible print).
Persuasiveness: one of the qualities often required of advertising and pro-

motional translators. It is the mastery of an emotional or evocative style that
helps lure the addressee into the desired course of action.
Realia tantum, realia (singular reale tantum, reale): things or concepts that
exist only in one culture and the corresponding terms that, accordingly, exist
only in one language. Realia are common in tourist promotion, where the usual
translation strategy is to leave them unchanged but gloss them in the target
language. In shorter genres, such as advertising, or wherever exoticism is not
Ira Torresi 187
functional to the promotional purpose of the text, realia can be domesticated

or avoided through trans-creation.
Skopostheorie: the theory that applies the notion of Skopos, a Greek word
for 'purpose', to translation. Proposed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by
Katharina Reiss and Hans J. Vermeer, it played a major role in the development
of modem functionalism in translation studies. According to Skopostheorie a
translation can be deemed successful only if it succeeds in having a certain in-
tended effect on a given intended audience. (see Reiss and Vermeer 198411991;
Nord 1997; Schaffner 1998,2009).
Trans-creation: a type of adaptation that involves copywriting and, possibly,

prompting the creation of new visuals for the promotional material, rather than
relying on the same verbal and visual structures of the source text. In this ap-
proach, the translator is seen as a creative professional with highly developed
language skills and an in-depth understanding of social, cultural, legal and
promotional conventions currently in place in the target community.
Translation: a term whose semantic extension varies according to one's

perspective. In daily usage, it is generally associated with the transformation
of verbal elements (words) across languages, usually in the written mode.
In my own perspective and in this book, it means the transfer of any kind of
text and textual purpose across languages, cultures, signification systems,
and markets.
Visual: each visual element of a (promotional) text. Also, the typeset version
of a print advertising or promotional text, complete with pictures and any other
visual material that accompanies the written text.
References
Works cited
Adab, Beverly (2000) 'Towards a More Systematic Approach to the Translation
of Advertising Texts', in Allison Beeby, Doris Ensinger and Marisa Presas (eds)
Investigating Translation, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 223-234.
Bhatia, Vijay K. (1993) Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings,
London: Longman.
Brancati, Daniela (2002) La pubblicitit efemmina ma il pubblicitario emaschio:
Per una comunicazione oltre i luoghi comuni, Milan: Sperling & Kupfer.
Chiaro, Delia (2004) 'Translational and Marketing Communication: A Comparison
of Print and Web Advertising of Italian Agro-Food Products', The Translator
10(2): 313-328.
Chuansheng, He (1997) English for Trademarks, Changsha: Hunan University
Press.
Chuansheng, He and Xiao Yunnan (2003) 'Brand Name Translation in China: An
Overview of Practice and Theory', Babel 49(2): 131-148.
De Mooij, Marieke (1998/2005) Global Marketing and Advertising. Understand-
ing Cultural Paradoxes, London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage, 2nd
edition.
Diaz Cintas, Jorge and Aline Remael (2007) Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling,
Manchester: St. Jerome.
Fuentes-Luque, Adrian and Dorothy Kelly (2000) 'The Translator as Mediator
in Advertising Spanish Products in English-Speaking Markets', in Eija Ven-
tola (ed) Discourse and Community. Doing Functional Linguistics, Tiibingen:
Gunter Narr, 235-242.
Hervey, Sandor and Ian Higgins (1992/2002) Thinking French Translation. A
Course in Translation Method: French to English, London and New York:
Routledge, 2nd edition.
Hervey, Sandor, Ian Higgins and Michael Loughridge (1995/2006) Thinking
German Translation. A Course in Translation Method: German to English,
London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition.
Hofstede, Geert and Gert Jan Hofstede (2005) Cultures and Organizations: Soft-
ware of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
House, Juliane (1977/l98l)AModelfor Translation QualityAssessment, Tiibin-
gen: Narr, 2nd edition.
Leppihalme, Ritva (1997) Culture Bumps: An Empirical Approach to the Trans-
lation ofAllusions, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Mossop, Brian (2001/2007) Revising and Editing for Translators, Manchester:
St. Jerome, 2nd edition.
Nord, Christiane (1997) Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Functionalist Ap-
proaches Explained, Manchester: St. Jerome.
Ooi, Can Seng (2002) Cultural Tourism and Tourism Cultures: The Business of
Mediating Experiences in Copenhagen and Singapore, Copenhagen: Copen-
hagen Business School Press.
Ira Torresi 189
Reiss, Katharina and Hans J. Vermeer (1984/1991) Grundlegung einer allgemei-

nen Translationstheorie, Tiibingen: Niemeyer, 2nd edition.
Sandrini, Peter (2005-2007) 'Website Localization and Translation', in Heidrun
Gerzymisch-Arbogast and Sandra Nauert (eds) Challenges ofMultidimensio-
nal Translation. Proceedings of the Marie Curie Euroconferences MuTra:
Challenges ofMultidimensional Translation - Saarbriicken 2-6 May 2005,
MuTra, http://www.euroconferences.info/proceedings/2005]roceedings/2005 _
Sandrini]eter. pdf.
Schaffner, Christina (1998) 'Skopos Theory' , in Mona Baker (ed) Routledge Ency-
clopedia of Translation Studies, London and New York: Routledge, 235-238.
Schaffner, Christina (2009) 'Functionalist Approaches', in Mona Baker and Gab-
riela Saldanha (eds) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, London
and New York: Routledge, U5-12l.
Schopp, Jiirgen F. (2002) 'Typography and Layout as a Translation Problem', in
FIT (eds) Translation: New Ideas for a New Century. Proceedings of the XVI
FIT World Congress, Vancouver: FIT, 271-275 (translated by John Hopkins),
http://www.uta.fi/~tJjusc/vancouver.htm.
Sumberg, Carolyn (2004) 'Brand Leadership at Stake: Selling France to British
Tourists', The Translator 10(2): 329-353.
Teh, G.S. (1986) An Applied Discourse Analysis of Sales Promotion Letters, un-
published MA thesis, University of Singapore. Quoted in Bhatia (1993:
51-52).
Torresi, Ira (2004) 'Women, Water and Cleaning Agents: What Advertisements
Reveal about the Cultural Stereotype of Cleanliness', The Translator 10(2):
269-289.
------ (2008) 'Advertising: A Case forIntersemiotic Translation', Meta 53(1): 62-75.
Venuti, Lawrence (1995) The Translator s Invisibility: A History of Translation,
London and New York: Routledge.
------ (1998a) The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics ofDifference, Lon-
don and New York: Routledge.
------ (1998b) 'Strategies of Translation', in Mona Baker (ed) Routledge Encyclo-
pedia of Translation Studies, London and New York: Routledge, 240-244.
Further reading
Adab, Beverly (2001) 'The Translation of Advertising: A Framework for Evalua-

tion', Babel 47(2): 133-157. [with several examplesfrom English into French]
Adab, Beverly and Cristina Valdes (eds) (2004) Key Debates in the Translation
ofAdvertising Material, special issue of The Translator, 10(2).
Bueno Garcia, Antonio (2000) Publicidad y traducci6n, Soria: Vertere, Mono-
graficos de la Revista Hermeneus.
Guidere, Mathieu (2000a) Pub Ii cite et traduction, Paris: L'Harmattan. [with sev-
eral examples from French into Arabic]
Guidere, Matthieu (2000b) 'Aspects de la traduction publicitaire', Babel 46(1):
20-40. [on the importance of semiotics in advertising translation, and with
190 References
examples from French into Arabic]

Torresi, Ira (2007) 'Translating the Visual. The Importance of Visual Elements in
the Translation of Advertising across Cultures', in Kyongjoo Ryou and Dorothy
Kenny (eds) Across Boundaries: International Perspectives on Translation
Studies, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 38-55.
On visual semiotics:
Kress, Gunther and Theo Van Leeuwen (1996) Reading Images. The Grammar
of Visual Design, London and New York: Routledge.
On social semiotics:
Van Leeuwen, Theo (2005) Introducing Social Semiotics, London and New York:
Routledge.
On geosemiotics:
Scollon, Ron and Suzie Wong Scollon (2003) Discourses in Place. Language in
the Material World, London and New York: Routledge.
Websites
The Europass Curriculum Vitae (CV): http://europass.cedefop.europa.euJeuropass/

home/vemav/Europasss+Documents/Europass+CV/navigate.action
The Owl At Purdue. Free Writing Help and Teaching Resources: http://ow1.english.
purdue .eduJow lIresourcel 527/031
Italian Langit: http://list.cineca.itlcgi-binlwa?P I&L= langit

Index
A see also business-to-consumer
Bodycopy 127,137,138,142-151,
Accuracy 21,23,25,67,69, 182
70, 76, 96, 130, 138, 154 Boost 31, 40-42, 44, 49-52, 54, 58,
Adapt 8,22,24,52,70,77,78,98, 59,62,65,66,69-71,74,75,81,
116, 130, 157 84,98, 104, 106, 107, 109, 110,
Adaptation 4,21,24,62, 77, 102, 125,127,131,138,139,143,145,
115, 142, 158, 160, 182, 185, 187 153, 156, 182, 185,
Adapter 139, 153, 154 Brand-name(s), brand name(s) 5,
Ads 13; B2B- 80; 21-23, 122, 123, 125, 153, 160,
B2C- 24,26,80,82, 121, Brief 2,3,9-12, 14, 16,20,24,25,
122, 124, 128, 129, 137, 140, 142, 30,60,62,69,77,88,90,97,98,
147, 153, 154, 156, 157, 161; 104, 109, 116, 120, 139, 142, 143,
I2U- 16,94, 116 153, 156, 182-184, 186
Advertisements 4,83, 182, 184, Brochure 1, 4, 10, 12,25, 26,
186, 189; 60,62-65,67,69,70,76,80,83,
B2B- 62-64, 80; 85,87,89,90,92,94-96,101,
B2C- 129, 140, 156, 102, 104, 106, 109-111, 116, 120,
161, 162
129, 130, 136, 156, 158, 168, 183
Agile (translator) 121
Business-to-business 5, 24, 26,
Agility, translator's- 8,27, 182
29,61, 182, 183;
Alternative version(s) 3, 12, 13,
see also B2B
18, 19, 121, 137, 139, 142, 145,
Business-to-consumer 5, 25, 26,
154, 157, 182, 186;
29,63,65, 120, 182, 183, 185;
see also multiple versions
Anchor 31,56,62,66,69,70,74,79, see also B2C
81,84,98,103,106,115,120,130,
136, 137, 147, 153, 182, 184, 185 c
Awareness-raising 5,87,92,
111, 118, 119, 142 Consumer-oriented (translation,
genre, text) 1, 158, 182, 183
B Copywriting 60, 94, 102, 104,
130, 142, 156, 183, 187
B2B 5,26,29,30,31,52,56,61- Covert translation 1, 158,
65,67,69,70,71,74,76,79,80, 182, 183, 186
82-84,86-88,90,92,97,116,120, Creative language 62, 119-121,
130, 136, 137, 142, 162, 182, 183; 125, 128, 129, 142, 156
see also business-to-business Creativity, translator's- 8,9,23,
B2C 5,26,29,30,31,52,63,64, 183
79,80,86,93,97,98,100-102, curriculumJa vitae 32,42,
109,111,114-116,119-121,123, 190;
128-130,136-138,140,147,153- see also CV
156, 158, 161, 182, 183; CV 1, 12, 25, 26, 29, 31-33,
192 Index
39-43,50,51,53,54,79,93,100, 12U 15,26,29,30,31,87,89-94,

124, 156, 184, 190; 96,100,101,111,115,119,184,
see also curriculum/a vitae 185;
see also institution-to-user
D Information-to-persuasion (ratio) 1,
26-30,40,41,43,44,51,61,63,
Domesticate 1, 104, 184 64,69-71,74,76,86,90,92,97,
Domestication 75, 182-184, 187 100, 101, 103, 104, 109, 115, 116,
119, 120, 156, 182, 184, 185
E Institution-to-institution 26,29,87,
88, 184, 185;
Emotional language 50, 53, 65, see also 121
88,92,93, 120, 121, 123, 125, Institution-to-user 15, 26, 29,
127,128,131,156,157,160, 87,89,92,184,185;
see also 12U
F
J
Flexibility, translator's- 184
Flexible (translator) 3, 8 Job application letter 1,29,31,
Foreignization 158, 183, 184, 186 40,42-46,48-50,54,93,100
Functional (translation) 1, 13, 23,
24,43,44,61,63,69,78,93,96- L
99, 101, 102, 104, 115, 120, 124,
137, 145, 147, 187 Layout 11,15,32,39,60,62,63,67,
Functionalism (in translation) 1, 71,77,78,80,82,84,86,88,95,
184, 187 103, 104, 106, 130, 137, 145, 147,
Functionalist (approaches to 152, 154, 189
translation) 188, 189 Lexical boost 40, 44, 52, 98, 100,
109, 110, 128, 137, 138, 142, 182,
G 185,
Localization 4,8,22,70, 71,
Glocalization 24, 76, 116, 153, 184 154, 182, 185, 189
Glocalize 139, 154 Localize 75, 157
H M
Headline 15, 16, 63, 83, 84, Media plan 16, 145, 183, 185
100, 122, 123, 129, 136-139, 142, Monoreferential (term) 56,61,98,
144-147,149-151,153,182,184 101, 106, 130, 182, 185
Healthcare (promotion) 29,31,94, Multiple versions 2,9, 12,
98, 100, 101, 109, 156 77,86, 101, 121, 139, 142, 157,
182, 185, 186;
I see also alternative version(s)
121 26,29,30,87,88,90-92,97, N
98, 100, 184, 185;
see also institution-to-institution Negotiate (with clients) 2,12, 13,
Ira Torresi 193
18,20,32,33,42,51,60,62,68, 129, 142, 182, 187

75,98, 103, 104, 121, 139, 157, Trans-creative 12
161, 183, 186 Trans-creator 152
Negotiation (with clients) 3,9, 13, Typography 11, 15,32,86, 145, 189
18-20,25,33,40,42,44,77,101,
103, 124, 154, 186 v
o Visual(s) 9, 11, 12, 14, 15,
24,69,71,77,80,82,83,85,116,
Overt translation 158,183,186 122-124,130,140,143,145,146-
148,150-153,157-159,185-187
p
w
Payoff 63,84, 115, 119, 123, 125,
128,129,137,142,144-146,148, Website 1,3,4, 10-12, 15,
149,151-153,182,186 25,26,60,62-64,80,85,160,
Persuasiveness, translator's- 8, 185, 186, 189, 190;
185, 186 B2B company presentation-
14,69,70,71,74,76,79;
R Institutional promotion- 87,90,
94,96,98,100,101,111,116;
Realelia tantum 104, 106, 107, 158, Personal- 29,31,52-
186, 187 54,59;
Revision 2,3, 18,63, 77, B2B product presentation- 65,
102,104 67,69; B2C- 120, 124, 125, 129,
130,136
s
Self-promotion 5,29,31
Skopostheorie 1, 184, 187
Space constraints 60,62,63,69,
77,78,80,82,86-88,104,129,
137, 138
Tourism (promotion of-) 94

Tourist (promotion, guides,
brochures) 12, 14, 18,60,87,
101-104,109,110,156,158,183,
186
Trans-create 13,23, 25, 31, 44,
145, 183, 184
Trans-creation 4, 11, 13,22,23,
25,27,76,93,98,103,119-121,

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Translation Practices Explained

Translation Practices Explained is a series of coursebooks designed to help

Each volume includes activities and exercises designed to help self-learners

Published 2014 by Routledge

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© Ira Torresi 2010

ISBN 13: 978-1-905763-20-7 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library o/Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Translating Promotional and Advertising Texts covers different areas of per-

1. Introduction: Why a Book on the Translation of

2. Promotional Translation and Professional Practice 7

3. Key Issues in Promotional Translation 21

4. Translating Promotional Material: Self-Promotion 29

5. Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Business 61

7. Translating Promotional Material: Business-to-Consumer 120

8. Translating Persuasion across Cultures 156

A Glossary of Terms 182

Table 1 Sample translator-initiated brief 10

Example 1 INCA's campaign for residence pennit renewal (Italian

Every effort has been made to obtain permission to reproduce copyright

In introducing this volume, it is perhaps necessary to justify why one would

1.1 How to use this book

This book can be used in University classes as a coursebook, or as a self-

1.2 Intended readership

This book is intended for both students/trainees and professionals.

1.3 A short note on terminology

The trans-linguistic, trans-cultural, trans-market transfer of advertising and

purpose across languages, cultures and markets. This by no means implies

1.5 What this book does and does not do

opportunities of promotional translation. This, however, is far from being

2.1 Why advertising and promotional translators aren't just

To return, however, to those non-linguistic skills which are, if not required,

2.2 Valuable tools: the brief, visuals, multiple versions, and

Table 1. Model Translator-prompted Brief

L it is the script for a radio commercial to be broadcast on station/s

L other (please specify)

2. What group(s) of people do you wish to reach and persuade? Please

3. Please list the brand values, corporate identity, and product/service

4. Please put an X where you would like to see your company/organization

b. Degree of proximity to the customer/user/public

c. Degree of deference towards the customer/user/public

Other fundamental tools, which sometimes contain much of the informa-

in order to meet local market demand (§ 1.1).

Consider the following Italian source text:

with the verbal components and then going on to the visual.

di soggiorno [the residence pennit]. Such typographic choices, together

There are two other interesting case-specific translation choices that

In a 2005 tourist guide of Emilia-Romagna, which was to be distributed

2. 'Italian Functionalism in the 1920s and '30s';

As you may have noticed, version 4 incorporates an explicit reference

3.1 The brand name

Phonetic and graphic adaptation

Graphic adaptation usually occurs between different alphabets or writing con-

Taboos and unwanted associations

(French Canada), Mastro Lindo (Italy), Meister Proper (Gennany), Don

3.2 Accuracy and loyalty to the original text

In chapter 1, we saw that promotional translation is usually assessed in func-

3.3 Different text types

on emotional, evocative language which is often used creatively, e.g. in word-