MOVEMENT OF

WIND
METEOROLOGY

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

LO1 Describe the forces that affects air movement.

LO2 Explain how air temperature affect air pressure.

LO3 Discuss what is geostrophic wind.

LO4 Explain the difference between geostrophic and gradient

winds.

LO5 Discuss the effect of friction.

 OVERVIEW Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

A Look at a Weather Map We can

obtain a better picture of the middle-
latitude storm by examining a simplified
surface weather map (see Figure 1.1) for
the same time as the Figure 2 satellite
image.

In Figure 1.1, the red letter ''L'"s on

the map indicates regions of low
atmospheric pressure, called lows, or
cyclones, which mark the center of the
midlatitude storm. The blue letter "H'"s on
the map represent regions of high
pressure, called highs, or anticyclones. The
circle symbols on the map represent either
individual weather stations or cities where F I G U R E 1.1 Simplified surface
weather map taken at the same time as
observations are taken. Wind is the the satellite image shown in Figure 1.
horizontal movement of air and has both The numbers on the map represent air
temperatures in oc.
direction and speed. Wind direction is
defined as the direction that the wind is
blowing from. On weather maps, wind Notice how the wind blows around
direction is shown by the shaft lines that the highs and the lows. The horizontal
point toward the weather station symbol. pressure differences create a force that
Wind speed is indicated by the size and starts the air moving from higher pressure
number of barbs on the wind-direction toward lower pressure. The winds are
shafts. Each barb represents 10 knots slowed down near Earth's surface
(18.5km h-1 or 5.1 m s- 1.) because of its roughness, or friction.
Because of Earth's rotation, the winds are
deflected from their path toward the right
in the Northern Hemisphere. This
deflection, combined with friction due to
Earth's surface, causes the winds to blow
clockwise and outward from the center of
highs and counterclockwise and inward
toward the center of lows.

Also notice by comparing Figures

1.1 and 1.2 that in the regions of high
pressure, skies are generally clear. As the
surface air flows outward away from the
center of a high, air sinking from above
F I G U R E 1.2 This satellite image
must replace the laterally spreading
(taken in the infrared) shows a variety of surface air. Since sinking air does not
usually produce clouds, we find generally
cloud patterns and storms in Earth's
atmosphere on September 28, 2009, at
12:00 UTC. Clouds are colder than the clear skies and fair weather associated
ground and are coloured white in the
image. The coloured base map and with the regions of high atmospheric
weather fronts are added after the image is
taken.
pressure.
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION

Why the Wind Blows??

W ind is the natural movement of air or

other gases relative to a planet’s
surface. Winds occur on a range of
scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of
minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of
land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global
winds resulting from the difference in absorption of
solar energy between the climate zones on Earth.
The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric
circulation are the differential heating between the
equator and the poles, and the rotation of the
planet (Coriolis effect). Within the tropics and
subtropics, thermal low circulations over terrain
and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations.
In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle
can define local winds; in areas that have variable F I G U R E 1.3 Both air pressure
and air density decrease with
terrain, mountain and valley breezes can prevail. increasing altitude.

A BRIEF LOOK AT AIR PRESSURE AND

AIR DENSITY atmosphere may be measured in terms of the total
mass of the air above any point.
Air molecules are held near the earth by
gravity. This strong, invisible force pulling down As we climb in elevation, fewer air
on the air above squeezes (compresses) air molecules are above us; hence, atmospheric
molecules closer together, which causes their
pressure always decreases with increasing height.
number in each volume to increase. The more air Like air density, air pressure decreases rapidly at
above a level, the greater the squeezing effect or first, then more slowly at higher levels (see Fig.
compression. Since air density is the number of air 1.3).
molecules in a given space (volume), it follows that
air density is greatest at the surface and decreases Presently, the most common unit for air
as we move up into the atmosphere. pressure found on surface weather maps is the
millibar (mb), although the hectopascal* (hPa) is
Notice in Fig. 1.3 that, owing to the fact that gradually replacing the millibar as the preferred
the air near the surface is compressed, air density unit of pressure on surface maps. Another unit of
normally decreases rapidly at first, then more pressure is inches of mercury (Hg), which is
slowly as we move farther away from the surface. commonly used both in the field of aviation and in
television and radio weather broadcasts.
Air molecules have weight. *In fact, air is
surprisingly heavy. The weight of all the air around Figure 1.4 (and Fig. 1.3) illustrates how
the earth is a staggering 5600 trillion tons. The rapidly air pressure decreases with height. Near sea
weight of the air molecules acts as a force upon the level, atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly,
earth. The amount of force exerted over an area of whereas at high levels it decreases more slowly.
surface is called atmospheric pressure or, simply, With a sea-level pressure near 1000 mb, we can see
air pressure. The pressure at any level in the
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

in Fig. 1.6 that, at an altitude of only 5.5 km (or 3.5 the bar is a relatively large unit, and because
mi), the air pressure is about 500 mb, or half of the surface pressure changes are normally small, the
sea-level pressure. This situation means that, if you unit of pressure most commonly found on surface
were at a mere 18,000 feet (ft) above the surface, weather maps is the millibar (mb), where one
you would be above one-half of all the molecules in millibar is equal to one-thousandth of a bar.
the atmosphere. Presently the hectopascal (hPa)* is gradually
replacing the millibar as the preferred unit of
pressure on surface maps. A common pressure unit
used in aviation and on television and radio weather
broadcasts is inches of mercury (Hg) “inches of
mercury” is obtained is found in the following
section on barometers.

The aneroid barometer.

F I G U R E 1.4 Atmospheric
pressure decreases rapidly with height.
Climbing to an altitude of only 5.5 km,
where the pressure is 500 mb, would
Near the earth’s surface, atmospheric
put you above one-half of the pressure decreases on the average by about 10 mb
atmosphere’s molecules.
for every 100 m increase in elevation (about 1 in.
of mercury for each 1000-ft rise).* Notice in Fig.
At an elevation approaching the summit of 1.5a that city A has a station pressure of 952 mb.
Mount Everest (about 9 km or 29,000 ft), the air Notice also that city A is 600 m above sea level.
pressure would be about 300 mb. The summit is Adding 10 mb per 100 m to its station pressure
above nearly 70 percent of all the molecules in the yields a sea-level pressure of 1012 mb (Fig. 1.5b).
atmosphere. At an altitude of about 50 km, the air After all the station pressures are adjusted to sea
pressure is about 1 mb, (*One hectopascal equals
1 millibar.) which means that 99.9 percent of all the
molecules are below this level. Yet the atmosphere
extends upwards for many hundreds of kilometers,
gradually becoming thinner and thinner until it
ultimately merges with outer space.

MEASURING AIR PRESSURE

Up to this point, Instruments that detect and

measure pressure changes are called barometers,
which literally means an instrument that measures F I G U R E 1.5
bars. In meteorology, the bar is a unit of pressure
that describes a force over a given area. *Because
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

level (Fig. 1.5b), we are able to see the horizontal

variations in sea-level pressure—something we
were not able to see from the station pressures
alone in Fig. 1.5a.

When more pressure data are added, the

chart can be analyzed, and the pressure pattern
visualized. Isobars (lines connecting points of
equal pressure) are drawn as solid dark lines at
intervals of 4 mb, with 1000 mb being the base
value. F I G U R E 1.6 The pressure gradient
between point 1 and point 2 is 4 mb per 100
km. The net force directed from higher
FORCES THAT INFLUENCE THE WIND toward lower pressure is the pressure
gradient force.

We have already learned that horizontal

gradient force (PGF), *is directed from higher
differences in atmospheric pressure cause air to
toward lower pressure at right angles to the
move and, hence, the wind to blow. Since air is an
isobars. The magnitude of the force is directly
invisible gas, it may be easier to see how pressure
related to the pressure gradient. Steep pressure
differences cause motion if we examine a visible
gradients correspond to strong pressure gradient
fluid, such as water.
forces and vice versa. Figure 1.7 shows the
An object will always accelerate in the relationship between pressure gradient and
direction of the total force acting on it. Therefore, pressure gradient force.
to determine in which direction the wind will blow,
we must identify and examine all of the forces that
affect the horizontal movement of air. These forces
include:
1. pressure gradient force
2. Coriolis force
3. centripetal force
4. friction

PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE

In Fig. 1.6, the pressure gradient between points 1
and 2 is 4 mb per 100 km. Suppose the pressure in
F I G U R E 1.7 The closer the spacing
Fig. 1.6 were to change, and the isobars become of the isobars, the greater the pressure
closer together. This condition would produce a gradient. The greater the pressure gradient,
the stronger the pressure gradient force
rapid change in pressure over a relatively short (PGF). The stronger the PGF, the greater
the wind speed. The red arrows represent
distance, or what is called a steep (or strong) the relative magnitude of the force, which
is always directed from higher toward
pressure gradient. However, if the pressure were to lower pressure.
change such that the isobars spread farther apart,
then the difference in pressure would be small over The pressure gradient force is the force that
a relatively large distance. This condition is called causes the wind to blow. Because of this fact,
a gentle (or weak) pressure gradient. closely spaced isobars on a weather chart indicate
steep pressure gradients, strong forces, and high
Notice in Fig. 1.6 that when differences in
winds. On the other hand, widely spaced isobars
horizontal air pressure exist there is a net force
indicate gentle pressure gradients, weak forces, and
acting on the air. This force, called the pressure
light winds. An example of a steep pressure
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

F I G U R E 1.8 Surface weather map for 6

A.M. (CST), Tuesday, November 10, 1998.
Dark gray lines are isobars with units in
millibars. The interval between isobars is 4
mb. A deep low with a central pressure of 972
mb (28.70 in.) is moving over northwestern
Iowa. The distance along the green line X-X'
is 500 km. The difference in pressure between
X and X' is 32 mb, producing a pressure
gradient of 32 mb/500 km. The tightly packed
isobars along the green line are associated
with strong northwesterly winds of 40 knots,
with gusts even higher. Wind directions are
given by lines that parallel the wind. Wind
speeds are indicated by barbs and flags. (A
wind indicated by the symbol would be a
wind from the northwest at 10 knots. See
green insert.) The solid blue line is a cold
front, the solid red line a warm front, and the
solid purple line an occluded front. The heavy
dashed line is a trough.

gradient producing strong winds is illustrated on path in the Southern Hemisphere. To illustrate,
the surface weather map in 1.8. consider a satellite in polar circular orbit. If the
earth were not rotating, the path of the satellite
Notice that the tightly packed isobars along would be observed to move directly from north to
the green line are producing a steep pressure south, parallel to the earth’s meridian lines.
gradient of 32 mb per 500 km and strong surface However, the earth does rotate, carrying us and
winds of 40 knots. If the pressure gradient force meridians eastward with it. Because of this
were the only force acting upon air, we would rotation, in the Northern Hemisphere we see the
always find winds blowing directly from higher satellite moving southwest instead of due south; it
toward lower pressure. However, the moment air seems to veer off its path and move toward its right.
starts to move, it is deflected in its path by the In the Southern Hemisphere, the earth’s direction
Coriolis force. of rotation is clockwise as viewed from above the
South Pole. Consequently, a satellite moving
CORIOLIS FORCE northward from the South Pole would appear to
move northwest and, hence, would veer to the left
This apparent force is called the Coriolis
of its path.
force after Gaspard Coriolis, a nineteenth-century
French scientist who worked it out mathematically. As the wind speed increases, the Coriolis
(Because it is an apparent force due to the rotation force increases; hence, the stronger the wind, the
of the earth, it is also called the Coriolis effect.) greater the deflection. Additionally, the Coriolis
This effect occurs on the rotating earth, too. All free force increases for all wind speeds from a value of
moving objects, such as ocean currents, aircraft, zero at the equator to a maximum at the poles. This
artillery projectiles, and air molecules seem to phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 1.9 where three
deflect from a straight-line path because the earth aircraft, each at a different latitude, are flying along
rotates under them. a straight-line path, with no external forces acting
on them. The destination of each aircraft is due east
The Coriolis force causes the wind to
and is marked on the illustration in Fig. 1.9a. Each
deflect to the right of its intended path in the
plane travels in a straight path relative to an
Northern Hemisphere and to the left of its intended
observer positioned at a fixed spot in space. The
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

F I G U R E 2.1

F I G U R E 1.9

earth rotates beneath the moving planes, causing

the destination points at latitudes 30° and 60° to With this information in mind, we will first
change direction slightly—to the observer in space examine how the pressure gradient force and the
(see Fig. 1.9b). To an observer standing on the Coriolis force produce straight-line winds aloft
earth, however, it is the plane that appears to (that is, above the friction layer). We will then see
deviate. The amount of deviation is greatest toward what influence the centripetal force has on winds
the pole and nonexistent at the equator. Therefore, that blow along a curved path.
the Coriolis force has a far greater effect on the
plane at high latitudes (large deviation) than on the STRAIGHT-LINE FLOW ALOFT Earlier in
plane at low latitudes (small deviation). On the this chapter, we saw that the winds aloft on an
equator, it has no effect at all. The same is true of upper-level chart blow more or less parallel to the
its effect on winds. In addition, the Coriolis force isobars or contour lines. We can see why this
acts at right angles to the wind, only influencing phenomenon happens by carefully looking at Fig.
wind direction and never wind speed. 2.1, which shows a map of the Northern
Hemisphere, above the earth’s frictional
The Coriolis force behaves as a real force, influence,* with horizontal pressure variations at
constantly tending to “pull” the wind to its right in an altitude of about 1 km above the earth’s surface.
the Northern Hemisphere and to its left in the The evenly spaced isobars indicate a constant
Southern Hemisphere. Moreover, this effect is pressure gradient force (PGF) directed from south
present in all motions relative to the earth’s surface. toward north as indicated by the arrow at the left.
However, in most of our everyday experiences, the
Coriolis force is so small (compared to other forces Why, then, does the map show a wind
involved in those experiences) that it is negligible blowing from the west? We can answer this
and contrary to popular belief, does not cause water question by placing a parcel of air at position 1 in
to turn clockwise or counterclockwise when the diagram and watching its behavior.
draining from a sink.

The Coriolis force is also minimal on small-

scale winds, such as those that blow inland along
coasts in summer. Here, the Coriolis force might be
strong because of high winds, but the force cannot
produce much deflection over the relatively short
distances. Only where winds blow over vast
regions is the effect significant.
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

At position 1, the PGF acts immediately

upon the air parcel, accelerating it northward
toward lower pressure. However, the instant the air
begins to move, the Coriolis force deflects the air
toward its right, curving its path. As the parcel of
air increases in speed (positions 2, 3, and 4), the
magnitude of the Coriolis force increases (as shown
by the longer arrows), bending the wind more and
F I G U R E 2.2 The isobars and contours
more to its right. Eventually, the wind speed on an upper-level chart are like the banks
increases to a point where the Coriolis force just along a flowing stream. When they are
widely spaced, the flow is weak; when they
balances the PGF. At this point (position 5), the are narrowly spaced, the flow is stronger. The
increase in winds on the chart results in a
wind no longer accelerates because the net force is stronger Coriolis force (CF), which balances
zero. Here the wind flows in a straight path, parallel a larger pressure gradient force (PGF).

to the isobars at a constant speed.* This flow of air

is called a geostrophic (geo: earth; strophic: As we would expect from our previous
turning) wind. Notice that the geostrophic wind discussion of winds, the speed of the geostrophic
blows in the Northern Hemisphere with lower wind is directly related to the pressure gradient. In
pressure to its left and higher pressure to its right. Fig. 6.16, we can see that a geostrophic wind
flowing parallel to the isobars is similar to water in
When the flow of air is purely geostrophic, a stream flowing parallel to its banks.
the isobars (or contour lines) are straight and evenly
spaced, and the wind speed is constant. In the CURVED WINDS AROUND LOWS AND
atmosphere, isobars are rarely straight or evenly HIGHS ALOFT Because lows are also known as
spaced, and the wind normally changes speed as it cyclones, the counterclockwise flow of air around
flows along. So, the geostrophic wind is usually them is often called cyclonic flow. Likewise, the
only an approximation of the real wind. However, clockwise flow of air around a high, or anticyclone,
the approximation is generally close enough to help is called anticyclonic flow. Look at the wind flow
us more clearly understand the behavior of the around the upper-level low (Northern Hemisphere)
winds aloft. in Fig. 2.3a. At first, it appears as though the wind
is defying the Coriolis force by bending to the left

F I G U R E 2.3 Winds and related forces around areas of low and high pressure above the friction level in the
Northern Hemisphere. Notice that the pressure gradient force (PGF) is in red, while the
Coriolis force (CF) is in blue.
 Chapter 1: Pressure, Density and Wind

as it moves counterclockwise around the system. The frictional drag of the ground slows the
wind down. Because the effect of friction decreases
Suppose we consider a parcel of air initially as we move away from the earth’s surface, wind
at rest at position 1 in Fig. 2.3a. The pressure speeds tend to increase with height above the
gradient force accelerates the air inward toward the ground. The atmospheric layer that is influenced by
center of the low and the Coriolis force deflects the friction, called the friction layer (or planetary
moving air to its right, until the air is moving boundary layer), usually extends upward to an
parallel to the isobars at position 2. If the wind were altitude near 1000 m or 3000 ft above the surface,
geostrophic, at position 3 the air would move but this altitude may vary somewhat since both
northward parallel to straight-line isobars at a strong winds and rough terrain can extend the
constant speed. The wind is blowing at a constant region of frictional influence.
speed, but parallel to curved isobars. A wind that
blows at a constant speed parallel to curved isobars In Fig. 6.19a, the wind aloft is blowing at a
above the level of frictional influence is termed a level above the frictional influence of the ground.
gradient wind. At this level, the wind is approximately geostrophic
and blows parallel to the isobars with the pressure
When an object accelerates there is a gradient force (PGF) on its left balanced by the
change in its speed or direction (or both). Coriolis force (CF) on its right. Notice, however,
Therefore, the gradient wind blowing around the that at the surface the wind speed is slower.
low-pressure center is constantly accelerating Apparently, the same pressure gradient force aloft
because it is constantly changing direction. This will not produce the same wind speed at the
acceleration, called the centripetal acceleration, is surface, and the wind at the surface will not blow
directed at right angles to the wind, inward toward in the same direction as it does aloft.
the low center.
Near the surface, friction reduces the wind
Again, look closely at position 3 (Fig. 2.3a) speed, which in turn reduces the Coriolis force.
and observe that the inward-directed pressure Consequently, the weaker Coriolis force no longer
gradient force (PGF) is greater than the outward- balances the pressure gradient force, and the wind
directed Coriolis force (CF). The difference blows across the isobars toward lower pressure.
between these forces—the net force—is the The pressure gradient force is now balanced by the
inward-directed centripetal force. In Fig. 2.3b, the sum of the frictional force and the Coriolis force.
wind blows clockwise around the center of the Therefore, in the Northern Hemisphere, we find
high. The spacing of the isobars tells us that the surface winds blowing counterclockwise and into a
magnitude of the PGF is the same as in Fig. 2.a. low; they flow clockwise and out of a high (see Fig.
However, to keep the wind blowing in a circle, the 2.4b).
inward-directed Coriolis force must now be greater
in magnitude than the outward-directed pressure
gradient force, so that the centripetal force (again,
the net force) is directed inward.

SURFACE WINDS

Winds on a surface weather map do not

blow exactly parallel to the isobars; instead, they
cross the isobars, moving from higher to lower
pressure. The angle at which the wind crosses the
isobars varies, but averages about 30°. The reason F I G U R E 2.4 The effect of surface friction is to slow down the wind
so that, near the ground, the wind crosses the isobars and blows toward
for this behavior is friction. lower pressure. This phenomenon produces an outflow of
air around a high and an inflow around a low.