PE 357: Petroleum Production

Engineering I
(Reservoir Deliverability)
S. Adjei, Ph.D.
 Objectives
• To introduce how to estimate and maximize production performance in a cost-
effective manner within various constraints from the oil and gas well systems
• To provide knowledge on the systems of oil and gas production facilities
• Appreciate the theoretical predictions of flowrates and pressure drops
• Determine bottomhole static and flowing pressure through calculations
• Appreciate gas lift, pump lift and gas compression techniques, sand control
procedures.

2
 Course Content
• WEEK 1 Reservoir deliverability
• WEEK 2 Introduction to Well Completion
• WEEK 3 Wellbore Performance
• WEEK 4 Well Deliverability
• Week 5 Choke Performance
• WEEK 6 Mid Semester Revision
• WEEK 7 Artificial Lift Methods
• WEEK 8 Software Practical ( Prosper)
• Week 9 Software Practical (Prosper)
• Week 10 Project Defence
• Week 11- 14- Revision And Exams

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 Reference Materials
• Allen, T.O., and Roberts, A.P. 2003. Production Operations: Well Completions,
Workover and Stimulation, Vol 1, fourth edition. Madison, Wisconsin: OGCI
• Allen, T.O., and Roberts, A.P. 2003. Production Operations: Well Completions,
Workover and Stimulation, Vol 2, fourth edition. Madison, Wisconsin: OGCI.
• Guo, B., Lyons, W.C. and Ghalambor, A., 2007. Petroleum Production
Engineering A Computer-Assisted Approach, Gulf Professional Publishing.
• Michael Economides, 2012, petroleum production systems, Second Edition
Prentice hall 2012

4
 Production System
• The production system is the system that transport reservoir fluids from the
subsurface reservoir to the surface, processes and treats the fluids, and prepares
the fluids for storage and transfer to the purchaser.

Components of the production system;

üReservoir; source of fluids; primary energy
üWellbore; conduit for access to the reservoir from the surface
üSurface wellhead
üChristmas tree
üFlowlines
üProcessing equipment
üArtificial lift equipment
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Fluid experiences pressure drop as it flows from reservoir into and through the production system.
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Pressure Traverse for A Producing Well t A
Constant Rate

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8
Christmas tree; to control flow

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• The wellhead, flowlines and processing equipment represent the surface
mechanical equipment required to control and process reservoir fluids at the
surface.
• Artificial lift equipment (subsurface pumps/injecting gas ) is installed to enhance
production rates by adding energy to the production system.
• Recognizing the various components of the production system and
understanding their interaction leads to improved well productivity through
analysis of the entire system.

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 The TASKS of a Production Engineer
• Deals with the well and gathering system
• Designing and selecting the equipment that will get the well to produce oil and
gas after it is drilled
• Recommend modifications to maximize the efficiency of oil and gas recovery
through the optimal use of the pressure drop as fluids flow to the surface.

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Inflow Performance Relationship

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 Reservoir Deliverability
• The obvious reason for testing a well is to determine what the production rate
measured at the stock tank will be if a certain backpressure is exerted at the
wellhead.

• The pressure reduction as fluid flows depends on the production rate, and
the production rate also depends on the pressure reduction.

• The understanding of this concept is important to predicting the performance

of individual oil and gas wells.

• Most efforts have concentrated on the formulation of simple equations

expressing the relationship between surface rate and bottomhole flowing
pressure over the practical range of production conditions. 13
• The IPR is used to define the relationship between the surface well rate and
the production rate and the wellbore flowing bottomhole pressure.
• The IPR can be determined directly by production test data or it can be
predicted from reservoir data.
• The correlations to model this behavior can be classified into empirically-
derived and analytically-derived correlations.
• The empirically derived are those derived from field or simulation data.
• The analytically-derived are hose derived from basic principle of mass balance
that describes multiphase flow within the reservoir.
• The bottomhole pressure is usually expressed at the depth of mid perforations.

• In a flowing well the bottom hole pressure is equal to the pressure drop in the
tubing plus the wellhead pressure.
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15
 SIGNIFICANCE
• IPR can be combined with tubing performance relationship (TPR) to monitor well
productivity (Production performance of the well).
• Knowledge from IPR is essential in designing production and artificial lift
equipment.
• Helps choose the proper remedial treatment options (acidizing, fracturing,
workover etc).

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 Factors Affecting Reservoir Deliverability
• Reservoir pressure
• Pay zone thickness and permeability
• Reservoir boundary type and distance
• Wellbore radius
• Reservoir fluid properties (viscosity)
• Near-wellbore condition (skin)
• Reservoir relative permeabilities
• Reservoir drive mechanism; water drive, solution gas drive, gas cap drive etc

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 Flow Regimes
1. Unsteady/ Transient flow
2. Pseudosteady state flow
3. Steady state flow

• The transient flow is a flow condition under which the radius of pressure wave propagation
from the wellbore has not reached the boundaries of the reservoir.
• During transient flow the developing pressure funnel is small, relative to the reservoir size.
• Therefore, the transient pressure behaves as if the reservoir were infinitely large.
• This definition suggests that the pressure derivative with respect to time is essentially a
function of both position, i and time, t.

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• Pseudosteady state flow: when the pressure at different locations in the reservoir is
declining linearly as a function of time, i.e., at a constant declining rate.
• Occurs when the pressure propagation has reached a no-flow boundary, e.g., sealing fault,
a pinch-out of the reservoir pay zone, or the boundaries of drainage areas of production
wells.
• Mathematically, this definition states that the rate of change of pressure with respect to
time at every position is constant, or

• Steady state flow: The flow regime is identified as a steady-state flow if the pressure at
every location in the reservoir remains constant, i.e., does not change with time.
• Occurs when there is a constant pressure boundary- water injection, aquifer.
• Mathematically, this condition is expressed as:

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20
 Productivity Index (PI/J)
• Defined as the measure of the well potential or ability to produce.
• It is the ratio of the total liquid flow rate to the pressure drawdown at the midpoint of the
producing interval.

𝑄
𝑃𝐼/𝐽 =
𝑃! − 𝑃"#
PI/J = Productivity index, STB/day/psi
Q = surface flow rate at standard conditions, STB/D
PR = average reservoir pressure, psi
Pwf = bottomhole flowing pressure / well sand-face mid-perf pressure, psi

• A subsurface pressure gauge is used to determine the average/static pressure after a sufficient
shut-in period and also the bottomhole flowing pressure after the well has flowed at a
stabilized rate for sufficient period of time.
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• The radial diffusivity equation is used to describe the flow of fluids through porous
media.
• The radial diffusivity equation for a slightly compressible liquid with a constant
viscosity (undersaturated oil or water) is;

• The radial diffusivity equation can be solved for numerous initial and boundary
conditions to describe the rate-pressure behavior for single-phase flow.

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• Transient flow around a vertical well
%
𝐽∗ =
&! '&"#

• Radial steady-state flow around a vertical well

%
𝐽∗ =
&! '&"#

• Pseudo–steady-state flow around a vertical well

%
𝐽 ∗ =&
! '&"#

S = Skin
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• If the no-flow boundaries delineate a non-circular drainage area, use the
following equation to predict the Pseudosteady-state flow.

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25
 Quantifying Formation Damage
• Formation damage refers to the impairment
in the near wellbore permeability.
• Damage of the bottomhole zone acts as a
choke, restricting the flow of fluid into the
well and gives additional pressure loss.
• The degree of damage of the bottomhole
zone can be evaluated by conducting a well
testing.
• Methods of quantifying formation damage
includes the skin factor and flow efficiency
concepts.

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 Skin Factor
• It is observed that due to skin the measured flowing bottom hole pressure is
less than that calculated theoretically.
• This is due to the additional pressure drop to a small zone of changed or
reduced permeability around the wellbore and called “invaded zone”, or
damaged zone, a skin zone.
• The degree of damage is given by Skin factor (S) and pressure loss is denoted by
∆𝑃!"#$
Normally, skin factors are determined using drill stem
testing (DST) or pressure buildup testing. If the skin
factor is known, the pressure drops across the damaged
zones can be estimated.

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 • Skin factor (S) is a parameter characterizing additional resistance to flow of
fluids in the near borehole zone of the reservoir, leading to reduced
production compared to the perfect (ideal) wells.

•First outcome: S>0 (positive), damaged well

•Second outcome: S<0 (negative), stimulated/improved well
•Third outcome: S=0, which indicates no changes in the wellbore condition.

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 Types of Skin
§ The mechanical or formation damage skin factors (Sd)
§ Completion pseudo skin factor (Sp)
§ Partial penetration skin factor (Spp)-
§ Geometrical pseudo skin factor (Sg)
§ Multiphase pseudo skin factor (Sm)
§ Non-Darcy flow or Rate-dependent high velocity or turbulent flow pseudoskin
factor (Sturb)

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 Flow Efficiency- Standing Method
𝑃%% − 𝑃&' − ∆𝑃!"#$ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝐹= =
𝑃%% − 𝑃&' 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

• A flow efficiency of 1 indicates an undamaged well with Δpskin = 0,

• A flow efficiency > 1 indicates a stimulated well (perhaps because of a hydraulic fracture),

• A flow efficiency < 1 indicates a damaged well

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 IPR MODELS
• Straight line IPR (Darcy)
• Vogel
• Fetkovich
• Jones et al.
• Wiggins

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Pressure Measurement - Basics

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Key points;
• Atm. Pressure is for per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air above that surface.
• Pressure at sea level is 1 atm.
• 1 atm is equivalent to 760 MMHG, 14.7 psi, 101 KPA, 1.013 bar
• Vacuum pressure is also known as negative pressure (not observed anywhere in the universe/ perfect vacuum pressure
33 is not
possible even in space).
• PSIA – pounds per square inch ABSOLUTE; Absolute pressure is pressure
relative to zero (vacuum), i.e, above vacuum.
• PSIG-Pounds per square inch GAUGE; Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure (shown by analog gauges)/ pressure above atmosphere.
Used to measure the pressure difference between a system and its
surrounding.
Absolute pressure (PSIA)= Atm pressure + Gauge pressure

PSIG is the default meaning when psi is mentioned. 34

 Straight Line IPR- Single Phase/Undersaturated Oil Reservoir

• According to the straight-line IPR, the rate is directly

proportional to pressure drawdown (PR-PWf).

• Here, the reservoir pressure is greater than the

bubble point pressure.

• This relationship was developed from Darcy’s law for

the steady-state radial flow of a single, incompressible
liquid.

For single phase oil flow, production rate is proportional to

pressure drawdown and therefore the IPR curve is a straight line
• The constant of proportionality is defined as the
"Productivity Index" (PI).

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• When the wellbore flowing pressure equals average reservoir/static pressure,
the rate is zero and no flow enters the wellbore due to absence of any pressure
drawdown.
• The maximum rate is the well's absolute open flow potential (AOFP) and
represents the flow rate that would occur if flowing bottom-hole pressure
(FBHP) could be reduced to zero (i.e, atmospheric conditions; 0 psig or
14.7 psia).

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• In practice, it is not possible to achieve this rate, and the AOFP is only used to compare the
deliverability of different wells.
• The well's PI can either be calculated from reservoir parameters or be measured by taking
flow rates at various FBHPs (Flow tets).
• One of the main objectives of production engineering is to maximize PI which can be
obtained by maximizing the flow rate for a given pressure drawdown or minimizing the
pressure drawdown (PR-Pwf) for a given flow rate.
• The productivity index is generally measured during a production test on the well. The well
is shut-in until the static reservoir pressure is reached. The well is then allowed to produce
at a constant flow rate and a stabilized bottom-hole flow pressure.

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• A well was tested at a bottomhole flowing pressure of 1,500 psi pressure and
produced = 1,000 bpd of oil. Shut-in bottomhole pressure (static pressure) was
2,500 psi. What is the well’s PI and what is the oil production rate at flowing
bottomhole pressure of 1,000 psi?

The rate at 1,000 psi is

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Calculation of IPR from Reservoir Data

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Construct IPR of a vertical well in an oil reservoir. Consider (1) transient flow at 1 month, (2) steady-state flow

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 For transient flow: Calculate 𝐽∗ and compute the q at different Pwf
%
𝐽∗ =
&! '&"#

%
𝐽∗ =
&!'&"#

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For steady state flow: Calculate 𝐽∗ and compute the q at different Pwf

%
𝐽∗ =
&!'&"#

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For Pseudo-steady state flow: Calculate J and compute the q at different Pwf

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 Two Phase Flow (Saturated Reservoir)
• The straight line IPR is less accurate for two phase system where the reservoir
pressure is below the bubble point pressure.
• Below the bubble-point pressure, the solution gas escapes from the oil and
become free gas.
• The free gas occupies some portion of pore space, which reduces flow of oil.
• The relative permeability is reduced.
• Oil viscosity increases.
• These factors result in lower oil production rate at a given bottom-hole
pressure.
• The IPR curve thus deviates from straight-line below the bubble point.

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Empirical Equations for the Analysis of Two-Phase
Flow

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• Vogel IPR – for solution gas drive ; PR < Pb

q – production rate at a given Pwf 46

qmax= maximum production rate/ potential of the well
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 Vogel With Reservoir Data - Example

Assume Pseudosteady state flow regime

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After obtaining maximum production rate, compute the production
rate at various flowing bottomhole pressure

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• From Production Test;

• One must first determine the oil production rate and flowing bottomhole
pressure from production tests (flow tests).
• Obtain an estimate of the average reservoir pressure at the time of the test.
• With this information, the maximum oil production rate (say of well A) can be
estimated and used to estimate the production rates to use (say of well B and
C)—(for wells presumed to communicate/ close proximity) for other flowing
bottomhole pressures at the current average reservoir pressure.
• Note that these estimates may be totally different from actual case.

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 Test Point
• Vogel

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53
54
• The following test was conducted on a solution gas drive well. Static Reservoir
pressure was 2000 psi, The flowing bottomhole pressure was 1500 psi and the
stabilized production rate was 65 bbl/d. Compute the potential of the well and
flow rate at 1500 psi.

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 65
𝑄()* = +
1500 1500
1 − 0.2 2000 − 0.8 2000

𝑞()* = 162.5 𝑏𝑝𝑑

𝑄, = 146 𝑏𝑝𝑑

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IPR from Multi Test point for 2 Phase;

Vogel;

After obtaining qmax, q for other bottomhole flowing pressures can be

determined.

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AVERAGE RESERVOIR PRESSURE = 3000 PSI

Test Rate Pwf (psia) Q *(STB/D)

1 2000 500

2 1000 800

Compute the production rate at say 1500 psig

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 Fetkovich
8
Qo= 𝐶 𝑃" 7 − 𝑃56
7

" shut-in reservoir pressure

𝑃=
𝑃56 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐶= productivity/flow coefficient
n= flow exponent

OR

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60
Fetkovich; approach 1

8
𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑃" 7 − 𝑃56
7

Fetkovich; approach 2
• A log-log plot of the pressure squared difference (Δ𝑃7) vs. flow rate (q) is expected to plot as
a straight line.
• The inverse of slope yields an estimate of n
• The flow coefficient can be estimated by selecting a flow rate and pressure on the log-log
plot and using the information in the equation to calculate C
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62
 Example
• Flow test results;
Average pressure = 3,600 psi.

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64
• Generate the IPR by assuming various values for pwf and calculating the corresponding flow
rate;
8
Qo= 𝐶 𝑃" 7 − 𝑃56
7

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66
 Alternatively
• After determining n, q max can be obtained using the model below after
determining n, and q at any Pwf can be estimated
𝑞 ,
𝑞,,()* = + .
𝑃"#
1.0 −
𝑃!

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 IPR for Partial Two-Phase Flow-(1. Extended Vogel’s Equation)
• In certain circumstances, both single-phase and two-phase flow may be occurring in the reservoir.
• This results when the average reservoir pressure is above the bubble point pressure (𝑃! > 𝑃" ) while
the test flowing bottomhole pressure is less than the bubble point pressure ((𝑃#$ < 𝑃" ) ).

Flow rate for Pwf above Pb

∗
𝑞, = 𝐽 𝑃9 − 𝑃"# , 𝑃"# ≥ 𝑃/

Flow rate at Pb;

Flow rate for Pwf below Pb;

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Qmax
• The appropriate J* to use depends on the flowing bottom hole pressure of the test point. If
the flowing bottom-hole pressure is greater than the bubble point pressure, then the well is
experiencing single-phase flow conditions and J is determined by

<!
• J* = =" >=#$
, 𝑃? ≥ 𝑃56 ≥ 𝑃@

• When the flowing bottom-hole pressure is less than the bubble point pressure, J* is
determined from

<!
• J* = &% &#$ &#$ !
, 𝑃? ≥ 𝑃@ ≥ 𝑃56 ,
=" >=% A'.) B.C>C.7 &%
>C.D( &%
)

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• Assume Pseudo-steady state; Use Extended Vogel
• Generate the production rate at the given bottomhole flowing pressures

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Solution

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 Standing’s Extension of Vogel’s Equation-Future IPR
• Once the petroleum engineer has estimated the current productive capacity of a
well, it is often desired to predict future performance for planning purposes.
• The future maximum production rate is estimated from the current data, IPR
curves at the future average reservoir pressure of interest can be developed.

𝐽 1 𝑃𝑤𝑓
= (1 + 0.8 )
𝐽0∗ 1.8 J
𝑃

= standing zero drawdown PI

= future PI

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 Example
• Determine the IPR for a well at the time when the average reservoir pressure will
be 1,800 psig. The following data are obtained from laboratory tests of well fluid
samples:

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 Fetkovich’s Future IPR Approach
• Compute 𝐶 ( and n for the present data as we did previously.

)! "
• 𝐶 ' = 𝐶 ( )! # 7 8
Qo= 𝐶 6 𝑃𝑓 7 − 𝑃56

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