EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE - Some form of energy from lightning combined with the chemicals in the

atmosphere to make the building blocks of protein known as the amino

1: EVOLVING CONCEPT OF LIFE acids.

Biology is a science that deals with all forms of life, including Coacervate theory - it is expressed by the Russian biochemist A.I. Oparin in
their classification, physiology, chemistry, and interactions. The term 1936 suggesting that the origin of life was preceded by the formation of
was introduced in Germany in 1800 and popularized by the French mixed colloidal units called coacervates. These are particles composed of
naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck as a means of encompassing the two or more colloids which might be protein, lipid, or nucleic acid. He
growing number of disciplines involved with the study of living forms. proposed that while these molecules were not living, they behaved like
Where did life begin? biological systems in the ancient seas. They were subject to natural
selection in terms of constant size and chemical properties, there was a
Theories: Theory of Special creation, in accordance with the Book of
selective accumulation of material, and they reproduced by fragmentation.
Genesis, that every species was individually created by God in the
form in which it exists today and is not capable of undergoing Miller-Urey hypothesis. The first hypothesis where lightning could have
any change. operated the synthesis reactions in the Earth’s early atmosphere was
tested by in 1953. It provided the first evidence that organic molecules
Cosmozoic Theory (Panspermia Theory) – the idea proposed by Richter in
needed for life could be formed from inorganic components. Some
1865 and supported by Arrhenius (1908). According to this theory, life
scientists support the RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that the first
has reached the planet Earth from other heavenly bodies such as
life was self-replicating RNA.
meteorites, in the form of highly resistant spores of some
microorganisms. The spores of some microorganisms are called cosmozoa
or panspermia because they are preserved inside meteorites coming to the
Fossil Evidence
earth from the outer space. These meteorites struck the barren earth to
release the cosmozoa and they developed into different creatures on the - Fossil evidence indicates that life on Earth appeared about 3.5 billion years
earth ago in the oceans
Theory of Spontaneous Generation also known as Abiogenesis, the idea that - Provided protection from Ultraviolet (UV) rays Allowed multidirectional
life arose from non-life more than 3.5 billion years ago on Earth. movement
Abiogenesis proposes that the first life-forms generated were very simple
and through a gradual process became increasingly complex. - Served as a medium for essential chemical reactions.

Biogenesis Theory - life is derived from the reproduction of other life, was - Anaerobic prokaryotes Early forms of life
presumably preceded by abiogenesis, which became impossible once - The first forms of life are believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years
Earth’s atmosphere assumed its present composition. ago.
Primordial Soup Theory - According to primordial soup theory proposed by - Photosynthetic organisms are organisms who make their own food by
Alexander Oparin and John Haldane, life started in a primordial soup of utilizing the energy from the sun and the carbon dioxide in the
organic molecules. atmosphere. The process of photosynthesis produces more oxygen that
changed the Earth’s early atmosphere, allowed oxygen-breathing organisms
to exist.
- Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are the first photosynthetic organisms to simultaneously contributing to the formation of the simple organic
form. compounds in Earth’s early seas—where early life could have started.

The Early Life - The formation of planets did not use up all the materials
orbiting the sun, so the early Earth received shower of meteorites and was
Extraterrestrial Materials - At present, meteorites that fall to Earth are often
struck by many asteroids. These extraterrestrial materials and the recurring
analyzed and was found out that some contains amino acids, sugars, and
volcanic eruptions paved the way for the formation of Earth’s land, seas,
nucleotide bases. These compounds (or their precursors) have been found
and atmosphere.
in gas clouds that surrounds nearby star. Thus, the third hypothesis—that
early life may have been brought about by the extraterrestrial materials that
fell on the early Earth received—was created. This hypothesis suggests that
It is still a matter of discussion, but geological evidence suggests that the
materials from space carried with them organic monomers that were
early Earth began with little or no free Oxygen (O2)—had O2 been present
formed from outer space.
iron oxidation (rust formation) in most ancient rocks would have been
observed, but no such sign of oxidation was found. Had O2 been present,
small organic compounds would have broken apart as quickly as
they formed due oxidation reactions 2: Unifying Themes in the Study of Life
All levels of life have systems of related parts.

We know that water is essential to life because molecules that are parts of - A system is an organized group of interacting parts.
life-sustaining processes would have to be dissolved in water. The Earth’s - A cell is a system of chemicals and processes. It is the basic unit of life.
lithosphere did not exist then, but it was covered by molted rock, hence
water was in the form of vapor. But as evidence from ancient rocks - A body system includes organs that interact.
suggests, Earth had cooled down 4.3 billion years ago causing pools of water - An ecosystem includes living and non-living things that interact.
to arise.
Structure and function are related in biology.

- Structure determines function.

Organic Monomers - Chemists thought that organic molecules were
only made by living organisms and it possessed a special vital force. - The structure is the shape of the object.
But in the early 1900, a chemist was able to make urea the organic molecule
- The function is the object’s specific role.
found in urine. Then another was able to synthesized and amino acid called
alanine. The synthesis of these molecules showed the possibility Organisms must maintain homeostasis to survive in diverse
that organic molecules can be formed synthetically.
environments.

- Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions.

In the present, there are three (3) main hypotheses that explain the
- All living organisms must live in a stable environment.
mechanism on how the organic monomers came about in early Earth. These
mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and might have set off Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life.
- Evolution is the change in living things over time. The genetic makeup of - The process of science includes observation-based discovery and the

a population of a species changes. testing of explanations through the hypothetic-deductive.

- It accounts for both the diversity and the unity of life. - Scientific credibility depends on the repeatability of observation and

Traits are being inherited and transferred. experiments.

- The continuity of life depends on the inheritance of biological Science, Technology and Society

information in the form of DNA molecules. - Many technologies are goal-oriented applications of science.

- The genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide sequences of the - The relationships of science and technology to society are now more

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). crucial to understand than ever before.

Organisms reproduce. 1. Biology is about the study of life.

- It is necessary part of living; process of making more of one’s own kind. 2. The unifying themes connect the different subdisciplines that make up

Organisms are interdependent with one another. biology as a science.

- Organisms have evolved to live and interact with other organisms. 3. The unifying themes of biology comprise the cell theory as a description
of
- Ecology deals with the interactions of living organisms with one another
living systems, continuity of life, interdependence of function and
and their environment.
structure, evolution, unity of living systems and the properties that arise
Organisms acquire and process energy.
from the organization of life.
- Living organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities.
4. The living organisms are composed of cells as what was discussed in the
- Some living organisms capture the light energy and convert it into
cell theory. The cell theory is the foundation of our understanding of
chemical energy in food.
reproduction and growth of organisms.
- Some living organisms use chemical energy stored in molecules obtained
5. The continuity of life is best explained by the molecular basis of
from food.
inheritance.
In addition to the properties mentioned, the two additional unifying themes
Heredity, which is the continuity of life from one generation to the next, is
in the study of life include the scientific inquiry and science, technology
dependent on correct copying of cell’s DNA into daughter cells.
and society.

Scientific Inquiry
3: Perpetuation of Life
REPRODUCTION - Reproduction is the creation of a new individual or - type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change
individuals from previously existing individuals. - Reproduction is a in the number of chromosomes.
fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the
result of reproduction. - is the production of offspring.

Features of Asexual Reproduction

MIEOSIS AND MITOSIS UNDERGO IN 4 DIFFERENT PHASES:
- It involves a single parent.
P - PROPHASE
- There is no gamete formation or fertilization.
M - METAPHASE
- The whole process takes place in a small period of time.
A - ANAPHASE
- Rapid multiplication and growth happen.
T - TELOPHASE
- There is limited variation (genetically similar offspring).
CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - mitosis is a part of the cell cycle in

which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
division by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total
number of chromosomes is maintained. 1. FISSION - the splitting of a unicellular organism into two or more separate
daughter cells.
MEIOSIS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Meiosis is a special type of cell division of
germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF FISSION:
such as sperm or egg cells. BINARY FISSION - it is the most common form of reproduction in
- Most Organisms are capable of complex and relatively rapid movement prokaryotes and occurs in some single-celled eukaryotes e.g. amoeba.
compared to plants and other organisms. MULTIPLE FISSION - this type of reproduction at the cellular level occurs in
- Most reproduce sexually, by means of differentiated eggs and sperm. many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae.

- Most animals are diploid, meaning that the cells of adults contain two 2. FRAGMENTATION - is another mode of asexual reproduction. Multi-
copies of the genetic material. cellular organisms like planaria, spirogyra, etc. Reproduce by fragmentation.
The parent body divides into two or more fragments. Later, each fragment
REPRODUCTION develops into a new individual.
ASEXUAL - is a mode of reproduction in which the new offspring arise from a Regeneration - is a type of asexual reproduction in which the organism is
single parent. The offspring are identical to each other, both physically as capable of regrowing certain body parts. Regeneration occurs via mitosis.
well as genetically. They are the exact copies of their parent cell. Hence, Lizards can regenerate their tails; star fish can regenerate their arms while
they are ‘clones’. We observe asexual reproduction in both unicellular and humans have the ability to regenerate their liver to a certain extent.
multicellular organisms.
FRAGMENTATION VS REGENERATION
Fragmentation occurs when an organism literally breaks off from itself. The PLANTS ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Asexual reproduction in plants occurs
broken fragments of the organism grow into individual separate organisms. through budding, fragmentation, vegetative propagation, and spore
On the other hand, regeneration is a form of asexual reproduction where formation. No flowers are required for this method.
the organism is capable of regrowing certain parts of its body when it loses
them.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
3. BUDDING - some organisms develop buds on their body. these buds
develop into new individuals. this is known as budding. an example is a 1. Naturally - Budding - where in a new plant is developed from an
hydra. from the parent hydra, a bud arises which eventually matures into a outgrowth known as the bud. A bud is generally formed due to cell division
new hydra. once it gets mature, it detaches from the parent body. at one particular site.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Vegetative Propagation - in which new plants are produced from the
vegetative parts of the plants, That is roots, stems or buds. Vegetative
- use of gametes.
propagation in plants can occur both by naturally or also can be artificially
- combination of genetic information of two individuals of different sexes. induced by horticulturists.

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - the release of both sperm and eggs into an THE MOST COMMON TECHNIQUES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ARE:
external environment; sperm will fertilize the egg outside of the organism,
- Stems – Roots - Leaves
as seen in spawning.
2. Artificially
INTERNAL REPORDUCTION - is the union of an egg and sperm cell during
sexual reproduction inside the female body. Cutting - A part of a plant is cut along with the node and is buried in the soil.
TYPES OF INTERNAL REPRODUCTION - The cutting is watered regularly.
OVIPARITY - the release of eggs outside the body after fertilization. the eggs - This is the cheapest method of vegetative propagation in plants.
may have been fertilized before the release.
Grafting - In this method, the parts of two different plants are joined
OVOVIVIPARITY - animals possess embryos that develop inside eggs that together such that they continue to grow as a single plant.
remain in the mother's body until they are ready to hatch. the eggs grow
inside the womb at the same time within the egg. - The rooted plant is known as the stock. The other plant is known as the
graft.
VIVIPARITY - animals that give birth to offspring are called viviparous. In
viviparous animals, both fertilizations, as well as the development of the
embryo, takes place inside the female reproductive system. Once the fetus Sexual Reproduction of Plants
development is complete, the mother delivers the baby
The flower is the reproductive part of a plant in other term, both male and
PLANT REPRODUCTION - is the production of new offspring in plants, which female gametes are produced by flowers. Sexual reproduction in plants
can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction. takes place in flowers.
PLANT SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - distinct male and female amount of PARTS OF FLOWER
genetic that create germ cells are produced.
- Petals - Sepals

- Stamen (Male Reproductive Part) pollen-producing reproductive organ of a

flower

- Pistil (Female Reproductive Part) produce ovules and ultimately develop

into the fruit and seeds.

SEXUALITY OF PLANTS

BISEXUAL - contains both male and female reproductive organ

UNISEXUAL - the flower has only male or female reproductive organ

POLLINATION - act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a

flower to the female stigma.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION - WIND, ANIMALS & WATER

TYPES OF POLLINATION - SELF-POLLINATION & CROSS-POLLINATION