THERESA T.

REYES
Comprehensive Final Examination
Course Number: PhD-Educ 302
Title: ECOLOGY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Facilitator: DR. JOHN MICHEAL P. CASTINO, MPA,CGM,AB
1ST Semester- 2022-2023

U1. The School as a social System

The school as a social system refers to the idea that schools are not just places
for teaching and learning, but also complex social organizations that involve multiple
stakeholders, such as students, teachers, administrators, parents, and the community.
Schools are seen as having their own norms, values, and power structures, and these
can have a significant impact on the experiences of those who are part of the system.
Understanding the school as a social system is important for understanding how to
create positive and effective learning environments for students.
Theories in the context of education may be used to explain how students learn,
how teachers teach, or how schools operate and these theories have been developed
over time to help explain why certain teaching methods are effective, how students
learn, and what factors contribute to a student's success or failure in school. On the
other hand a system perspective would consider how different components of the
education system, such as curriculum, teacher training, school culture, and community
involvement, interact with and affect one another. In addition an open system would
be a school or school district that is responsive to the needs of its students, teachers,
and community, and that actively works to improve its performance. In the same way,
the school as a learning organization would have the following characteristics:
Continuous learning, Shared vision, Collaboration, Systems thinking, Adaptability,
Reflective practice, Empowerment, Innovation and experimentation, Continuous
improvement, and Feedback and evaluation.

UNIT 2. The Technical Core: the Learning and Teaching

The technical core refers to the specific skills and knowledge that are required
to effectively teach and learn a particular subject or discipline. In education, the
technical core includes the content and concepts that students are expected to learn,
as well as the methods and strategies that teachers use to deliver that content. In
terms of learning, the technical core includes the cognitive processes and strategies
that students use to acquire, process, and understand new information. Both the
learning and teaching technical core are essential for effective education and are
closely related. The technical core of learning provides the foundation for what
students should know and be able to do, while the technical core of teaching provides
the methods and strategies for delivering that content and engaging students in the
learning process. In order to be effective, teachers must have a deep understanding
of the technical core of their subject area, as well as the ability to use a variety of
teaching methods and strategies to engage their students in the learning process.
Similarly, students must have the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively learn
and process the content that is being taught.
Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, attitudes, values,
or preferences through experience, study, or instruction that changes in an individual's
cognitive or behavioral abilities as a result of that experience. The behavioral
perspective in learning focuses on the observable actions and reactions of individuals,
and how those actions can be shaped and modified through reinforcement and
punishment which emphasizes the role of the environment in shaping behavior, and
the use of techniques such as classical and operant conditioning to modify behavior.
In this perspective, learning is seen as a change in behavior that results from
experience. One common teaching application of the behavioral approach is the use
of positive reinforcement, where desired behaviors are reinforced with rewards on the
other hand another teaching application of this approach is the use of negative
reinforcement, where unwanted behaviors are removed or avoided by punishing the
student. Overall, Behavioral approach is an evidence-based method, that is effective
in teaching students with different abilities. The cognitive perspective on learning
focuses on the mental processes and internal states that underlie behavior which
emphasizes the role of mental structures and processes, such as perception, memory,
and reasoning, in shaping behavior, this suggests that learners actively construct their
own understanding of the material through processes such as attention, perception,
memory and problem solving. Overall, a cognitive perspective on learning focuses on
the internal mental processes and structures that underlie behavior and the active role
that learners play in constructing their own understanding of the material that
emphasizes the importance of understanding the learners' prior knowledge,
metacognition and transfer of learning. Likewise teaching applications of the cognitive
approach focus on providing opportunities for learners to actively engage with the
material and construct their own understanding. The constructivist approach to
learning is a perspective that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing
their own understanding of the material. This approach is based on the idea that
individuals actively create meaning from their experiences and that previous
knowledge plays a critical role in this process. In a constructivist approach to learning
emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding of the
material, and the importance of providing opportunities for discovery, active learning,
collaboration, authentic tasks, scaffolding, and reflection. Teaching applications of the
constructivist approach focus on providing learners with opportunities to actively
construct their own understanding of the material.
UNIT 3. Structure in School
The structure of a school refers to the organization and layout of the school, as
well as the roles and responsibilities of the staff and students. In terms of organization,
most schools have a hierarchical structure, with a principal or headmaster at the top,
followed by department heads or coordinators, and then teachers and other staff
members and a school board or governing council that sets policies and makes
decisions about the school's operations. In terms of layout, schools typically have
classrooms, offices, a library, a cafeteria, and other facilities such as sports fields,
auditoriums, and laboratories that can affect how students and staff move around the
school and interact with each other. In terms of roles and responsibilities, students are
responsible for attending classes, completing assignments, and following school rules
while teachers are responsible for planning and delivering instruction, assessing
student learning, and providing feedback and may act as mentors and advisors to
students. Administrators are responsible for managing the school's operations,
developing policies and procedures, and ensuring that the school is meeting its
educational goals. Overall, the structure of a school plays a critical role in shaping the
educational experience of students and the working environment of staff. An effective
structure can support student learning and staff productivity, while a poor structure can
create obstacles and inefficiencies.
The Weberian model of bureaucracy, also known as the "ideal type"
bureaucracy, is a theoretical model proposed by sociologist Max Weber in the early
20th century. It describes an idealized form of organizational structure that is
characterized by several key features. Despite its potential benefits, has also been
criticized for several reasons such as Rigidity, Bureaucratic red tape, Alienation, Lack
of accountability, Inadequate representation, Resistance to change, Inefficiency, Lack
of creativity and innovation. Formal structures in schools are put in place to ensure
that the school runs smoothly, to provide a clear sense of direction and purpose, and
to help ensure that all students have access to a high-quality education. However, it is
important to note that these structures can also be seen as constraints and might not
always be adaptable to the ever-changing needs of students, families, and the
communities they serve. While the loose coupling perspective is often contrasted with
the tight coupling perspective, which refers to an organization with a centralized
structure, where different parts of the organization are closely connected and
decisions are made at the top level of the organization because tightly coupled
organizations tend to be less flexible and may be slow to adapt to changes in their
environment. Similarly, professional and bureaucratic conflict refers to the tension that
can arise between professionals, such as teachers or doctors, and the bureaucratic
systems and structures within which they work. Professionals often have a high level
of expertise and autonomy in their field, and may view the bureaucratic systems and
structures as constraining or hindering their ability to provide high-quality services to
their clients or patients.
UNIT 4. Individuals in schools
Individuals in schools refers to the students and staff members who attend and
work in educational institutions such as elementary, middle, and high schools, as well
as colleges and universities. These individuals come from a diverse range of
backgrounds and have different needs and experiences. They can include students
with different abilities and learning styles, staff members with various roles and
responsibilities, and families and communities that are involved in the education
process.
Individuals in schools have a variety of needs depending on their role and
circumstances which includes: Students need an access to quality education and
opportunities to learn and grow, support for their physical, emotional, and social well-
being, assistance with academic challenges and special needs, opportunities for
extracurricular activities and socialization, while Teachers and staff members need
professional development and support for teaching and classroom management,
resources and tools to effectively plan and deliver instruction, adequate compensation
and benefits, and support for their own well-being and work-life balance similarly
families and communities need communication and engagement with the school and
educational system, support for their children's education and development,
opportunities for involvement in the school and community, as such schools and
educational institutions: also need adequate funding and resources to provide quality
education and support, support for school safety and security, programs and services
to meet the diverse needs of students, staff, and families thus it's important to note
that these needs can vary based on different factors such as location, socio-economic
status, culture, and individual circumstances. Beliefs are convictions or opinions that
individuals hold to be true and can be based on personal experiences, cultural
influences, religious or philosophical teachings, or scientific evidence. Beliefs can
shape the way an individual perceives the world around them and can influence their
actions and decision-making. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are two
different types of motivation that can influence an individual's behavior and actions.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the internal drive or desire to engage in an activity or
behavior because it is personally rewarding or fulfilling on the other hand, extrinsic
motivation refers to the external factors or rewards that influence an individual's
behavior or actions and it's important to note that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are
not mutually exclusive and can coexist and interact in different ways. Some activities
or behaviors can be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated. It is important to
understand the different motivation types in order to create an effective learning
environment that can support student engagement and achievement.
UNIT V. Culture and Climate in School
Culture and climate in a school refer to the shared values, beliefs, and practices
that shape the social and emotional environment of the school. School culture refers
to the shared values and beliefs that are held by members of the school community.
School climate refers to the social and emotional atmosphere of the school and t
includes factors such as safety, relationships, and engagement. A positive school
climate can create a safe and supportive environment for learning and personal
development while negative school climate can contribute to stress, disengagement,
and poor academic performance. Both culture and climate can be influenced by factors
such as leadership, policies, and practices. A school's leadership, for example, can
set the tone for the culture and climate by promoting positive values and behaviors,
and by creating an environment that is inclusive and respectful. Policies and practices,
such as those related to discipline and student engagement, can also have a
significant impact on the culture and climate of a school. It's important to note that
culture and climate can vary across different parts of a school, as well as between
different schools. Additionally, culture and climate can change over time, as a result
of changes in leadership, policies, or the composition of the school community.
Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, behaviors, customs,
and social practices that characterize an organization which includes the unwritten
rules and expectations that shape how things are done within the organization that
have a significant impact on the behavior and performance of individuals within the
organization, and can influence factors such as employee engagement, productivity,
and satisfaction. Organizational climate refers to the perceptions and attitudes of
individuals within an organization about their work environment which includes factors
such as communication, relationships, trust, and employee engagement that can be
influenced by the culture of the organization, as well as by specific policies and
practices. It's important to note that organizational climate can vary within the same
organization and can change over time depending on the policies, leadership and
other factors. Therefore, it's important for schools to regularly assess and monitor the
organizational climate and implement strategies to improve it when necessary.
Changing the culture and climate of a school can be a complex and challenging
process, but it is essential for the well-being and success of all members of the school
community and It's important to note that changing the culture and climate of a school
requires a long-term commitment and sustained effort from all stakeholders, including
school leaders, staff, students, families, and community members. It's also important
to have a plan to implement and monitor the changes in order to ensure that they are
effective and sustainable.
UNIT 6. Power and Politics in School
Power and politics play an important role in schools, as they can influence
decision-making, resource allocation, and the overall functioning of the school. The
dynamics of power and politics can vary depending on the specific context of the
school and the individuals involved. Power can be used in a positive or negative way
and it's important to recognize that power can be both informal and formal. Schools
should be aware of the power dynamics that exist in their school and should strive to
create a culture that promotes fairness, equity, and accountability. In schools, politics
can refer to the actions and decisions that are taken to gain or maintain power,
influence or control. It's important to note that politics can be both positive and negative
which can help to achieve shared goals, promote collaboration, and improve school
performance. On the other hand, negative politics can lead to conflicts, mistrust, and
poor performance. School leaders and staff should be aware of the potential for power
imbalances and political maneuvering and should strive to create a culture of
transparency, fairness, and accountability. They should also be prepared to manage
conflicts and power struggles that may arise, and work to create a positive and
collaborative environment that supports the well-being and success of all members of
the school community.
Legitimate power is a source of authority that is derived from an individual's
formal position or role within an organization or institution and in a school setting,
legitimate power is often held by individuals such as the principal, assistant principals,
and other school administrators that is often granted by an organization or institution,
through formal procedures such as elections or appointments which means that
individuals who hold legitimate power have been given the authority to make
decisions, allocate resources, and give orders by virtue of their position within the
school. There are several sources of power that can influence decision-making and
the functioning of an organization or institution which include: Legitimate Power,
Reward Power, Coercive Power, Expert Power, and Referent Power and it's important
to note that power can be both formal and informal, and can be used for both positive
and negative purposes. School leaders and staff should be aware of the different
sources of power and how they can be used to achieve their goals. Administrative
uses of power refer to the ways in which school administrators use various forms of
power to make decisions, allocate resources, and influence the behavior of others
within the school and it's important to note that administrative uses of power are not
always positive, and can be misused or abused. To avoid this, it's important for
administrators to be accountable for their actions, transparent in their decision-making,
and open to feedback from other stakeholders in the school community. Mintzberg's
perspective on power is that power is a central aspect of organizational behavior and
management. He argues that power is not just held by those in formal positions of
authority, but also by individuals and groups within an organization also highlights that
power is dynamic and that it flows and changes within an organization. He suggests
that power is not just held by formal positions but also by informal groups, and that
power can be shared or taken away as the situation demands. While Mintzberg's
perspective on power emphasizes the role of formal and informal power holders within
an organization, and the various ways in which power can be exercised through
positional, personal, expert, reward, and coercive power. He also highlights the
importance of balancing power among different individuals and groups within an
organization in contrast, French and Raven's perspective on power focuses on the
different sources of power that individuals and groups can use to influence the
behavior of others. They identify five sources of power: legitimate, reward, coercive,
expert, and referent. These sources of power can be used by individuals or groups to
gain compliance or support from others within the organization. In relation to power,
rationality, and rationalization are closely related concepts that are often discussed in
the context of organizational behavior and management. Power is the ability to control
or influence the behavior of others, rationality is the use of logic and reasoning to make
decisions, and rationalization is the process of making decisions or taking actions
based on rational considerations. Organizational power and politics are closely related
concepts that can greatly impact the functioning of an organization. Power refers to
the ability of an individual or group to control or influence the behavior of others within
an organization, and politics refers to the use of power and influence to achieve
personal or group goals. Organizational power and politics can have both positive and
negative effects on an organization, and organizations can take steps to minimize the
negative effects. On the other hand the power game refers to the ongoing struggle for
power and influence within an organization which also involves the use of various
strategies and tactics by individuals or groups to gain or maintain power and control
over resources, decision-making, and the direction of the organization. It can have
both positive and negative effects on an organization, and organizations can take
steps to minimize the negative effects.
UNIT 7. External Environment of school
The external environment of a school refers to the various factors outside of the
school that can impact its functioning and decision-making. These factors can include:
Legal and regulatory environment, Economic environment, Societal environment,
Technological environment, Competitive environment, and Natural environment.
Understanding the external environment is important for schools because it helps them
anticipate and adapt to changes in the environment, and make informed decisions that
will benefit the school and its stakeholders. Schools can also use this understanding
to identify new opportunities and challenges, and develop strategies to respond to
them. In summary, the external environment of a school refers to the various factors
outside of the school that can impact its functioning and decision-making. These
factors include legal and regulatory environment, economic environment, societal
environment, technological environment, competitive environment, and natural
environment. Understanding the external environment is important for schools to
anticipate and adapt to changes, make informed decisions, and develop strategies to
respond to new opportunities and challenges.
Tasks and the institutional environment are two important factors that can
impact the functioning and decision-making of a school. Tasks refer to the specific
activities and responsibilities that a school must undertake in order to achieve its goals
and objectives. The institutional environment refers to the internal and external factors
that shape and constrain the school's tasks and decision-making. The relationship
between tasks and the institutional environment is complex and can vary from school
to school. It can enable or constrain the school's ability to undertake certain tasks
depending on the school's culture, policies, procedures, resources, and relationships
with other organizations. The information perspective is a way of looking at
organizational communication and decision-making that emphasizes the importance
of accurate and timely information in the functioning of an organization. The
information perspective is based on the idea that organizations rely on information to
make decisions, solve problems, and coordinate activities or a way of looking at
organizational communication and decision-making that emphasizes the importance
of accurate and timely information in the functioning of an organization. It has several
key elements such as decision-making, problem-solving, coordination, control and
communication. It highlights the importance of accurate and timely information in
school's decision making, problem solving, coordination, control and communication.
Schools can use the information perspective to develop strategies for managing the
flow of information among teachers, staff, students, parents, and other stakeholders.
The resource dependence perspective is a way of looking at organizations that
emphasizes the role of resources in shaping organizational behavior and decision-
making. According to this perspective, organizations are dependent on resources from
other organizations and individuals to achieve their goals and objectives, and this
dependence shapes their behavior and decision-making in short it is the resource
dependence perspective is a way of looking at organizations that emphasizes the role
of resources in shaping organizational behavior and decision-making. According to
this perspective, organizations are dependent on resources from other organizations
and individuals to achieve their goals and objectives, and this dependence shapes
their behavior and decision-making. Schools are also dependent on resources such
as funding, personnel, and materials to achieve its goals and objectives, this
dependence can shape the school's behavior and decision-making. Schools may also
be dependent on personnel such as teachers and administrators, and this dependence
may shape its behavior and decision-making.
UNIT 8. School Effectiveness, Accountability and Improvement
School effectiveness, accountability, and improvement are closely related
concepts that refer to the ability of a school to achieve its goals and objectives and to
improve over time and refers to the extent to which a school is able to achieve its goals
and objectives. This can include academic goals, such as student achievement and
graduation rates, as well as non-academic goals, such as student safety and well-
being. Accountability refers to the system of checks and balances that ensures that a
school is meeting its goals and objectives. This can include external evaluations, such
as standardized test scores and graduation rates, as well as internal evaluations, such
as teacher evaluations and student surveys while Improvement refers to the process
of making changes to a school in order to improve its effectiveness and accountability.
This can include changes to curriculum, instruction, and school culture, as well as
changes to the way a school is managed and governed and ne way to improve school
effectiveness and accountability is through data-driven decision making, where the
school uses data to understand the performance of the school, the students and the
teachers, and then use that data to inform decisions and actions that aim to improve
the school. Another way is by involving the stakeholders, such as parents, students,
teachers, and community members, in the decision-making process. Involving
stakeholders in the decision-making process can help to ensure that the school's goals
and objectives are aligned with the needs and priorities of the community. In summary,
School effectiveness, accountability, and improvement are closely related concepts
that refer to the ability of a school to achieve its goals and objectives and to improve
over time and can improve by using data-driven decision making, involving
stakeholders in the decision-making process and using a system of checks and
balances to ensure that the school is meeting its goals and objectives.
School effectiveness is a complex concept that is influenced by a variety of
factors, including administrative practices. School effectiveness is a complex concept
that is influenced by a variety of factors, including administrative practices. Challenging
administrative practices refers to the process of identifying and addressing practices
that may be hindering a school's ability to achieve its goals and objectives. To
challenge administrative practices, it is important to regularly review and assess
current practices, involve stakeholders in the decision-making process and use data
analysis, stakeholder feedback and external evaluations. The social system of a
school refers to the interactions, relationships, and dynamics between individuals and
groups within the school community. This can include relationships between students,
teachers, administrators, and other staff members, as well as relationships between
the school and the broader community and can have a significant impact on the
school's effectiveness, as it can either support or hinder the ability of the school to
achieve its goals and objectives. The social system of a school refers to the
interactions, relationships, and dynamics between individuals and groups within the
school community. The social system of a school can have a significant impact on the
school's effectiveness, either support or hinder the ability of the school to achieve its
goals and objectives. Accountability and educational reform are closely linked, as
accountability measures are often used to identify areas in need of improvement and
to hold schools, teachers, and students accountable for their performance. This can
help to drive reform efforts and improve the overall quality of education. However, the
implementation of accountability measures can also be controversial, as it can create
a high-pressure environment for schools and teachers, and can lead to a narrow focus
on test preparation rather than meaningful instruction and to ensure that accountability
measures lead to meaningful reform, it is important to consider a multi-faceted
approach that includes a range of measures, such as student and teacher
engagement, school culture, and student progress over time. Additionally, involving
stakeholders in the process, such as teachers, parents, and community members, can
increase buy-in and support for reform efforts as such accountability and educational
reform are closely linked, but it is important to consider a multi-faceted approach that
includes a range of measures, involving stakeholders in the process, and recognizing
that accountability should be used as a tool for improvement and not as a means of
punishment. Additionally, the accountability measures should be fair and transparent,
taking into account the socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds of the students, the
school's resources and the context in which the school operates.
UNIT 9. Decision Making in Schools
Decision making in schools is a complex process that involves various
stakeholders, including administrators, teachers, parents, and students. One model of
decision making in schools is the rational decision-making model, which involves a
systematic process of identifying a problem, gathering information, evaluating
alternatives, and making a decision based on logical reasoning. However, this model
may not always be feasible or practical in a school setting, as the decision-making
process is often influenced by emotions, politics, and power dynamics. Another model
of decision making in schools is the political decision-making model, which
emphasizes the role of power and influence in the decision-making process. In
practice, decision making in schools often involves a combination of these models and
influences. Effective decision making in schools requires a clear understanding of the
issues at hand, effective communication and collaboration among stakeholders, and
a willingness to consider different perspectives and options and It is important to
involve all the stakeholders and to have a transparent decision-making process that
allows for the participation of all voices, and to consider the perspectives of different
groups. Additionally, the decision-making process should be based on data and
evidence, and should be flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances. In
summary, Decision making in schools is a complex process that involves various
stakeholders, and the process of decision making can be influenced by a variety of
factors, such as the school's mission and values, the needs and perspectives of
different stakeholders, and the resources available to the school. Effective decision
making in schools requires a clear understanding of the issues at hand, effective
communication and collaboration among stakeholders, and a willingness to consider
different perspectives and options. Additionally, it is important to involve all the
stakeholders and to have a transparent decision-making process that allows for the
participation of all voices, and to consider the perspectives of different groups.
Additionally, the decision-making process should be based on data and evidence, and
should be flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances.
The classical model of decision making is often considered to be an optimizing
strategy because it is based on the idea that the best decision can be made by finding
the optimal solution through a systematic and logical process. This model is often used
in organizations and businesses, but it may not always be practical or feasible in a
school setting, as the decision-making process is often influenced by emotions,
politics, and power dynamics. The administrative model is often considered to be a
satisfying strategy because it is based on the idea that the decision maker is satisfied
with the decision as long as it meets the standards set in step 2 and this model is often
used in situations where the decision maker has limited resources, time or information.
It's also often used when the decision maker is facing a high level of uncertainty or
ambiguity. The incremental model, also known as the successive limited comparison
strategy, is a decision-making approach that involves making small, incremental
changes to existing policies or practices rather than making major changes all at once.
This approach is based on the idea that decisions are made by comparing alternatives
incrementally, rather than trying to find the optimal solution. The mixed scanning model
is an adaptive approach to decision making, it allows for greater flexibility, proactivity
and collaboration, it also allows for a more sustainable continuous improvement in the
school policies and practices as it allows for adapting to the changing external
environment. The contingency model is a situation-specific approach to decision
making that emphasizes the importance of matching strategy and situation. It involves
analyzing the situation and identifying the relevant factors, and then selecting the most
appropriate strategy for the situation and his approach allows for a more flexible and
adaptable approach to decision making, and it allows school leaders to identify the
best course of action based on the situation, which is essential in a constantly
changing school environment. The Garbage Can model is a decision-making
approach that emphasizes the role of non-rational factors in decision making, such as
chance and time constraints which suggests that decision making is often influenced
by a variety of factors, rather than being a rational or logical process and can also
help explain why certain decisions are made in a school setting, even if they may not
be the best or most logical choices, and it can also help to identify the factors that
influence decision making in school. The Janis-Mann conflict theory explains how
stress and irrationality can affect decision making in groups and this theory suggests
that when people are in a group, they are under pressure to conform to the group's
norms and values, which can lead to a phenomenon known as "groupthink."
Groupthink occurs when group members become so focused on maintaining unity and
agreement that they begin to ignore important information or dissenting opinions.
Stress can also lead to irrational decision making. It is important for groups to
encourage dissenting opinions, and for the leader to actively seek out different
perspectives to avoid these negative consequences.
UNIT 10. Shared Decision Making: Empowering Teachers
Shared decision making is a process in which teachers and administrators work
together to make decisions that affect the school and its students. This approach
empowers teachers by giving them a voice in important decisions, and it can lead to
better outcomes because it allows for the input and ideas of multiple individuals.
Shared decision making can also help to build trust and collaboration among teachers
and administrators, which can lead to a more positive school culture and climate.
However, it is important to note that shared decision making can also be challenging
to implement and may require significant changes in organizational structure and
communication practices.
The Vroom model of shared decision making is a leadership style developed
by Victor Vroom that emphasizes the importance of participation and collaboration in
the decision-making process. It suggests that involving team members in the decision-
making process can lead to better decisions, improved commitment to those
decisions, and higher levels of job satisfaction among team members and is based on
the idea that the most effective decisions are those in which those who will be affected
by the decision have a say in the decision-making process. The Hoy-Tarter model of
shared decision making is a simplified model developed by Walter Hoy and Rosemary
Tarter. It is a four-step process that emphasizes the importance of effective
communication, active listening, and mutual respect in the decision-making process.
The Hoy-Tarter model is designed to be easy to understand and implement, making it
a useful tool for organizations that want to promote shared decision making without
the need for complex processes or procedures. It's important to note that, this model
is not that much used in academic research or in the business world, but it's a simple
way to understand the basic concepts of shared decision making.
UNIT 11. Communications in Schools
Communication in schools is critical to the success of students, teachers, and
administrators. Effective communication between teachers, parents, and students is
essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment. There are
several key types of communication that take place in schools, including: Parent-
teacher communication, Student-teacher communication, Administrator-teacher
communication, and Inter-school communication. Effective communication in schools
is important for creating a positive and supportive learning environment, improving
student achievement, and fostering positive relationships between students, teachers,
parents, and administrators. It's also important to note that, technology has been a
game changer in the way schools communicate, digital platforms and apps are widely
used to facilitate communication and information sharing among the school
community.
Communication is the process of transmitting information, ideas, or thoughts
from one person or group to another. It is a fundamental human activity that enables
us to share information, express emotions, and establish relationships. A general
model of communication is a framework that outlines the different components and
stages of the communication process. There are several different models of
communication, but a widely accepted one is the linear model of communication, also
known as the "sender-receiver model. The organizational perspective of
communication refers to the study of communication within organizations, including
the formal and informal communication networks and processes that take place within
an organization. From an organizational perspective, communication is seen as a vital
tool for achieving organizational goals and objectives. Effective communication is
necessary for coordinating the efforts of employees, sharing information, and building
relationships within the organization. Effective communication within an organization
is essential for building trust, fostering cooperation, and ensuring that all employees
understand and support the organization's goals and objectives while it is also
important to note that, the organizational communication can be influenced by the
organizational culture, structure, technology and the communication networks, those
factors can make communication more or less effective within the organization.
UNIT 12. Leadership in Schools
Leadership in schools refers to the process of guiding and directing the actions
of teachers, staff, students, and other stakeholders in order to create a positive and
productive learning environment. School leaders, including principals and other
administrators, play a critical role in ensuring that schools are safe, effective, and
responsive to the needs of students and the community. Effective school leaders are
able to create a positive and inclusive culture, establish clear goals and objectives,
and build strong relationships with teachers, staff, students, and the community. It's
also important to note that, the leadership in schools can be influenced by the context,
culture, community and the specific needs of the school, those factors can shape the
way leaders lead the school.
Leadership is the process of guiding and directing the actions of individuals or
groups in order to achieve a common goal or objective. Leadership can take many
forms and can be exercised in a variety of settings, including in business, government,
non-profit organizations, and in families and communities. Leadership can be learned
and developed over time, through education, training, and experience. It's also
important to note that, the leadership can be influenced by the context, culture, and
the specific needs of the organization, those factors can shape the way leaders lead
and the leadership style. Administrative work refers to the tasks and responsibilities
associated with managing and coordinating the operations of an organization.
Administrative professionals are responsible for ensuring that the organization runs
smoothly and efficiently, and that the needs of employees, customers, and other
stakeholders are met and the administrative work can be influenced by the specific
setting in which it is performed, such as in a business, government agency, or non-
profit organization. In some cases, the administrative work may be more specialized,
such as in the case of an administrative assistant in a healthcare setting who may be
responsible for managing patient records and scheduling appointments and it is also
important to note that with the advance of technology, the nature of administrative
work can change and evolve, administrative professionals are expected to be familiar
with the use of various software and tools, including word processing, spreadsheets,
and databases, as well as other digital communication tools. Transformational
leadership is a leadership style that focuses on inspiring and motivating followers to
achieve their full potential and to work towards a shared vision. Transformational
leaders aim to create positive change in their followers and in the organization as a
whole, often contrasted with transactional leadership, which focuses on achieving
specific goals and objectives through a system of rewards and punishments, tend to
be more long-term oriented, focusing on creating positive change and development in
their followers and the organization as a whole, has been found to be effective in a
variety of settings, including in business, healthcare, education, and government.
PART 1. PRIMARY. (COGNITIVE). Answer the following questions objectively based
on our class presentation and discussions. (10x3=30 pts)
1. Discuss the salient features of the following key terms related to the role of the
School Head as an Instructional Leader:
a. The K-12 curriculum
The K-12 curriculum refers to the educational program for students in
kindergarten through 12th grade. The K-12 curriculum is designed to provide students
with a well-rounded education that includes instruction in core academic subjects such
as mathematics, science, English, and social studies, as well as in elective subjects
such as art, music, and physical education. It is also designed to meet the needs of all
students and includes instruction for students with different learning styles and
abilities, including special education programs for students with disabilities, prepare
students for post-secondary education or the workforce. Graduates of a K-12 program
are typically expected to have a solid foundation in core academic subjects and to be
able to think critically and solve problems. In the Philippines, the K-12 curriculum was
implemented in 2013, this curriculum added two more years in the basic education
level, which is kindergarten and grade 11, and 12. The aim of this is to make the
students more competitive in the global workforce, as well as to provide them with life
skills that will help them after they leave school. In addition to the core academic
subjects, the K-12 curriculum in the Philippines also includes instruction in values
education and in practical skills, such as computer literacy and financial literacy.
Overall, the K-12 curriculum is designed to provide students with a well-rounded
education that prepares them for success in both the short and long term.
b. Curriculum Standards
Curriculum standards are a set of guidelines or expectations for what students
should know and be able to do in a particular subject or grade level. These standards
are typically developed by national or state education agencies and are used to guide
the development of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Some key characteristics
of curriculum standards include:
1. Content specificity: Curriculum standards specify the content that students
should learn in a particular subject or grade level, such as math concepts, literary texts,
or historical events.
2. Skills-based: Curriculum standards often focus on the skills and abilities that
students should have, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and communication.
3. Aligned with assessments: Curriculum standards are often aligned with
assessments, such as standardized tests, to ensure that students are tested on what
they have learned.
4. Benchmarking: Curriculum standards provide a benchmark for what students
should know and be able to do, and can be used to evaluate student progress and the
effectiveness of instruction.
5. Flexibility: Curriculum standards are designed to be flexible and adaptable to
different teaching and learning styles, and to the diverse needs of students.
6. The use of technology and resources: Curriculum standards often include the
use of technology and resources as an integral part of instruction.
7. Benchmarks: Curriculum standards provide a benchmark for what students
should know and be able to do, and can be used to evaluate student progress and the
effectiveness of instruction.
8. Professional development: Curriculum standards are often accompanied by
professional development opportunities for teachers to learn how to effectively
implement the standards in their instruction.
9. Ongoing review and revision: Curriculum standards are reviewed and revised
regularly to ensure that they remain relevant, current, and aligned with the changing
needs of students and society.
c. Lesson Planning
Lesson planning is the process of creating a detailed plan for teaching a lesson. It
involves identifying the learning objectives, selecting and organizing instructional
materials, and designing activities and assessments that align with the objectives.
Some key elements of effective lesson planning include:
1. Learning objectives: Clearly stating the learning objectives for the lesson, and
aligning the instruction, activities, and assessments with those objectives.
2. Alignment: Ensuring that the instruction, activities, and assessments align with
the curriculum standards, and that the lesson fits within the overall curriculum.
3. Differentiation: Differentiating instruction to meet the diverse needs of students,
such as through the use of multiple modalities, flexible grouping, and accommodations
for students with special needs.
4. Engagement: Incorporating engaging and interactive activities and strategies
that actively involve students in the learning process, such as hands-on projects,
discussions, and problem-solving.
5. Assessment: Planning formative and summative assessments to measure
student understanding, and using the results to inform instruction and guide further
learning.
6. Timing: Estimating the amount of time needed for each activity and adjusting
the plan as needed to ensure that the lesson can be completed within the allocated
time.
7. Preparation: Preparing materials and resources in advance, and anticipating
any potential problems that may arise during the lesson.
8. Flexibility: Being open to adjusting the lesson plan as needed in response to
student needs, feedback, or unexpected events.
9. Reflection: Reflecting on the lesson after it has been taught, and using that
reflection to make improvements for future lessons.
10. Continual improvement: Continually reviewing and revising the lesson plan over
time, to ensure that it remains effective, engaging and aligned with the curriculum.
d. Learner Centered School
A learner-centered school is an educational model that focuses on meeting the
individual needs and interests of students. In a learner-centered school, the students
are at the center of the educational process and their interests and needs drive the
curriculum and instruction. Some key characteristics of a learner-centered school
include:
1. Personalized learning: Providing students with personalized learning
experiences that take into account their individual strengths, interests, and needs.
2. Student choice and voice: Giving students a say in what they learn and how
they learn it, and providing opportunities for them to pursue their own interests and
passions.
3. Self-directed learning: Encouraging students to take ownership of their learning
and to be self-directed in their studies.
4. Collaborative learning: Fostering a collaborative learning environment where
students work together to achieve common goals.
5. Differentiated instruction: Differentiating instruction to meet the diverse needs
of students, such as through the use of multiple modalities, flexible grouping, and
accommodations for students with special needs.
6. Assessment for learning: Using formative assessment to measure student
understanding, and using the results to inform instruction and guide further learning.
7. Technology integration: Incorporating technology and resources as an integral
part of instruction, to support student learning and engagement.
8. Professional development: Providing teachers with ongoing professional
development opportunities to learn how to effectively implement learner-centered
practices in their instruction.
9. Community engagement: Building strong relationships with families and
community partners to support student learning and development.
10. Reflective practice: Encouraging teachers to reflect on their practices and make
changes as needed to improve student learning.
e. Assessment in the K12 Curriculum
Assessment in the K-12 curriculum refers to the process of measuring student
learning and understanding through a variety of methods. In the K-12 curriculum,
assessment is an important component of instruction, as it helps teachers to
understand what students know and are able to do, and to identify areas where
students need additional support or enrichment. Some key types of assessment used
in the K-12 curriculum include:
1. Formative assessment: This type of assessment is used to monitor student
learning and progress, and to inform instruction. Examples of formative assessment
include quizzes, exit tickets, and observations.
2. Summative assessment: This type of assessment is used to evaluate student
learning and understanding at the end of a unit or course. Examples of summative
assessment include tests, projects, and essays.
3. Diagnostic assessment: This type of assessment is used to identify students'
strengths and weaknesses, and to inform instruction. Examples of diagnostic
assessment include pre-tests and assessments of prior knowledge.
4. Performance assessment: This type of assessment is used to evaluate student
learning and understanding through the demonstration of skills and knowledge.
Examples of performance assessment include presentations, performances, and
portfolios.
5. Standardized testing: This type of assessment is used to measure student
learning and understanding in relation to a set of established standards or
benchmarks. Examples of standardized testing include state-mandated tests and
standardized achievement tests.
6. Alternative assessment: This type of assessment is used to evaluate student
learning and understanding through non-traditional methods. Examples of alternative
assessment include self-reflection, peer evaluations, and authentic assessments.
7. Self-assessment: This type of assessment is used to help students evaluate
their own learning and progress, and to identify areas where they need to improve.
Examples of self-assessment include self-reflection and goal setting.
8. Technology-enhanced assessment: This type of assessment is used to
evaluate student learning and understanding through the integration of technology.
Examples of technology-enhanced assessment include online quizzes, simulations,
and interactive assessments.
9. Interim assessment: This type of assessment is used to monitor student
learning and progress throughout the academic year. Examples of interim assessment
include benchmark tests, assessments of learning targets, or mid-term exams.
10. Portfolio assessment: This type of assessment is used to evaluate student
learning and understanding through a collection of work samples, such as writing
samples, drawings, or photographs, that document student progress over time.

f. K12 Pedagogies
Pedagogy refers to the methods and strategies used by teachers to instruct and
educate students in the K-12 curriculum. There are many different pedagogical
approaches used in K-12 education, but some of the most common include:
1. Traditional Pedagogy: This approach is characterized by a teacher-centered
classroom where the teacher is the primary source of information and the students are
passive learners. This approach is based on lectures, memorization, and repetitive
exercises.
2. Direct Instruction: This approach is characterized by a teacher-centered
classroom where the teacher provides explicit instruction and students are expected
to follow along and complete exercises. This approach is based on a clear set of
objectives and a structured lesson plan.
3. Constructivism: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students construct their own understanding of the material through
hands-on experiences, problem-solving, and inquiry. This approach emphasizes
student exploration and discovery.
4. Project-based Learning: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students engage in extended inquiry to investigate and respond to
complex real-world problems and challenges. This approach emphasizes
collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving.
5. Differentiated Instruction: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where instruction is tailored to meet the diverse needs of students. This
approach emphasizes flexible grouping, multiple modalities, and accommodations for
students with special needs.
6. Game-based Learning: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students learn through game-based activities, such as simulations,
role-playing, and digital games. This approach emphasizes engagement and
motivation.
7. Blended Learning: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students engage in a combination of online and face-to-face
instruction. This approach emphasizes flexibility and personalization.
8. Flipped Classroom: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students watch video lectures and complete online activities at
home, and then engage in class discussions, problem-solving, and hands-on activities
in the classroom. This approach emphasizes engagement, critical thinking, and
problem-solving.
9. STEM Education: This approach is characterized by a student-centered
classroom where students engage in hands-on, inquiry-based activities in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics. This approach emphasizes critical
thinking, problem-solving, and real-world applications.
10. Social Emotional Learning: This approach is characterized by a student-
centered classroom where students learn and practice social and emotional skills such
as self-awareness, empathy, and self-regulation. This approach emphasizes the
development of social and emotional intelligence, responsible decision making and
self-awareness.
g. Curriculum Contextualization
Curriculum contextualization refers to the process of making the curriculum
more relevant, meaningful, and applicable to the lives of the students. This can be
done by incorporating the culture, history, and experiences of the students into the
curriculum, as well as by connecting the curriculum to real-world issues and problems.
Some of the key elements of curriculum contextualization include:
1. Incorporating the students' culture, history, and experiences into the curriculum:
This can be done by including literature, art, and other cultural artifacts that reflect the
students' backgrounds, as well as by incorporating the students' own experiences and
perspectives into the curriculum.
2. Connecting the curriculum to real-world issues and problems: This can be done
by incorporating current events, community issues, and global problems into the
curriculum, as well as by providing opportunities for students to engage in service-
learning and community-based projects.
3. Using relevant and meaningful examples and case studies: This can be done
by using examples and case studies that are relevant to the students' lives and
experiences, as well as by providing opportunities for students to apply the curriculum
to real-world problems and issues.
4. Providing opportunities for student choice and voice: This can be done by
providing opportunities for students to have a say in what they learn and how they
learn it, as well as by providing opportunities for student-led projects, discussions, and
investigations.
5. Building on students' prior knowledge and experiences: This can be done by
building on students' prior knowledge and experiences in order to make the curriculum
more relevant and meaningful to them.
6. Incorporating technology and digital resources: This can be done by using
technology and digital resources to make the curriculum more engaging, interactive,
and accessible to students.
7. Providing opportunities for student reflection and self-evaluation: This can be
done by providing opportunities for students to reflect on their learning and to self-
evaluate their progress, as well as by providing opportunities for students to set goals
and to track their progress.
Curriculum contextualization can be beneficial for students as it helps to make the
curriculum more relevant, meaningful and engaging for students. It also helps students
to see the connections between the subjects they are learning and the world around
them. It also helps to bridge the gap between what is learned in school and how it is
applied in their daily lives.
h. Learning Action Cell
A Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a model for professional development that is
focused on improving student learning and teacher practice through the collective
effort of a small group of teachers. LACs are typically made up of a small group of
teachers from the same school or department who meet regularly to discuss and
analyze student work, collaborate on lesson planning, and reflect on their own
practice.
The key elements of a Learning Action Cell include:
1. Collaboration: LACs are based on the idea that teachers working together can
achieve more than they can working alone. The members of a LAC work together to
improve student learning and teacher practice.
2. Analysis of student work: LACs analyze student work in order to identify areas
of strength and areas that need improvement. This analysis helps the group to focus
on the specific needs of their students.
3. Reflection on practice: LACs provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on
their own practice, to share their successes and challenges, and to learn from one
another.
4. Professional development: LACs provide opportunities for teachers to develop
new skills and knowledge through the collective effort of the group.
5. Action-oriented: LACs are action-oriented, meaning that the group works
together to develop and implement strategies that will improve student learning and
teacher practice.
6. Continuous improvement: LACs focus on continuous improvement, meaning
that the group sets goals and works together to achieve them, and then reflects on
their progress and sets new goals.
7. Shared leadership: LACs are led by the members themselves, who take turns
leading the group and facilitating the meetings.
The LAC model is used to focus on the needs of the students, teachers engage in
reflective practice, and continuously improve their teaching skills and strategies. The
model is considered to be effective in improving student learning and teacher practice
as it is based on a collaborative and data-driven approach.
2. Discuss the following concepts related to the role of a School Head to
curriculum Implementation:
a. Special Interest Programs for K12
Special interest programs for K-12 students are programs that are designed to
cater to the specific interests and needs of certain groups of students. These programs
may focus on a particular subject area, such as science, technology, engineering, and
math (STEM), or may focus on a particular skill or interest, such as music, art, or
sports.
Some examples of special interest programs for K-12 students include:
1. Gifted and talented programs: These programs are designed to meet the needs
of students who have demonstrated high levels of ability and potential in a particular
subject area or skill. These programs may include advanced coursework, special
projects, and opportunities for independent study.
2. STEM programs: These programs focus on science, technology, engineering,
and math, and are designed to provide students with hands-on, inquiry-based learning
experiences that promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
3. Arts programs: These programs focus on music, visual arts, theater, and dance,
and are designed to provide students with opportunities to develop their creativity and
artistic skills.
4. Sports programs: These programs focus on physical education and athletics,
and are designed to provide students with opportunities to develop their physical
fitness and sports skills.
5. Language programs: These programs focus on the study of a particular
language and culture, and are designed to provide students with opportunities to
develop their language skills and cultural understanding.
6. Dual Language Immersion Programs: These programs focus on helping
students acquire fluency in a second language while also maintaining proficiency in
their first language.
7. Career Technical Education (CTE) Programs: These programs focus on
providing students with the technical skills and knowledge needed for specific careers
in fields such as healthcare, information technology, business, and manufacturing.
Special Interest Programs allow students to explore their interests and passions, and
to develop the skills and knowledge they need to pursue their goals and aspirations.
It also helps students to focus on their strengths and develop a deeper understanding
of the subjects they are interested in.
b. Inclusive Education Programs for K12
Inclusive education programs for K-12 students are designed to provide an inclusive
and equitable learning environment for all students, regardless of their abilities,
backgrounds, or needs. These programs are based on the principle that all students
should have equal opportunities to learn, grow, and succeed.
Some examples of inclusive education programs for K-12 students include:
1. Special education programs: These programs provide support for students with
disabilities, such as those with learning, physical, or emotional needs. These programs
may include individualized education plans (IEPs), accommodations, and
modifications to the curriculum and instruction.
2. English language learner (ELL) programs: These programs provide support for
students who are learning English as a second language. These programs may
include language instruction, cultural support, and accommodations to the curriculum
and instruction.
3. Diversity and equity programs: These programs focus on creating an inclusive
and equitable learning environment for all students, regardless of their race, ethnicity,
gender, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status. These programs may include
cultural awareness and sensitivity training, anti-bias education, and support for
underrepresented groups.
4. Social-emotional learning (SEL) programs: These programs provide support for
students' social and emotional well-being. These programs may include instruction in
skills such as empathy, self-awareness, and self-regulation, as well as support for
mental health and wellness.
5. Multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS): These programs provide a range of
supports and interventions for students based on their needs. The goal of MTSS is to
provide early interventions for students who are struggling, and to prevent the need
for more intensive services.
6. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) : This approach is based on the idea that
instructional materials and teaching methods should be designed to be flexible and
adaptable to meet the needs of all students, including those with disabilities and
special needs.
Inclusive education programs aim to break down the barriers to learning and provide
a fair and equal education for all students, regardless of their backgrounds, abilities,
and needs. This approach is important for creating a more equitable and just society,
as it is based on the principle that every student should have equal opportunities to
learn, grow and succeed.
c. Learning Support Program
A learning support program is a program that provides additional support and
resources to students who need it in order to succeed in school. These programs can
be tailored to meet the specific needs of individual students and can include a range
of services and interventions, such as:
1. Tutoring: One-on-one or small group instruction to help students improve their
skills in a specific subject area.
2. Remediation: Additional instruction or practice activities to help students catch
up on skills they have not yet mastered.
3. Enrichment: Additional activities, projects, or instruction that goes beyond the
regular curriculum to help students develop their skills and interests in a particular
subject area.
4. Behavioral support: Strategies and techniques to help students improve their
behavior and social skills, such as positive reinforcement, social skills training, and
counseling.
5. Technology support: Use of technology to support student learning, such as
assistive technology, computer programs, and online resources.
6. Study skills: instruction and strategies to help students learn how to take notes,
read, study and test effectively.
7. Mental Health Support: This includes counseling, therapy, and other mental
health services to help students cope with stress and other emotional challenges that
may be impacting their learning.
Learning support programs can be provided by schools, community organizations, or
private tutors. They can be offered during the school day, after school, or on
weekends. The goal of learning support programs is to provide students with the
additional support they need to overcome any obstacles to learning, and to help them
succeed in school and beyond.
d. Alternative Learning System
The Alternative Learning System (ALS) is a program that provides education to
students who are not able to attend formal school for various reasons, such as poverty,
living in remote areas, or having to work to support their families. The program aims
to provide access to education for these marginalized and disadvantaged students.
There are a few different models of ALS, but in general, the program uses non-formal
methods of instruction and flexible schedules to accommodate the needs of the
students. Some examples of ALS models include:
1. Community learning centers: These centers provide education to students in
their own communities, often in partnership with local organizations and volunteers.
2. Mobile schools: These schools bring education to students in remote or hard-
to-reach areas using vehicles or boats as classrooms.
3. Self-study: These programs provide students with materials and resources for
self-study and allow them to progress at their own pace.
4. Distance education: These programs use technology to deliver instruction to
students, such as radio or television broadcasts, or online courses.
5. Blended learning: A combination of the above-mentioned models.
The curriculum used in ALS is generally based on the national curriculum, but it may
be adapted to suit the needs of the students and the local context.
The goal of ALS is to provide access to education for students who otherwise would
not have the opportunity to attend formal school, and to give them the skills and
knowledge they need to improve their lives and participate fully in society. It also aims
to reduce the dropout rate and increase literacy rate of the country.
e. Alternative Delivery Modes of Education and Learning Resource
Management; and Development System
Alternative delivery modes of education refer to different methods of delivering
instruction and educational resources to students beyond the traditional face-to-face
classroom setting. Some examples of alternative delivery modes include:
1. Distance education: This mode of education uses technology such as the
internet, video conferencing, and other forms of digital communication to deliver
instruction to students who are not able to attend classes in person.
2. Online education: This mode of education uses the internet to deliver instruction
and educational resources to students. It can include self-paced courses, live online
classes, and a combination of both.
3. Blended learning: This mode of education combines traditional face-to-face
instruction with online or distance education.
4. Mobile learning: This mode of education uses mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets to deliver instruction and educational resources to students.
5. Self-directed learning: This mode of education allows students to take control
of their own learning by providing them with resources and materials to work through
on their own.
Learning resource management refers to the process of organizing and managing the
resources required for effective learning. This includes materials such as textbooks,
instructional resources, and technology, as well as facilities, equipment and personnel.
Development system refers to the overall process of designing, implementing, and
evaluating educational programs and resources. This includes curriculum
development, instructional design, assessment, and ongoing improvement of
educational programs and resources.
Effective management of these alternative delivery modes and resources is crucial for
the success of education. It helps in ensuring that the students have access to the
resources they need to learn, and that the programs and resources being used are
effective and efficient.
The development system helps in keeping the education system updated, aligned with
the current trend, and in addressing the needs of the students and the society.
3. Explain the meaning of the following Key terms in relation to the role of the
School Head in improving the school and the role of the School Head as steward.
a. School Based Management
School-based management (SBM) is a system of organizing and running
schools that gives a significant degree of autonomy to the school level. The goal of
SBM is to empower schools to make decisions and take actions that are best suited
to the needs of their students and community.
In SBM, a school's principal and staff take the lead in managing the school, with
the support of parent-teacher associations and other community groups. They are
responsible for making decisions about a wide range of issues, such as curriculum
development, budgeting, staffing, and facilities management.
The key elements of SBM include:
1. Decentralization: The transfer of decision-making authority from the central
level to the school level
2. Community participation: Involving parents, teachers, and other community
members in school decision-making
3. Accountability: Holding schools accountable for their performance and results
4. Flexibility: Allowing schools to adapt to the unique needs of their students and
community
5. Continuous improvement: Regularly evaluating and improving the effectiveness
of school management and performance.
SBM is considered as one of the best practices for school improvement and
governance. It helps in improving the quality of education, increasing the accountability
and transparency, developing the leadership and management skills of the school
staff, and involving the community in the school improvement process.
However, the success of SBM depends on the support and cooperation of the
government and the community, the availability of necessary resources, and the
effective implementation of the system.
b. Continuous Improvement
Continuous improvement is a process of regularly evaluating and improving the
effectiveness of an organization or system. In the context of education, continuous
improvement refers to the ongoing process of evaluating and improving the quality of
educational programs and resources.
The key principles of continuous improvement in education include:
1. Data-driven decision making: Using data and evidence to inform decisions
about curriculum, instruction, and other aspects of education
2. Collaboration: Involving teachers, administrators, students, and other
stakeholders in the improvement process
3. Focus on student learning: Making student learning the primary focus of all
decisions and actions
4. Continuous monitoring and evaluation: Regularly monitoring progress and
evaluating the effectiveness of programs and resources
5. Flexibility: Being open to new ideas and approaches and being willing to make
changes as needed.
One of the most popular frameworks for continuous improvement in education
is the "Plan-Do-Study-Act" (PDSA) cycle. It is a four-step process that involves
planning a change, implementing the change, studying the results, and making
adjustments as necessary.
Continuous improvement is important for the education system as it helps in improving
the quality of education and addressing the changing needs of the students and
society. It also helps in keeping the education system updated and aligned with the
current trends and best practices.
However, the success of continuous improvement in education depends on the
availability of necessary resources, the support and cooperation of the government
and the community, and the effective implementation of the process.
c. School Improvement Plan: Assets, Plan, Act;
A school improvement plan is a document that outlines the specific actions and
strategies that a school will take to improve student learning and achievement. It
typically includes a detailed analysis of the school's current performance and identifies
specific areas that need improvement.
The key components of a school improvement plan include:
1. Assets: An inventory of the school's strengths and resources that can be
leveraged to support improvement.
2. Plan: Specific goals and objectives for improvement, as well as the strategies
and actions that will be taken to achieve them.
3. Act: The implementation of the plan and the monitoring and evaluation of
progress.
The school improvement plan should be developed through a collaborative process
that involves teachers, administrators, students, parents, and other stakeholders. It
should be based on data and evidence and should be aligned with the school's mission
and vision.
The school improvement plan should also be reviewed and updated regularly to reflect
the changing needs of the school and to ensure that progress is being made toward
the goals and objectives.
The school improvement plan is crucial for the school's overall performance, as it helps
in identifying the areas of improvement, setting specific and measurable goals and
objectives, allocating necessary resources, and monitoring and evaluating the
progress.
However, success of school improvement plan depends on the availability of
necessary resources, the support and cooperation of the government, community and
other stakeholders, and the effective implementation of the plan.
d. School Partnership and Communication
School partnerships and communication refer to the relationships and channels
of communication that a school establishes with various stakeholders in order to
support student learning and achievement. These stakeholders include parents,
community members, businesses, government agencies, and other schools.
Key components of effective school partnerships and communication include:
1. Clear and open communication: Establishing regular and transparent channels
of communication between the school and stakeholders, such as newsletters, website
updates, and community meetings.
2. Collaboration: Working together with stakeholders to identify and address the
needs of the school and the community.
3. Shared responsibility: Recognizing that the education of students is a shared
responsibility between the school, parents, and the community.
4. Active engagement: Encouraging and facilitating active engagement of
stakeholders in the school, such as through volunteer opportunities and parent-
teacher organizations.
5. Flexibility: Being open to new ideas and approaches and being willing to adapt
as needed.
School partnerships and communication can have a positive impact on student
learning and achievement by providing additional resources, support, and expertise,
as well as by fostering a sense of community and ownership among stakeholders.
Effective school partnerships and communication also helps in building trust and
understanding between the school and the community, and in addressing the
changing needs of the students and society.
However, establishing and maintaining school partnerships and communication
require a dedicated effort and resources, and it's important to ensure that the
communication is inclusive and considerate of all stakeholders.
e.Strategic Human Resource Management and Development
Strategic human resource management (SHRM) and development refers to the
process of aligning the management of an organization's human resources with its
overall strategic goals and objectives. This includes recruiting, selecting, training, and
developing employees as well as managing their performance and compensation.
Key elements of SHRM and development include:
1. Alignment with organizational goals: Ensuring that the organization's human
resources strategies and policies are aligned with its overall goals and objectives.
2. Recruitment and selection: Developing and implementing effective recruitment
and selection processes to attract and hire the best candidates for the organization.
3. Training and development: Providing employees with the knowledge and skills
they need to perform their jobs effectively and to advance in their careers.
4. Performance management: Developing and implementing processes to
evaluate and improve employee performance, including setting goals, providing
feedback, and rewarding performance.
5. Compensation and benefits: Developing and implementing compensation and
benefits programs that are fair and competitive, and that align with the organization's
goals and objectives.
SHRM and development is critical for the success of an organization as it helps in
attracting and retaining the best talent, improving employee performance, and aligning
the workforce with the organization's goals and objectives.
However, effective SHRM and development requires a clear understanding of the
organization's goals and objectives, as well as an understanding of the external factors
that may impact the organization, such as workforce demographics, economic
conditions, and changing industry trends.
It also requires the support and cooperation of the management and the employees,
as well as the availability of necessary resources and the effective implementation of
the policies and procedures.
f. Fiscal Management
Fiscal management refers to the process of managing an organization's
financial resources in a responsible and effective manner. This includes budgeting,
financial reporting, and financial decision-making.
Key elements of fiscal management include:
1. Budgeting: Developing and implementing a budget that aligns with the
organization's goals and objectives, and that allocates resources in a responsible and
effective manner.
2. Financial reporting: Developing and implementing processes to accurately and
transparently report financial information to stakeholders, including financial
statements and performance reports.
3. Financial decision-making: Making financial decisions that are in the best
interest of the organization, based on accurate and timely financial information.
4. Cash management: Managing the organization's cash flow, including
forecasting and monitoring cash inflows and outflows, to ensure that the organization
has the resources it needs to meet its obligations.
5. Risk management: Identifying and managing financial risks, such as
fluctuations in revenue or unexpected expenses, to minimize their impact on the
organization.
 Fiscal management is critical for the success of an organization as it helps in
ensuring the financial stability and sustainability of the organization, and in making
informed financial decisions that support the organization's goals and objectives.
However, effective fiscal management requires a clear understanding of the
organization's goals and objectives, as well as an understanding of the external factors
that may impact the organization, such as economic conditions and changing industry
trends.
It also requires the availability of necessary resources and the effective
implementation of the policies and procedures, as well as the support and cooperation
of the management and the employees.
PART II. SECONDARY. (AFFECTIVE) Answer the following questions based on your
sound legal and moral judgement. (10x3=30 pts)
As a good administrator, how would you reconcile the tension among the
recommended curriculum and the written curriculum, in one hand and the supported
curriculum, the taught curriculum, the tested curriculum, and the learned curriculum,
on the other hand? Operationalize your answer in the case of the present k to 12
curriculum. Relate your answer to the learning continuity during the time of Covid-19
pandemic through blended learning delivery modality.
As a good administrator, I would reconcile the tension among the
recommended curriculum and the written curriculum, on one hand, and the supported
curriculum, the taught curriculum, the tested curriculum, and the learned curriculum,
on the other hand, by taking a comprehensive and holistic approach to curriculum
implementation.
In the case of the present K-12 curriculum, I would begin by ensuring that the
recommended curriculum is aligned with the written curriculum, and that it is supported
by appropriate resources and materials. This includes ensuring that teachers have
access to the necessary resources and materials, such as textbooks and lesson plans,
to effectively implement the curriculum.
Next, I would focus on ensuring that the taught curriculum is in line with the
written curriculum by providing professional development opportunities for teachers,
and by regularly monitoring and evaluating the implementation of the curriculum in the
classroom. This would include providing regular feedback to teachers on their teaching
practices and helping them to identify areas for improvement.
I would also ensure that the tested curriculum aligns with the taught curriculum
by developing and implementing appropriate assessments that accurately measure
student learning and progress.
Finally, I would focus on the learned curriculum by providing opportunities for
students to reflect on their learning and to apply what they have learned in real-world
contexts.
In the case of the learning continuity during the time of Covid-19 pandemic
through blended learning delivery modality, I would ensure that the recommended
curriculum is adapted to the blended learning setting by providing teachers with the
necessary training and support to effectively implement the curriculum in a virtual
setting.
 I would also ensure that the supported curriculum is aligned with the
recommended curriculum by providing students with access to appropriate resources
and materials, such as online textbooks and interactive learning activities, to support
their learning.
In addition, I would ensure that the taught curriculum is aligned with the
recommended curriculum by providing teachers with regular professional
development opportunities to enhance their teaching skills for the blended learning
delivery modality.
Finally, I would ensure that the tested curriculum aligns with the taught
curriculum by developing and implementing assessments that are appropriate for the
blended learning setting and that accurately measure student learning and progress.
Overall, my approach would be to ensure that all elements of the curriculum are
aligned and that all stakeholders are aware of the curriculum, its implementation and
its alignment with the current situation, in order to achieve a smooth learning continuity
during times of crisis like the Covid-19 pandemic.
2. Comment on this: According to Alvin Toffer, "the illiterate of the 21st Century
will not be those who cannot read and write but those who cannot Learn,
Relearn and unlearn."
Alvin Toffler's statement highlights the importance of lifelong learning in the 21st
century. In an ever-changing world, it's not enough to simply acquire knowledge and
skills, one must also be able to adapt and evolve to stay relevant.
Being able to learn, relearn and unlearn is essential for success in the modern world.
As technology and society change, individuals must be able to acquire new knowledge
and skills to keep up. They must also be able to let go of outdated information and
ways of thinking in order to make room for new ideas and perspectives.
Furthermore, the ongoing changes in the world of work and the economy are
demanding from individuals to be able to adapt to new roles, career changes and
continuously update their knowledge and skills, which is not possible without learning,
relearning and unlearning.
In this sense, being literate in the 21st century means being able to continuously learn
and adapt, rather than just being able to read and write. This is why lifelong learning
and continuous skill development are becoming increasingly important in today's
world.
3. In your own reflection, what are the benefits and advantages of having a
school head who actively acts as a Learning Action Cell Facilitator?
There are many benefits and advantages of having a school head who actively
acts as a Learning Action Cell (LAC) facilitator. Some of the main ones include:
1. Improved teacher professional development: A school head who actively
facilitates LACs can provide teachers with the opportunity to reflect on their practice
and learn from one another. This can lead to improved teaching and learning
outcomes, as teachers are better able to implement new strategies and ideas in the
classroom.
2. Increased teacher buy-in: When a school head is actively involved in LACs, it
sends a message to teachers that professional development is a priority and that their
input is valued. This can increase teacher buy-in and engagement in professional
development activities.
3. Better alignment of school and district goals: A school head who facilitates
LACs can ensure that the professional development activities align with both school
and district goals, leading to better alignment and integration of curriculum and
instruction across the school.
4. Increased teacher collaboration: LACs provide an opportunity for teachers to
work together and share ideas. This can lead to increased collaboration, which can
help to foster a positive and supportive school culture and lead to better student
outcomes.
5. Better management and use of resources: A school head who actively
facilitates LACs can help to ensure that resources are being used effectively and
efficiently to support teacher professional development.
6. Improved implementation of alternative delivery mode of education: A school
head who actively facilitates LACs can be able to effectively implement alternative
delivery mode of education like blended learning during the Covid-19 pandemic.
In conclusion, having a school head who actively acts as a LAC facilitator can
provide many benefits, including improved teacher professional development,
increased teacher buy-in, better alignment of school and district goals, increased
teacher collaboration, better management and use of resources, and improved
implementation of alternative delivery mode of education.
PART III. TERTIARY. (PSYCHOMOTOR). Answer the following questions based on
sound public ethics and accountability theories and concepts. (2x10=20 pts)
1. According to Cordero and Ponopio (1969), the behavior of the human being
is largely influence by the structure and function of the social organization in which we
live. On the other hand, the behavior of the people is largely influence by the
organization. Relating this organizational conundrum to the full implementation of R.A.
10533 OTHERWISE KNOWN AS “THE Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013,” how
would you address the predominance of the following traditional Filipino values in the
Philippine educational system that center on the family like:
a. close family ties
b. Compadrzco or compadre system (padrino system)
c. Social system rather than merit
d. Sense of pity (awa)
e. Sense of self -esteem (amor propio),
f. Sense of camaraderie (pakikisama)
g. Sense of gratitude with unending reciprocity (utang na loo)
h. Sense of authority (authoritarianism)
i. fatalism (bahala na attitude)
j. Declining enthusiasm (ningas cogon)
Addressing the predominance of traditional Filipino values in the Philippine
educational system that center on the family can be challenging, but there are a few
strategies that can be implemented to help address these issues.
1. Close family ties: Encourage open communication and collaboration between
the school and families. This can be done through regular parent-teacher conferences,
family nights, and other events that bring families and educators together.
2. Compadrismo or compadre system: Address and discourage nepotism and
favoritism based on family connections. This can be done through strict policies and
procedures that ensure fair and impartial hiring and promotion practices.
3. Social system rather than merit: Encourage a culture of meritocracy within the
school. This can be done through regular evaluations and assessments that are based
on objective criteria and are not influenced by social connections.
4. Sense of pity: Encourage empathy and compassion but discourage pity. This
can be done through teaching and promoting empathy and understanding of others
without promoting pity.
5. Sense of self-esteem: Encourage self-esteem and self-respect. This can be
done through teaching self-compassion and self-care, and promoting self-esteem
through positive affirmations and positive self-talk.
6. Sense of camaraderie: Encourage teamwork and cooperation. This can be
done through collaborative activities and projects, and through promoting a culture of
respect and collaboration within the school.
7. Sense of gratitude with unending reciprocity: Encourage gratitude and
generosity. This can be done through teaching and promoting the value of gratitude
and generosity, and through encouraging students to give back to their community
through service projects.
8. Sense of authority: Encourage respect and cooperation. This can be done
through promoting a culture of respect and collaboration within the school, and through
encouraging students to take an active role in their own learning and decision-making.
9. Fatalism: Encourage a growth mindset and resilience. This can be done
through teaching and promoting the value of perseverance, and through encouraging
students to take an active role in their own learning and decision-making.
10. Declining enthusiasm: Encourage enthusiasm and motivation. This can be
done through teaching and promoting the value of enthusiasm and motivation, and
through encouraging students to take an active role in their own learning and decision-
making.

2. As a newly- designated school head, the school division superintendent has

requested you to come up with the learning continuity plan, in the time of
Covid-19 Pandemic. Your new school is catering the learners in difficult
circumstances (i,e; learners with diagnose difficulty in mobility,
communication, mental processes, etc.), the adult learners (i,e.. ALS
learners), the minority (i,e. the IPED learners), the Muslim Learners, and the
 special interest learners, (i.e., the SPA, SPS, SPJ,learners) How would you
go about doing it? Specifically cite the type of learning delivery modality that
you will implement in your school. Explain the term you use. Provide
concrete examples.
As a newly-designated school head, I would first conduct a needs assessment
to understand the specific circumstances and challenges faced by each of the different
learner groups in my school. This would involve consultation with teachers, parents,
and relevant stakeholders to identify the unique needs of each group and to gather
information on the resources and support that are currently available.
Based on the findings of the needs assessment, I would then develop a learning
continuity plan that incorporates a blended learning delivery modality. This would
involve a combination of online and offline learning strategies to ensure that all
learners have access to quality education, regardless of their location or
circumstances.
For learners with diagnosed difficulties in mobility, communication, or mental
processes, I would use an assistive technology-based approach that incorporates
tools such as text-to-speech software, digital voice recorders, and digital whiteboards.
This would allow these learners to access and engage with the curriculum in ways that
are tailored to their individual needs.
For adult learners, I would use a self-paced, online learning approach that
allows them to study at their own convenience and at their own pace. This could
include a combination of video lectures, interactive quizzes, and online discussions,
as well as regular check-ins with a teacher or mentor.
For minority learners, such as IPED and Muslim learners, I would use a
culturally responsive approach that incorporates their cultural background and values
into the curriculum. This could involve incorporating local languages and customs into
the curriculum and providing cultural sensitivity training for teachers.
For special interest learners, I would use a differentiated instruction approach
that allows learners to explore their interests and passions within the curriculum. This
could include opportunities for project-based learning, hands-on activities, and
mentorship programs with experts in the field.
Overall, my learning continuity plan would be flexible and adaptable, taking into
account the unique needs of each learner group and the ever-changing situation of
the pandemic. It would also involve regular monitoring and evaluation to ensure that
the plan is meeting the needs of the learners and making adjustments as necessary.

Prepared and Submitted by:

THERESA T. REYES
Student PhD. EM