Lecture 5

Diode Circuits: Clippers and Clampers

Clippers
As the name suggests, the clipper circuit clips off part of the input waveform. The use of
batteries and the positioning of the components in the circuit affect the output voltage. Clipper
circuits exist in Biased Series and Parallel Clippers.

Examples:
The following signal is applied to the different circuits. Sketch the waveform for the output
voltage Vo, assuming ideal diode.

Clipper Circuit analysis

To analyse these clipper circuits, it may be helpful to write down the Kirchhoff’s voltage
equation and consider the instants of the input waveform that the diode conducts and when it
does not. Then the values taken by the output waveform in these two cases are found. Let’s
consider some examples how this can be done.
Example (a)

When the diode conducts, it is simply replaced by a short-circuit and hence Vo is the battery
voltage which is -10V in this case. When the diode does not conduct, it is replaced by an open
circuit and hence the applied generator waveform appears across Vo.
So we have found the values taken by Vo when the diode conducts and when it does not (-10V
and Vg respectively). Now we need to find the instants at which the diode conducts and when it
does not.
It is helpful to consider the lower signal terminal to be at zero and the upper terminal to be
positive (during the positive cycle) and negative (during the negative cycle). Hence the diode
conducts whenever the signal voltage is higher than -10V since it is forward-biased. The
following graphs depict all these.

Example (b)
The battery is connected so that in going from a to b, the potential increases by 10V. Point a is at
Vg V and hence point b is at (Vg + 10) V. When the diode conducts, Vo is at the potential at b
which is Vg + 10. When the diode does not conduct, no current flows through the diode and
hence through the resistor as well. So the potential difference across the resistor is zero.
Now it is required to find out when the diode is reverse biased and when it is forward-biased. As
before, assuming the upper terminal is at Vg (positive cycle) or –Vg (negative cycle) and the
lower terminal is at 0V always, with the voltage at b being Vg + 10, the diode conducts only
when Vg + 10 is greater than zero. In other words, Vg > -10V. Otherwise it is reverse-biased,
that is when Vg < -10V. The following graph depicts these different cases.

Q. Try out these techniques for the following circuits and sketch the output waveform.

Assignment/Discussion: Analyse the second circuit above and draw and explain the output
waveform based on the methodology we have just seen.
Lecture 6
Clampers
Clamping is the process of offsetting an ac signal by a given dc level. An example of this is
shown below.

This is an offset of +5V.

Consider the following circuit.

Analyse this circuit for the positive cycle and the negative cycle. Sketch the output waveform.

This circuit acts as a clamper for the input signal. What is the offset voltage?

This circuit acts as a clamper for the rectangular waveform. The same circuit can also be used to
clamp sinusoidal waveforms as we shall see in the tutorial exercises. Other circuits based on op-
amps bringing the clamping effect are possible. More on that in the lectures on operational
amplifiers..

Zener diodes
The Zener diode is a heavily-doped Silicon or Germanium PN junction diode operated in the
reverse-biased mode. The applied reverse voltage should be greater than the breakdown voltage
meaning that the diode operates in the breakdown region. As discussed previously, the resistance
provided by the diode in the breakdown region is small and hence the current flowing in the
circuit is limited by the resistance in the external circuit. The latter is sized to prevent the power
dissipation in the diode to exceed the rated power, else it will burn out.
Zener diodes can be manufactured to offer a breakdown voltage over a wide range (2.4V to
200V).
The V/I characteristics of a Zener diode is just like a normal diode, except that the breakdown
voltage can be small as compared to the high value for a normal diode. It is noticed that in the
breakdown region, that increasing the reverse voltage further gives a steep slope in the I/V
characteristics, showing that the diode has some resistance called the Zener dynamic impedance.
However, the external resistance used to limit the current in the current is much larger and hence
this small impedance can be neglected. The symbol for a Zener diode is as shown:

The Zener diode operates properly when suitably-biased and the power dissipated does not
exceed rated values. Since the reverse voltage across it is fixed by the Zener voltage and P = V*I,
the maximum current essentially fixes the permissible power dissipation. In summary, the
following ensures proper operation of a Zener diode:
1. It should be reverse-biased. Operating it in the forward mode is nothing but a normal
diode operating in forward mode, and hence does not justify the relatively higher costs
involved.
2. Have voltage across it greater than Vz (Zener breakdown voltage).
3. The circuit current should not exceed Iz-max.
Examples:
Check if the following Zener diodes are properly-biased. They are expected to operate in the
breakdown region within permissible current limits.

1200Ω

Uses of Zener diode

The ability to maintain a constant voltage across it in the breakdown region gives the Zener
diode desirable properties for the following applications:
1. Voltage regulation.
2. Fixed reference voltage.
3. Peak clippers/voltage limiters.
4. Meter protection against application of excessive voltages.
5. Reshaping waveform.
Examples:
(a)

Sketch Vout expected for the above signal assuming ideal diode.
(b)

The voltage Vin is applied to the circuit. Sketch Vout. Calculate the current for each voltage
section of Vin.
What happens if the input voltage drops to 15V? What current flows through the circuit (neglect
the leakage current)?

Assignment/Discussion: Use of Zener diode for meter protection.

Examples:
Sketch Vout for the following circuits with Vg being a sinusoidal waveform of peak 30V and
frequency 50Hz.

Assignment/Discussion: From your knowledge of PN junctions and the depletion region,

describe how an LED works, with the interesting option of having different coloured LEDs.
Assignment/Discussion: What is a Schottky diode (Compare and Contrast with a normal diode)
Assignment/Discussion: Similarly the operation of a PN junction photodiode can be appreciated
based on what we learned about a normal diode. Describe its principle of operation.
Lecture 7
Single-phase Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR)

The circuit to bring about half-wave rectification consists of a single diode forward-biased
during the positive cycles and reverse-biased during the negative cycles. So half-wave
rectification is the process of keeping the positive cycles and rejecting the negative cycles. The
following circuit can be used to effectuate half-wave rectification.

During the positive cycle, diode D is forward-biased and hence current flows through RL
producing a potential drop across it. In the negative cycle, diode D is reverse-biased and so no
current flows across RL.
The input voltage is an a.c signal, converted to a dc signal by HWR, however it is not a steady dc
but a pulsating one. The output voltage has a ripple frequency equal to the input frequency.

Q. What is the value obtained when this dc signal is measured by a meter?

The pulsating nature of the signal can be observed on a CRO.

Average and RMS value of signals

Given a periodic signal f(t) with period T, the average and RMS values are evaluated by the
following equations:
T
1
V av T ∫ f (t )dt
=
0
T
1 2
V RMS T ∫ f (t )dt
=
0

The voltage signal applied to the input of the signal is usually fed from a transformer secondary.
The latter enables setting of the peak voltage and hence directly affects the final dc level in the
signal. One further advantage offered by using a transformer is the isolation it provides from the
supply line as shown below.
The air gap transmits the flux from primary to secondary so that there is no physical contact
between the coils and hence the grounds are separate.
The average and RMS values of a signal help compute several parameters about the signal and
the process used to produce the signal. Examples are the efficiency of conversion, ripple factor
among others as we shall see further. For the time being, we derive the expression for the half-
wave rectified signal obtained.

Applying the equation quoted earlier for the average value of a signal gives:

T T /2
1 1
V o( av ) = ∫
T 0
vo (t )dt =
T ∫v 0
LM * sin ωtdt

T /2 T /2
1  − V cos ωt  V T   2π 
=  LM = − LM * * cos t
T ω 
0 T 2π   T  0
V
= − LM * (cos π − cos 0) = VLM / π
2π
Similarly the RMS value of this signal can be evaluated as follows:

T T /2
1 1
∫ ∫V sin 2 ωtdt
2 2
V o( RMS ) = T 0
vo (t )dt =
T
LM
0

T /2
(1 − cos 2ωt ) VLM  sin 2ωt 
2 T /2 2
VLM
=
T ∫
0
2
dt =
2T 
t−
2ω  0

 2π T  
2
VLM  T 1
=  − * sin *  − 0
2T  2 2ω  T 2 
2 2
VLM T VLM VLM
= * = =
2T 2 4 2
Peak current flowing in circuit

The parameters from the above circuit are as follows:

VSM: Peak secondary voltage
VB: Barrier voltage of diode
rd: Diode forward resistance
Rs: Transformer secondary resistance
i: instantaneous current

Therefore total resistance = Rs + rd + RL

Peak current flowing, ILM = (VSM – VB)/(Rs + rd + RL)

Peak output voltage, VLM = ILM * RL = (VSM – VB)/(Rs + rd + RL)*RL

VL(av) = VLM/π; IL(av) = ILM/π

RMS value of output current, IL = ILM/2

RMS value of output voltage, VL = VLM/2

Efficiency of Half-Wave Rectification

The efficiency of any system relates the input energy supplied to the output energy recovered
from the system. In the HWR circuit,
Efficiency, η = Power Output/ Power Input
The output power is the output dc power as the output signal is a converted dc signal while the
input power is the total input power supplied.
For computing the dc power, the dc average value is used while for the ac signal, the RMS
values are used.
Hence, Pdc = IL(dc)2* RL = (ILM/π)2*RL = ILM2*RL/π2
Pin = IL2*(RL + Rs + rd) = (ILM/2)2*(RL + Rs + rd) = ILM2(RL + Rs + rd)/4

Therefore, η = Pdc/Pin = ILM2*RL/π2* 4/[ILM2*(RL + Rs + rd)] = 4*RL/[π2*(RL + Rs + rd)]

So the maximum efficiency achievable for HWR with an ideal diode and transformer (Rs = 0, rd
= 0) is equal to 4/π2 = 40.6%

The selection of the diode for the application depends on the maximum reverse voltage it has to
sustain among the many parameters. It is the maximum secondary voltage VSM during the
negative cycle.
Example:
A transformer supplies a 24V, 50 Hz signal to a half-wave rectifier circuit. The transformer and
diode forward resistances are 1.5Ω and 12Ω respectively. Draw an equivalent circuit. A Silicon
diode is used and the load resistance is 65Ω. Sketch the output current and voltage waveform for
the circuit shown stating the peak values.
Also determine for this circuit,
(i) RMS value of current and output voltage.
(ii) Average value of current and output voltage.
(iii) Efficiency of circuit.
(iv) The peak inverse voltage across the diode.

The last part of the question is known as the PIV of the diode and is an important parameter for
selecting diode.

Single phase full-wave rectifier

A full-wave rectifier keeps the positive as well as the negative half-cycles in the conversion of
the ac signal into a dc signal. This is done using a bridge rectifier circuit or a transformer with
zero ground tap-off. The bridge circuit is used in preference to the zero tap-off transformers due
to the several advantages it offers. However we will discuss both techniques.

FWR using bridge circuit

The circuit consists of four diodes connected thus:

Circuit analysis
The input waveform and the output waveforms are as shown below:
During the positive half-cycle, diodes B and D conduct so that the direction of conventional
current flow is as shown. Similarly, in the negative half-cycle, diodes C and A are forward-
biased and the direction of conventional current flow is again in the same direction as for the
positive half-cycle meaning that the potential difference across RL is the same for both negative
and positive cycles.
Hence the voltage across the load resistor is a dc signal.
The input and output waveforms are as shown. Based on the procedure followed for the half-
wave rectifier circuit, try the same procedure to compute the average and RMS values, efficiency
of circuit, maximum efficiency achievable.

Q. What is the ripple frequency for Full-wave rectification?

Q. What is the PIV required for each of the diodes?

Answers:
VL(av) = 2*VLM/π

VLRMS = VLM/√2

Efficiency, η = 8*RL/[π2(Ro + RL)] where Ro is the sum of transformer secondary and diode
forward resistances.

Q. Compare maximum efficiency for HWR and FWR.

Full-wave rectification using centre-tapped transformer

The following circuit can also be used to perform full-wave rectification. The point to be noted
here is the necessity to use a centre-tapped transformer for the successful operation of the circuit.
The same analysis of the output signal applies as for the full-wave bridge circuit discussed
before.
The centre point is always at ground level. The potential difference from the centre to either side
is always VSM. However, the top coil produces a positive potential for the positive cycles during
which the bottom coil induces a negative potential with respect to the centre point. The reverse
happens during the negative cycles with the lower coil producing a positive voltage and the
upper coil producing a negative voltage with respect to the centre point. During the positive
cycles, with the upper coil (M) at a positive voltage and the lower coil (N) at a negative voltage,
diode D1 is forward-biased and diode D2 is reverse-biased. So current flows from A to B. In the
next negative half-cycle, N is positive and M is negative with respect to the centre point, so that
D1 is now reverse-biased and diode D2 goes into forward mode. However the current direction
remains the same and hence the potential difference across the load resistor RL is the same for
both positive and negative cycles. So full-wave rectification is brought about.
Filters for reducing ripples
Filters have the aim of reducing the ripples in a signal and in this case, the filter used smoothes
the signal so as to approach to a steady dc signal. The pulsating output from the rectifiers can be
used for certain types of load (e.g. motors) but are not acceptable for driving sophisticated
electronic circuits/devices.
Shunt capacitor filter
This type of filter uses a capacitor C in parallel to the load to achieve smoothing of the output
waveform. The capacitor charges during the positive half-cycle. When the signal starts to drop
after the maximum point, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor RL, trying to prevent
the voltage from dropping further.
The time constant for charging and discharging of a resistor-capacitor circuit can be shown to be
RC. τ = RC.
(
V =V o* 1 − e ) −t / τ

* (e )
−t / τ
V =V o
During the positive cycle of the half-wave rectified signal, the diode is forward-biased and hence
the capacitor quickly charges to the peak of the signal. The product RC is almost zero since the
forward resistance of the diode is small. So at point b, capacitor C is charged to the peak signal
voltage. When the signal then tries to fall after b, the capacitor starts to discharge. It cannot do so
through the diode since it is reverse-biased. So it discharges through the load resistor RL and
hence the output voltage follows the path b-c.
However the time constant is now equal to CRL which is much larger than the time constant
during charging. So the voltage is kept high till the next positive cycle arrives and the capacitor
starts to charge again when the output voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage at point c.

If the same is done for a full-wave rectified signal, the following waveform is observed where
the mean dc level is seen to approach the peak voltage.

The better performance of the smoothing is due to the smaller discharge time allowed and hence
less fluctuations.
Q. Sketch the load current waveform for the HWR and FWR with capacitor smoothing.
Q. Sketch the diode current for the two waveforms. (Hint: Consider when the diode conducts)
Assignment/Discussion: The following block diagram shows a regulated power supply system.
Briefly explain each block’s function.