0 | Preliminaries 21

2. If α and β are one-to-one, then βα is one-to-one.

3. If α and β are onto, then βα is onto.
4. If α is one-to-one and onto, then there is a function
α−1 from B onto A such that (α−1 α)(a) = a for all a
in A and (αα−1 )(b) = b for all b in B.

PROOF We prove only part 1. The remaining parts are left as ex-
ercises (Exercise 55). Let a ∈ A. Then (γ(βα))(a) = γ((βα)(a)) =
γ(β(α(a))). On the other hand, ((γβ)α)(a) = (γβ)(α(a)) =
γ(β(α(a))). So, γ(βα) = (γβ)α.
It is useful to note that if α is one-to-one and onto, the function
α−1 described in part 4 of Theorem 0.8 has the property that if
α(s) = t, then α−1 (t) = s. That is, the image of t under α−1 is the
unique element s that maps to t under α. In effect, α−1 “undoes”
what α does.

EXAMPLE 24 Let Z denote the set of integers, R the set of real

numbers, and N the set of nonnegative integers. The following
table illustrates the properties of one-to-one and onto.
Domain Range Rule One-to-One Onto
Z Z x → x3 Yes No
R R x → x3 Yes Yes
Z N x → |x| No Yes
Z Z x → x2 No No
To verify that x → x3 is one-to-one in the first two cases, notice
that if x3 = y 3 , we may take the cube roots of both sides of the
equation to obtain x = y. Clearly, the mapping from Z to Z given
by x → x3 is not onto, since 2 is the cube of no integer. However,
x → x3 defines an onto function from R√to R, since every real
number is the cube of its cube root (i.e., 3 b → b). The remaining
verifications are left to the reader.

Exercises
I was interviewed in the Israeli Radio for five minutes and I said that more
than 2000 years ago, Euclid proved that there are infinitely many primes.
Immediately the host interrupted me and asked: “Are there still infinitely
many primes?”
Noga Alon

1. For n = 5, 8, 12, 20, and 25, find all positive integers less
than n and relatively prime to n.
22 Integers and Equivalence Relations

2. Determine
a. gcd(2,10) lcm(2,10)
b. gcd(20,8) lcm(20,8)
c. gcd(12,40) lcm(12,40)
d. gcd(21,50) lcm(21,50)
e. gcd(p2 q 2 , pq 3 ) lcm(p2 q 2 , pq 3 ) where p and q are distinct
primes
3. Determine 51 mod 13, 342 mod 85, 62 mod 15, 10 mod 15,
(82·73) mod 7, (51+68) mod 7, (35·24) mod 11, and (47+68)
mod 11.
4. Find integers s and t such that 1 = 7 · s + 11 · t. Show that
s and t are not unique.
5. Prove that every integer that is a common multiple of every
member of a finite set of integers is a multiple of the least
common multiple of those integers.
6. Prove that for any three consecutive integers n, n + 1, n + 2
one must be divisible by 3.
7. Show that if a and b are positive integers, then ab =
lcm(a, b) · gcd(a, b).
8. Suppose a and b are integers that divide the integer c. If a
and b are relatively prime, show that ab divides c. Show, by
example, that if a and b are not relatively prime, then ab
need not divide c.
9. If a and b are integers and n is a positive integer, prove that
a mod n = b mod n if and only if n divides a − b.
10. Let d = gcd(a, b). If a = da′ and b = db′ , show that
gcd(a′ , b′ ) = 1.
11. Let n be a fixed positive integer greater than 1. If a mod
n = a′ and b mod n = b′ , prove that (a+b) mod n = (a′ +b′ )
mod n and (ab) mod n = (a′ b′ ) mod n. (This exercise is
referred to in Chapters 6, 8, 10, and 15.)
12. Let a and b be positive integers and let d = gcd(a, b) and
m = lcm(a, b). If t divides both a and b, prove that t divides
d. If s is a multiple of both a and b, prove that s is a multiple
of m.
13. Let n and a be positive integers and let d = gcd(a, n). Show
that the equation ax mod n = 1 has a solution if and only
 0 | Preliminaries 23

if d = 1. (This exercise is referred to in Chapter 2.)

14. Show that 5n + 3 and 7n + 4 are relatively prime for all n.
15. Suppose that m and n are relatively prime and r is any
integer. Show that there are integers x and y such that mx+
ny = r.
16. Let p, q, and r be primes other than 3. Show that 3 divides
p2 + q 2 + r 2 .
17. Prove that every prime greater than 3 can be written in the
form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5.
18. Determine 71000 mod 6 and 61001 mod 7.
19. Let a, b, s, and t be integers. If a mod st = b mod st, show
that a mod s = b mod s and a mod t = b mod t. What
condition on s and t is needed to make the converse true?
(This exercise is referred to in Chapter 8.)
20. If n is an integer greater than 1 and (n − 1)! = 1 mod n,
prove that n is prime.
21. Show that gcd(a, bc) = 1 if and only if gcd(a, b) = 1 and
gcd(a, c) = 1. (This exercise is referred to in Chapter 8.)
22. Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pn be primes. Show that p1 p2 · · · pn + 1 is di-
visible by none of these primes.
23. Prove that there are infinitely many primes. (Hint: Use Ex-
ercise 22.)
24. For any complex numbers z1 and z2 , prove that |z1 z2 | =
|z1 ||z2 |.
25. Give an “if and only if” statement that describes when the
logic gate x NAND y modeled by 1 + xy is 1. Give an “if
and only if” statement that describes when the logic gate x
XNOR y modeled by 1 + x + y is 1.
26. For inputs of 0 and 1 and mod 2 arithmetic describe the
output of the formula z + xy + xz in the form “If x . . . , else
. . ..”
27. For every positive integer n, prove that a set with exactly
n elements has exactly 2n subsets (counting the empty set
and the entire set).
28. Prove that 2n 32n − 1 is always divisible by 17.
24 Integers and Equivalence Relations

29. Prove that there is some positive integer n such that n,

n + 1, n + 2, . . . , n + 200 are all composite.
30. (Generalized Euclid’s Lemma) If p is a prime and p divides
a1 a2 . . . an , prove that p divides ai for some i.
31. Use the Generalized Euclid’s Lemma (see Exercise 30) to es-
tablish the uniqueness portion of the Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic.
32. What is the largest bet that cannot be made with chips
worth $7.00 and $9.00? Verify that your answer is correct
with both forms of induction.
33. Prove that the First Principle of Mathematical Induction is
a consequence of the Well Ordering Principle.
34. The Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . . . In
general, the Fibonacci numbers are defined by f1 = 1, f2 =
1, and for n ≥ 3, fn = fn−1 + fn−2 . Prove that the nth
Fibonacci number fn satisfies fn < 2n .
35. Prove by induction on n that for all positive integers n, n3 +
(n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 is a multiple of 9.
36. Suppose that there is a statement involving a positive inte-
ger parameter n and you have an argument that shows that
whenever the statement is true for a particular n it is also
true for n + 2. What remains to be done to prove the state-
ment is true for every positive integer? Describe a situation
in which this strategy would be applicable.
37. In the cut “As” from Songs in the Key of Life, Stevie Wonder
mentions the equation 8 × 8 × 8 = 4. Find all integers n for
which this statement is true, modulo n.
38. Prove that for every integer n, n3 mod 6 = n mod 6.
39. If it is 2:00 a.m. now, what time will it be 3736 hours from
now?
40. Determine the check digit for a money order with identifi-
cation number 7234541780.
41. Suppose that in one of the noncheck positions of a money
order number, the digit 0 is substituted for the digit 9 or vice
versa. Prove that this error will not be detected by the check
digit. Prove that all other errors involving a single position
are detected.
 0 | Preliminaries 25

42. Suppose that a money order identification number and check

digit of 21720421168 is erroneously copied as 27750421168.
Will the check digit detect the error?
43. A transposition error involving distinct adjacent digits is one
of the form . . . ab . . . → . . . ba . . . with a 6= b. Prove that the
money order check-digit scheme will not detect such errors
unless the check digit itself is transposed.
44. Explain why the check digit for a money order for the num-
ber N is the repeated decimal digit in the real number N ÷9.
45. The 10-digit International Standard Book Number (ISBN-
10) a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 has the property (a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 )·
(10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) mod 11 = 0. The digit a10 is the
check digit. When a10 is required to be 10 to make the dot
product 0, the character X is used as the check digit. Verify
the check digit for the ISBN-10 assigned to this book.
46. Suppose that an ISBN-10 has a smudged entry where the
question mark appears in the number 0-716?-2841-9. Deter-
mine the missing digit.
47. Suppose three consecutive digits abc of an ISBN-10 are
scrambled as bca. Which such errors will go undetected?
48. Let S be the set of real numbers. If a, b ∈ S, define a ∼ b if
a − b is an integer. Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation
on S. Describe the equivalence classes of S.
49. Let S be the set of integers. If a, b ∈ S, define aRb if ab ≥ 0.
Is R an equivalence relation on S ?
50. Let S be the set of integers. If a, b ∈ S, define aRb if a + b is
even. Prove that R is an equivalence relation and determine
the equivalence classes of S.
51. Complete the proof of Theorem 0.7 by showing that ∼ is an
equivalence relation on S.
52. Prove that 3, 5, and 7 are the only three consecutive odd
integers that are prime.

Computer Exercises
Computer exercises for this chapter are available at the website:

http://www.d.umn.edu/∼jgallian