GENERAL SCIENCE: 

BIOLOGY

The science which deals with the study of living objects and
their life processes is called biology (Greek words, bios – life,
logos – study). It covers all aspect of the study of living
creatures like occurrence, classification, ecology, economic
importance, external form, organization, internal structure,
nutrition, health and other body functions, reproduction, life
history, inheritance and origin. Being broad – based and multi-
disciplinary, the term biology is often replaced by the term life
sciences or biological sciences. Aristotle is known as the
‘Father of biology’. The term biology was coined by Lamarck.

Branches of Biology
1. Taxonomy: It is the science of identification,
nomenclature and classification of organisms.
2.  Morphology: It is the study of external form, size,
shape, colour, structure and relative position of various
living organ of living beings.
3.  Anatomy: It is the study of internal structure which
can be observed with unaided eye after dissection.
4.  Histology: It is the study of tissue organization and
structure as observed through light microscope.
5.  Cytology: It is the study of form and structure of
cells including the behavior of nucleus and other
organelles
6.  Cell Biology: It is the study of morphological,
organizational, biochemical, physiological, genetic,
developmental, pathological and evolutionary aspects of
cell and its components.
7.  Molecular Biology: It is the study of the nature,
physicochemical organization, synthesis working and
interaction of bio-molecules that bring about and control
various activities of the protoplasm.
8.  Physiology: It is the study of different types of body
functions and processes.
9.  Embryology: It is the study of fertilization, growth,
division and differentiation of the zygote into embryo or
early development of living beings before the attainment
of structure and size of the offspring.
10.  Ecology: It is the study of living organisms is
 relation to other organism and their environment.
11.  Genetics: It is the study of inheritance of
characters or heredity and variations. Heredity is the
study of expression and transmission of traits from
parents to offspring.
12.  Eugenics: It is the science which deals with  factors
related to improvement or impairment of race, especially
that of human beings.
13.  Evolution: It studies the origin of life as well as
new types of organism from the previous ones by
modifications involving genetic changes and adaptations.
14.  Palaeontology: It deals with the study of fossils or
remains and impressions of past organisms present in the
rocks of different ages.
15.  Exobiology: It is the branch of scientific inquiry
dealing with the possibility of life in the outer space.
16.  Virology: It is the study of viruses in all their
aspects.

Link for complete study materials in General Science:

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Evolution

Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive
organisms over millions of years in which new species are produced. Since, we are
talking about living organisms, so it is known as ‘organic evolution’. All the plants and
animals which we see today around us have evolved from some or the ancestors that
lived on this earth long, long ago.

it is considered that they have evolved from the common ancestor. The more characteristics or
features two species have in common, the more closely they will be related. Some of the
important sources which provide evidences for evolution are:

(i) Homologous organs

(ii) Analogous organs and

(iii) Fossils.

(i) Homologous Organs: Those organs which have the same basic structure (or same
basic design) but different functions. For example, the forelimbs of a man, a lizard
(reptile), a frog (amphibian), a bird and a bat (mammal) seem to be built from the same
basic design of bones, but they form different functions. The forelimbs of a human are
used for grasping, the forelimbs of a lizard are used for running, the forelimb of a frog is
used to prop up etc.
(ii) Analogous Organs: Those organs which have different basic structure (or different basic
design) but have similar appearance and perform similar functions. For example, the wings of
an insect and a bird have different structures but they perform the same function of flying.

(iii) Fossils: The remains or impressions of dead animals or plants that lived in the remote past.
For example, a fossil bird called Archaeopteryx looks like a bird but it has many other features
which are found in reptiles. Because Archaeopteryx has feathered wings like those of birds but
teeth and tail like those of reptiles. So, it is a connecting link between the reptiles and the birds
and hence suggested that the birds have evolved from the reptiles.

Fossils are formed, when organisms die, their bodies will decompose by the action of micro-
organisms in the presence of oxygen, moisture etc. Fossils are also obtained by digging into the
earth.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin gave the theory of evolution in his famous book ‘The Origin of
Species’. The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin is known as ’The Theory of
Natural Selection’.  This theory is called the theory of Natural Selection because it
suggests that the best adapted organisms are selected by nature to pass on their
characteristics (or traits) to the next generation. It applies to plans as well as animals.

An example to illustrate Darwin’s theory of evolution (natural selection)

Darwin’s Theory postulates:

1. Within any population, there is natural variation. Some individuals have more
favourable variations than others.

2. Even though all species produce a large number of offsprings, populations remain
fairly constant naturally.

3. This is due to the struggle between members of the same species and different
species for food, space and mate.

4. The struggle for survival within populations eliminates the unfit individuals.  The fit
individuals possessing favourable variations survive and reproduce.  This is called
natural selection (or survival of fittest).
5. The individuals having favourable variations pass on these variations to their progeny
from generation to generation.
6. These variations when accumulated over a long period of time, lead to the origin of a
new species.

Though, Darwin’s theory was widely accepted, but it was criticised on the ground that it
could not explain ‘how the variations arise’. With the progress in genetics, the source of
variations was explained to be the ‘genes’. Genes vary in natural population. Therefore,
Genetic material is the raw material of evolution. So, the Darwin’s theory was modified
accordingly. The most accepted theory of evolution is the Synthetic Theory of
Evolution in which the origin of species is based on the interaction of ‘genetic variation’
and ‘natural selection’. Also, sometimes a species may completely die out. It may
become extinct. Dodo was a large flightless bird which has become extinct. Once a
species is extinct, its genes are lost forever. It cannot re-emerge at all.

Evolution: The Theory Of Evolution

The French biologist Lamarck proposed, in 1809, a hypothesis to account for the
mechanism of evolution, based on two conditions: the use and disuse of parts, and the
inheritance of acquired characteristics.
EVOLUTION : THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
The French biologist Lamarck proposed, in 1809, a hypothesis to account for the
mechanism of evolution, based on two  conditions: the use and disuse of parts, and the
inheritance of acquired characteristics. So, according to Lamarckism, as the theory
came to be known, the long neck and legs of the modern giraffe were the result of
generations of short-necked and short-legged ancestors feeding on leaves at
progressively higher levels of trees.

DARWIN’S THEORY
In November 1859, Darwin published the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, proposing that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species
arise from pre-existing species. The ‘struggle for existence’ described by Darwin was
popularised by the coining of the terms such as ‘survival of the fittest’.
MODERN VIEWS ON EVOLUTION
The theory of evolution, as proposed by Darwin and Wallace, has been modified in the light of
modern evidence from genetics, molecular biology, palaeontology, ecology, and ethology (the
study of behaviour) and is known as neo- Darwinism (neo or new). This may be defined as the
theory of organic evolution by the natural selection of inherited characteristics.

HUMAN EVOLUTION
Prehistoric People
Evidence of prehistoric people, such as fossils, tools, and other
remains, is rare and often fragmented.

Prehuman Ancestors
Most scientists believe that human beings and apes, such as
chimpanzees and gorillas, share a common ancestor. The ancestors
of human beings probably began evolving separately from the
ancestors of apes, between about 10 million and 5 million years
ago. This evolutionary split marks the beginning of the
development of hominids. Hominids are members of the scientific
family made up of human beings and early humanlike ancestors.
Most anthropologists believe the first hominids were humanlike
creatures called australopithecines. The australopithecines first
appeared more than 4 million years ago in Africa.

Types of Australopithecines The australopithecines were members

of the genus Australopithecus (southern ape). According to
differences in the shape of the creatures’ jaws and teeth and the
size of their brains, scientists have divided the genus
Australopithecus into five species: (1) A. ramidus, (2) A.
afarensis, (3) A. africanus, (4) A. robusius, and (5) A.
boisei.The most complete australopithecine fossil scientists have
found is a partial skeleton of a female A. afarensis. It was
found in Ethiopia. This creature, nicknamed “Lucy”, was
probably more than 110 centimetres tall and weighed about 30
kilograms. By about 2.5 million years ago, A. africanus replaced
A. afarensis. Many scientists believe that an evolutionary split
occurred among the australopithecines during the time of A.
africanus. This split resulted in the appearance of an additional
evolutionary line, separate from A. africanus, that led to A.
robustus and A. boisei. Scientists refer to these two species as
the robust australopithecines.

The First Human Beings

Most anthropologists believe that the first human beings evolved
from a gracile australopithecine about 2 million years ago. Homo
habilis is considered by anthropologists to be the oldest human
species. These prehistoric people lived in Africa about 2 million
years ago. Homo erectus: Fossil evidenceindicates that about 1.5
million years ago Homo habilis had evolved into a more advanced
human species. Scientists call this species Homo erectus.

Early Homo Sapiens Between 400,000 and 300,000 years ago, Homo
erectus evolved into a new human species called Homo sapiens. The
term Homo sapiens means ‘wise human being’. All people living
today belong to this species. But early Homo sapiens differed
greatly from modern people. Early Homo sapiens were about as tall
as modern human beings. Neanderthals were a type of early Homo
sapiens who lived in parts of Europe and the Middle East about
130,000- 35,000 years ago. Neanderthals have become the most
widely known of the early Homo sapiens mainly because they were
the first prehistoric people to be discovered.

Rise of Modern Human Beings

The first prehistoric people with modern human features appeared
about 100,000 years ago in either the Middle East or Africa.
These people had a chin, a high forehead, and a smaller, less-
protruding face than the earlier Homo sapiens had.

Biology : The Science of Life

The aim of biology is to explain the living world in terms of

scientific principles. Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher and
teacher, is known as the father of biology and the French
naturalist, Jean Baptiste-de Lamarck, was the first to used the
word  ‘biology’ in 1800. Biology today is subdivided into
numerous branches based on the molecule, the cell, the organism
and the population.

Living and Non-Living

There are seven characteristics that can be observed, more or

less, in all living organisms. In order to maintain themselves
and  prevent disintegration, organisms have an inbuilt self-
regulating system to ensure that there is no net energy loss.
This control is referred to as homeostasis and operates at all
levels of biological organisation, from the molecular level to
the community level.

Classification of Animal Kingdom

Classification is arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and
differences. Infact, to understand the living world classification gives a picture of all life
forms at a glance and makes the study of a wide variety of organisms easy. It is also
essential to understand the interrelationship among different groups of organisms.

Animals are those organisms which are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic in their mode
of nutrition. Except few, most animals are mobile and do not have cell wall.

Multicellular animals are called Metazoa which have been divided

into two branches: Parazoa and Eumetazoa.
 In Parazoa, the body of animal is made up of loose cells,
have poorly differentiated tissues and have no organ or
digestive cavity. E.g sponges.
 In Eumetazoa the cells are properly arranged into tissues
and organs. It is further classified on the basis of (a) the
number of germ layers present in the embryo; (b) the
 symmetry of the body of the organism; and (c) mode of origin
of mouth. Those animals which have two germ layers in the
embryo are called diploblastic animals and those having
three germ layers are called triploblastic animals.
In diploblastic animals, the outer cell layer is called ectoderm,
while the inner layer is called endoderm and both of these germ
layers enclose a non- cellular jelly-like layer,
the mesoglea. The triploblastic animals have three germ layers,
namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
The two sides of the body are mirror images of one another. Such
body symmetry type is called bilateral symmetry. Some animals
have radial body symmetry i.e having similar parts in a regular
pattern around a central axis.
Two types of animals have been recognised on the basis of origin
of mouths: Protostomia (mouth arising from or near the
blastopore of gastrula; gastrula is an embryonic stage)
and Deuterostomia (mouth arising anteriorly at some distance from
the blastopore).
Further, based on the presence or absence of body cavity
or coelom, animals are groups into acoelomata, pseudocoelomata
and coelomata. The acoelomates do not have body cavity because
the space between the body wall and digestive tract is filled
with parenchymatous tissue. Also, these tissues have a cavity
between the body wall and digestive tract but this does not arise
from the mesoderm and is not lined by epithelial cells.
The Coelomates have true body cavity which originates from
mesoderm and is lined by epithelial cells of mesodermal origin.
For further understanding refer below:
What is the structure of Plant and Animal
Cells?
The cellular level is the most important and fundamental level in the organisation of the
living world. So in order to understand Cell Biology, we should study all the aspects of
the structure and functions of cells. Also, it is necessary to understand the difference
between plant and animal cells.

It is important to know the component of cell i.e Plasma Membrane, Cell Wall, Nucleus,
Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, Golgi bodies, Mitochondria, Lysosomes, and Plastids etc.
Therefore, the structure of the Cell consists of:

1. Plasma Membrane: It is the outer covering of each cell. Present in cells of plants,
animals and microorganisms. It is a living and quite thin, flexible and selectively
permeable membrane. Made up of lipids, proteins and a small number of
carbohydrates. Its major function is to hold cellular contents and control the passage of
materials in and out of the cell.

2. Cell Wall: It occurs in plants and presents outside the plasma membrane. It is
nonliving, quite thick and rigid but generally permeable. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicelluloses and pectin. Its major function is to provide protection and strength to
the cell.

3. Nucleus: It is a spherical cellular component, centrally located in the cell and filled
with a fluid namely cytoplasm. Bounded by two nuclear membranes forming a nuclear
envelope. Space between the nuclear envelope is connected to the Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). It also separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm and its pores contain
liquid known as nucleoplasm which is embedded with two structures – the nucleolus
and chromatin material. It is rich in protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Also known as
the factory of Ribosomes because of ribosome formation.
 Nucleus Nucleolus

1. It is a
1. It represents the whole
component of the
eukaryotic complex that
nucleus.
contains genetic
2. It does not have
information.
a covering
2. It is covered by a two
membrane.
membrane envelope.
3. It synthesizes
3. It controls the structure
ribosomal
and working of cells.
subunits.

Inside the nucleus, chromatin material is present which is composed of a genetic

substance DNA and is responsible for the transmission of characteristic features from
one generation to another.

4. Cytoplasm: The part of the cell which occurs between the plasma membrane and
nuclear envelope. The inner layer of it is known as the endoplasm and the outer is
known as the cell cortex or ectoplasm. The cytoplasm consists of an aqueous
substance cytosol in which a variety of cell organelles and other inclusions like
insoluble waste and storage products (starch, lipid etc.) are present.
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Inside the cell, there exists a membranous network
enclosing a fluid-filled lumen that almost filled the intracellular cavity. It is of two types:
(a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): with ribosomes attached on its surface for
synthesising proteins.
(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): which is without ribosomes and is meant for
secreting lipids.
ER forms supporting skeletal framework of the cell and also provides a pathway for the
distribution of nuclear material from one cell to another.

(ii) Ribosomes: are dense, spherical and granular particles that occur freely in the
matrix (cytosol) or remain attached to the ER. It plays an important part in the synthesis
of proteins.
(iii) Golgi apparatus: It consists of a set of membrane-bounded, fluid-filled vesicles,
vacuoles and flattened cisternae (closed sacs).  It is absent in bacteria, blue-green
algae, mature sperms and red blood cells of mammals and other animals. Its main
function is secretory. It packages material synthesised inside the cell and dispatches
them. It produces vacuoles or secretory vesicles which contain cellular secretions like
enzymes etc. It is also involved in the secretion of cell wall, plasma membrane and
lysosomes.
(iv) Lysosomes are simply tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the
cytoplasm. Its cells digest foreign proteins, bacteria and viruses. So, it is a kind of
garbage disposable system of the cell. And also known as suicidal bags as when the
cells get damaged, lysosomes may burst and enzymes eat up their own cells.
(v) Mitochondria: are tiny bodies of varying shapes and sizes, distributed in the
cytoplasm. It is bounded by a double membrane envelope. The outer membrane is
porous and the inner membrane is thrown into folds known as cristae having some
rounded bodies known as F1 particles or oxysomes. Since mitochondria synthesize
energy-rich compounds (ATP) so, known as powerhouse of the cell.
(vi) Plastids: Occurs in plant cells and is absent in animal cells. They have their own
genome and have the power to divide.
They are of three types:

Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) imparts various colours to flowers to attract insects

for pollination.
Chloroplasts (Green-coloured plastids) trap solar energy and utilises it to manufacture
food for the plant.
Leucoplasts (colourless plastids) store food in the form of carbohydrates (starch), fats
and proteins.
(vii) Chloroplasts: are present in green algae and higher plants. They have a green
pigment called chlorophyll and help in the photosynthesis of food. So, known
as “kitchens of the cell”.
(viii) Vacuoles: are fluid-filled or solid filled membrane-bound spaces. They are a kind of
storage sacs. In animal cell vacuoles if present is small and temporary as compared to
plant cell. It helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell and provide turgidity and
rigidity to the plant cells. They also store toxic metabolic by-products or end products of
plant cells.
(ix) Peroxisomes: are small and spherical organelles containing powerful oxidative
enzymes. They carry out some oxidative reactions like detoxification or removal of toxic
substances from the cell.
(x) Centrosome: is found only in animal cells. As it helps in cell division. In plant cells,
polar caps perform the function of centrioles.
Difference between Plant and Animal Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Generally small in 1. Larger than animal

size. cells.
2. Cell wall is 2. A rigid cell wall of
absent. cellulose i.e plasma
3. Plastids are membrane is present.
absent except 3. Plastids are
euglena. present.
4. Vacuoles are small 4. Mature plants have
and temporary. permanent and large
5. Single highly central sap vacuoles.
complex and prominent 5. Many simpler units
Golgi apparatus is of the Golgi apparatus
present. called dictyosomes are
6. Centrosome and present.
Centrioles are 6. Centrosome and
present. Centrioles are absent.

The Cell: Foundation Of All Living Things

Cells are the basic units of life. They are the smallest parts of
a living organism that can lead an independent existence. Singly,
or in association with other cells, they make up the bodies of
all living things.

The Cell: Foundation Of All Living Things

Cells are the basic units of life. They are the smallest parts of
a living organism that can lead an independent existence. Singly,
or in association with other cells, they make up the bodies of
all living things.
Structure of Cell
Every cell is surrounded by a membrane or a living covering.
Within the membrane is the protoplasm. 
Parts of the Protoplasm: The nucleus controls and directs the
activities of all the other parts of the cell. The remainder is
known as cytoplasm, where any vital activities of the cell take
place. Following are the parts of a Cell-(i) Cell Wall Found only
in plant cells, it consists of non-living substances, eg,
linguin, pectin, cellulose etc., (ii) Cell membrane
(Plasmalemma) This is the outer membrane of the cytoplasm, found
both in animals and plants. It consists of living substances such
as proteins, (iii) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) It is a network of
tubes or channels of membrane in the cytoplasm, which helps in
protein synthesis and conduction of material, (iv) Ribosomes They
are extremely small, dense, granular, spherical bodies found in
free state in the cytoplasm, composed of RNA and proteins. They
help in the synthesis of protein from amino acids, (v) Golgi
apparatus (Golgi bodies) They are bag-like structures formed of
stacks of membrane. Their functions include secretion of various
substances, secretion of pectic material of cells wall in plants,
and helping in the formation of cell during cell division,
(vi) Vacuoles Are fluidfilled sacs within a cell. In animals they
are tiny. Their functions include osmo-regulation and maintenance
of cell turgidity, (vii) Mitochondria Rod-like or spherical semi-
solid structures containing DNA in its matrix along with some
enzymes, which are found in all cells. They synthesise ATP
(energy storing molecules), (viii) Plastids Small bodies found in
the cells of higher plants. They are of two types, viz,
Leucoplasts, which are colourless and store starch, protein or
lipids; and Chromoplasts, which are coloured and are of two
varieties: (i) Non-photosynthetic chromoplasts, which provide
colour to flowers, fruits and leaves, (ii) Photosynthetic
chromoplasts, which manufacture food from carbon  dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight, in green plants, (ix)
Nucleus Each nucleus is bound by the nuclear membrane, which
contains nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm consists of chromatin and
nucleoli. Chromatin consists of DNA, RNA and proteins. The
nucleus controls all cell activities and is responsible for the
transfer of heredity characters and also assists in cell
division, (x) Centrosome A rather dense area of protoplasm, it
lies close to nucleus. It is usually found in animal cells. In
the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like bodies called
centroils. They form a spindle during cell division and lower
plants, (xi) Cilia and flagella These are fine extensions of the
cell surface and are similar in structure. Their functions are to
help in locomotion or movement, and in some animals they also
help in feeding,

Animal Cell
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane- bound organs, or organelles. The
nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to
generation. The mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured

Cell: Structure and Functions

The cell is the structural and functional unit of living

organisms. It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. Cell in
Latin means “little room”. Many organisms, such as bacteria,
protozoa and yeasts consist of single cell called Unicellular
Organisms and complex organisms are known as Multicellular
Organisms made up of many cells.
Structure of Cell

All cells have three major functional regions:

1. Cell membrane or plasma membrane and cell wall

2. The nucleus and

3. The cytoplasm
Control and Coordination in Humans

The nervous system helps in controlling and coordinating various

activities of the human body. The three types of nerves, cranial
nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves run through the body
and help in sending and receiving messages in the form of
electrical impulses.
The control and coordination in human beings take place through
nervous system and hormonal system which is called endocrine
system.
The five sense organs in our body, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and
skin are called receptors. This is because they receive
information from the environment around us. Therefore, a receptor
is a group of cells in sense organ which is sensitive to a
particular type of stimulus like light, sound, smell, taste,
heat, etc.
All the receptors send message in the form of electrical impulses
to spinal cord and brain through sensory nerves. Another type of
nerves called motor nerves then transmits response from brain and
spinal cord to effectors. An effector is a part of the body which
responds to a stimulus according to the instructions sent from
the nervous system. The muscles and glands are effectors of the
body.
Human Nervous System
Nervous system coordinates the activities of our body. It
controls all our behaviour, thinking and actions. It is through
nervous system only that all other systems of our body work. It
passes information from one internal system to another. For
example, when we put food in mouth, it causes release of saliva
from the salivary glands.

The Unit of Nervous System: Neuron

A neuron (or nerve cell)
The cells that make up the nervous system are called neurons.
Neuron is the largest cell in the body. The structure of neuron
is such that it can carry messages in the body quickly. These
messages are in the form of electrical impulses or nerve
impulses. There are three components of neurons. They are:
i) Cell body
ii) Dendrites
iii) Axon
The cell body of a neuron contains cytoplasm and a nucleus. There
are many long and thin fibres coming out of the cell body of a
neuron. The short fibres are called dendrites and the long fibre
is called axon. The axon is covered with an insulating and
protective sheath called myelin. It is made of fat and proteins.
The messages transmit through nervous system is in the form of
electrical impulses called nerve impulses. The dendrites pick
nerve impulses or messages from receptors and send them to cell
body and then to axon. The axon sends these impulses to another
neuron through a junction called synapse. There are three types
of neurons, sensory neurons, motor neurons and relay neurons.
i) Sensory neurons transmit messages from receptors towards the
central nervous system that is the spinal cord and brain.
ii) The function of motor neurons is to transmit messages from
central nervous system towards the muscle cells or effectors.
iii) Relay neurons serve as link between other neurons. They are
present in central nervous system.
The small gap between the two neurons is called synapse. The
nerve impulses are carried over this small gap through a chemical
substance called neurotransmitter.
The sensory cells or receptors are in contact with dendrite of
sense organs. When there is a stimulus which acts on the receptor
a chemical reaction occurs which produces an electrical impulse
in it. This impulse travels from dendrite of sensory neuron to
its cell body and then along the axon. At the end of axon
electrical impulse release tiny amount of chemical substance in
synapse and similar electrical impulse is started in the dendrite
of next neuron. In this way the electrical impulse is carried in
neurons till it reaches the relay neurons in spinal cord and
brain. The relay neurons and motor neurons are connected in the
similar way and helps bring electrical impulses from brain and
spinal cord to the effectors like muscles and glands. Synapse
ensures that electrical impulse travel in one direction only.
This is because the chemical substance is present on one side of
the gap only.
Organs of Human Nervous System
The main organs of human nervous system are:
•Brain
•Spinalcord
• Nerves
The brain is located inside the skull of the head. The spinal
cord is a thick nerve which is located in the cavity of backbone.
The upper end of spinal cord is attached to the brain. The nerves
are distributed in all parts of the body. They are like wires.
The brain and spinal cord are connected to all the sense organs
and other parts of the body through nerves.
The three types of nerves in our body are:
•Cranial nerve
• Spinal nerves
• Visceral nerves
The cranial nerves connect all parts of the head to brain, spinal
nerves connect all the remaining parts of the body to spinal cord
and visceral nerves connect internal organs of the body to spinal
cord and some to brain.
The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral nerves are of two
types, sensory nerves and motor nerves. Sensory nerves are those
which carry message from body to brain and spinal cord and motor
nerves are those which carry message from brain and spinal cord
to the body parts for action.
Working of Nervous System
When any sense organ of our body is affected it sends message to
the brain in the form of electrical impulses. This message is
send through sensory neurons. The brain analyses the message and
decides the action to be taken. The brain then sends instructions
for that body part through motor nerves.
Both brain and spinal cord are involved in complicated responses
which require thinking and in simple responses which don’t
require thinking only spinal cord is involved.

Parts of the Nervous System

The two main parts of nervous system are:

1) Central nervous system (consisting of brain and spinal cord)
2) Peripheral nervous system (consisting of all nerves of the
body)
Peripheral nerves can further be divided into two parts.
i) Voluntary nervous system
ii) Autonomic nervous system
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nerves system is made of all the nerves of the
body. There are three types of nerves which make the peripheral
nervous system, cranial nerves, spinal nerves and visceral
nerves. All these nerves enter or leave the central nervous
system.
Reflex Action and Reflex Arcs

This diagram shows the reflex action and its path (which is
called reflex arc)
Reflex action is the one which we perform automatically and is
not under the voluntary control of the brain. Under reflex action
same stimulus produces same kind of response every time. Knee
jerk, movement of diaphragm, coughing, sneezing, yawning,
blinking of eyes, immediately moving hand away on unknowingly
touching hot plate, etc., are examples of reflex action.
These are the actions which we do without thinking to protect
ourselves. Reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus.
The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called
reflex arc. The reflexes which involve only spinal cord are
called spinal reflexes. The reflexes which involve brain are
called cerebral reflexes.
Cerebral reflexes occur in the organs present in the head. These
organs are directly connected to the brain. For example, when we
are in dim light the pupil of our eye is big so that more light
can enter into our eyes and when we are in bright light then the
pupil of our eye automatically gets small. This automatic
expansion and contraction of pupil is an example of cerebral
reflexes.
How Effectors Cause Action or Movement
The effected muscles cause action because motor nerve impulses
sent by the spinal cord or brain reach the effector organ.
A reflex Arc (This is actually a spinal reflex arc)

The muscles are able to move or act in response to electrical

nerve impulse because muscles are made of muscle cells. These
cells contain special protein which can change their shape and
contract. So when the muscle cells contract, muscles also
contract. And when the muscles contract they pull on the bones of
that body part and thus, make it move.

A reflex arc showing cerebral reflex action

Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system.
It controls the activities of the organs inside our body
automatically. This specific network of nerves controls the
processes like breathing, heartbeat, digestion, sweating, etc.
The nerves of autonomic nervous system are attaches with the
smooth muscles of various internal organs of a body like head,
heart, blood vessels, alimentary canal, lungs, kidneys, glands,
skin, etc.
Voluntary Nervous System
Those actions which are performed by humans knowingly and need
thinking are called voluntary actions. For example, writing,
dancing, cycling, etc. Therefore, voluntary nervous system helps
us take voluntary actions which are under the conscious control
of brain.
Central Nervous System
Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. It is
responsible for the control and coordination of the activities of
nervous system. The function of a central nervous system is to
respond to the messages it receives. It directs the motor neurons
that are connected to the part of the body which will respond to
the stimulus.
The central nervous system collects information from all the
receptors in our body.
Brain
The highest coordinating centre in our body is brain which is
located inside the skull. Brain is protected by a bony structure
in the skull called cranium. The three membranes called meninges
surround the brain and protect it. The space between meninges is
filled with a cerebro spinal fluid which helps the brain from
mechanical shocks. Cranial nerves arise from the brain.

Brain is divided into three parts, forebrain, midbrain and

hindbrain. The forebrain consists mainly of cerebrum, midbrain
doesn’t have any further division and hindbrain consists of pons,
cerebellum and medulla.
The main thinking part of the brain is cerebrum. It is a place
for faculties such as learning, reasoning, intelligence,
personality, etc. All our thoughts and actions are controlled by
the cerebrum. The association area of cerebrum controls thinking
and memory and stores information and experiences. The sensory
area of cerebrum receives information from sense organs and gives
sensation. The motor area of the cerebrum sends instructions to
various muscles to perform different function. All the voluntary
actions are coordinated by the cerebrum.
The function of hindbrain is to control reflex movements of head,
neck and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli. It
also controls the reflex movements of the eye muscles.
Pons helps in regulating respiration, cerebellum helps in
maintaining posture and balance of the body and medulla controls
various involuntary actions such as heart beat, breathing, blood
pressure, coughing, sneezing, secretion of saliva, etc.
Spinal Cord
Spinal cord begins from medulla and extends downwards. Spinal
cord is enclosed in bony structure called vertebral column. There
are 31 pairs of nerves that arise from spinal cord. It is also
surrounded by membranes called meninges. Spinal cord is concerned
with the spinal reflexes and conducts nerve impulses to and from
the brain.
Functions of Brain
• Brain receives nerve impulses which carry information from the
sense organs of the body.
• Brain responds to these impulses by sending instructions to
muscles and glands which function accordingly.
• Brain correlates stimuli from different sense organs and
produce appropriate and intelligent response.
• It coordinates the activities of the body.
• It stores information.

Human Reproductive System: Male

The humans use sexual mode of reproduction. The reproductive
systems in human beings become functional or start functioning at
a definite age called puberty. In complex multicellular organisms
like human beings there are special reproductive organs to make
sperms and eggs; to bring together sperms and eggs for
fertilization; and for the growth and development of zygote in to
a baby.
The humans use sexual mode of reproduction. The reproductive
systems in human beings become functional or start functioning at
a definite age called puberty. In complex multicellular organisms
like human beings there are special reproductive organs to make
sperms and eggs; to bring together sperms and eggs for
fertilization; and for the growth and development of zygote in to
a baby.
But before describing all this in human reproductive system, we
will first understand the meaning of the term ‘puberty’.
Puberty
Sometimes it becomes difficult to tell from appearance that
whether the child is male or female having the same body shape in
small age. A time of rapid growth and body changes starts in the
early teens which make the girl appear different and also behave
differently. These changes start earlier in girls than in boys.
Time between childhood and adulthood is called ‘adolescence’. At
this age production of male and female ‘sex hormones’ in the
bodies of boys and girls increases and causes wide ranging
changes in their bodies. The testes in boys and ovaries in girls
make different hormones. So, they develop in different ways.
Ultimately boys and girls become sexually mature and their
reproductive system start functioning.
The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be
produced and the boy and girl become sexually mature or able to
reproduce is called puberty.
Generally boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years while
girls from 10 to 12 years. On attaining puberty, the male
gonads testes start producing male gametes called sperms and the
female gonads ovaries start producing female gametes called ova
or eggs. With this male and female gonads also secrete sex
hormones with the onset of puberty.
The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone, and
the ovaries produce two female sex
hormones, oestrogen and progesterone. The sex hormones plays
important role in the process of reproduction because they make
the reproductive organs to mature and start functioning. Puberty
is the age at which the reproductive organs reach maturity and
secondary sexual characteristics develop.
The various changes that occur in boys at puberty are: Hair grows
under armpits and in pubic regions (genital area) between the
thighs. Hairs also grow on other parts of the body like chest and
face (moustache, beard etc.). Body becomes more muscular due to
the development of muscles. The voice deepens or cracks. Chest
and shoulders broaden. The penis and testes become larger. The
testes start to make sperms. Feelings and sexual drives
associated with adulthood begin to develop. All these changes in
boys are brought about by the male sex hormones ‘testosterone’
made in testes.
The various changes which occur in girls at puberty are: Hair
grows under armpits and pubic region (This change is same as in
boys). Mammary glands or breasts develop and enlarge. The hips
broaden. Extra fat is deposited in various parts of the body like
hips and thighs. Fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina enlarge.
Ovaries start to release eggs. Menstruation start. Feelings and
sexual drives associated with adulthood begin to develop. All
these changes in girls are brought about by the female sex
hormones ‘oestrogen’ and ‘progesterone’ made in ovaries.
The Male Reproductive System
The human male reproductive system consists of the following
organs: Testes, Scrotum, Epididymis, Vas deferens or Sperm duct,
Seminal Vesicles, Prostrate gland and Penis.
The male reproductive system in humans
Testes are the oval shaped organs which lie outside the abdominal
cavity of a man. A man has two testes. Testes are the primary
reproductive organs in man or males. The function of testes is to
make the male sex cells or male gametes called sperms and also to
make the male sex hormone called testosterone. The testes of a
man make the sex gametes or sperms from the puberty onwards,
throughout his life.  The testes of a man lie in small muscular
pouch called scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity. The testes
are outside the abdominal cavity of the body and not deep inside
the body because the sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature. Being, outside the abdominal
cavity, the temperature of scrotum is about 3 degree Celsius
lower than the temperature inside the body. In this way, the
testes provide an optimal temperature for the formation of
sperms.
The sperms from the testes come out and go in to a coiled tube
called epididymis. The sperms get stored temporarily in
epididymis. From epididymis, the sperms are carried by a long
tube called Vas Deferens or sperm duct which joins with another
tube called urethra coming from the bladder. Along the path of
vas deferens, the glands called seminal vesicles and prostrate
gland add their secretions to sperms so that the sperms are now
in a liquid. This liquid plus the sperms it contains is
called semen which is a thick liquid. The secretions of seminal
vesicles and prostrate gland provide nutrition to the sperms and
also make their further transport easier. Urethra forms a common
passage for sperms and urine. Urethra carries the sperms to an
organ called penis which opens outside the body. The penis passes
the sperms from the man’s body in to vagina in the woman’s body
during mating for the purpose of reproduction.