Grammaire

Grammar: Is considered a set of rules created to

control the structure of a specific language.

Descriptive Prescriptive
This type of grammar This grammar is the one that
states how language prescribes the proper usage of
is actually used. It’s words.
concerned with a scientific Example: Do not end a
point of view to formulate rules. Sentence with a preposition.
Do not put a double negative.

Grammar = form + meaning

(morphology + syntax) + (semantics)
Grammaticality:
Sentences have the quality to be grammatical and at
the same time incoherent. In other words, a whole
sentence can be correct by the rules of morphology
and syntax, but make no sense at all. The meaning is
anomalous.
To see if a sentence is grammatical, we also need to
se if it complies with the rules of descriptive
grammar and linearity (s-v-o agreement). The verb
always precedes the object.
-Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.
-There are prepositions not postpositions.
-Adjectives, relative clauses, modifiers follow their
head nouns.
Lexical ambiguity; This concept is based on the
belief that one lexeme can create two different
meanings in a sentence.
Tests: Movement test- If a group of words can move
together as a sequence, they may form a phrase.
Replacement test- If a group of words can be
replaced by one word, they may form a phrase.
Then there’s categoriality:
Closed classes:
-Prepositions
-Conjunctions
-Determiners
-Pronouns
Open classes:
-Nouns
-Adjectives
-Full verbs or lexical verbs
-Adverbs

What’s the definition of a noun?

A noun is a group of words or a word that names
things, persons, places, activities, ideas, and the
process they’re involved in. There are six types of
nouns, proper, common, abstract, concrete,
uncountable, and countable.
What’s a verb?
A verb denotes actions, processes, and states. There
are auxiliary verbs, linking verbs, and action verbs.
Auxiliary verbs: Verbs used for expressing tense,
and time. Am, is, are, do, does, did, has, had, modal
verbs.
Modal verbs: Shall, might, may, could, should, must,
can, ought, and would.
Linking verbs: Are used for describing conditions.
Am, is, are, was, were, will be, look, appear,
become, smell, taste, feel, sound, and grow.
Action verbs: Are used for depict (represent)
activities.

Adjectives: They describe, modify nouns and

pronouns. Example: She was very attractive.
They’ve the following characteristics:
Attributive function
Predicative function
Intensifiers (very)
Comparative and superlative forms
Gradability: non-gradable, gradable
Classifying adjectives
Qualitative adjectives

Adverbs: They’re words that modify verbs,

adjectives, clauses, and other adverbs. They answer
How? She was talking too quickly. When? Where?
When you are talking about an event or a situation, you
sometimes want to say something about it that has not
been indicated by the subject, verb, object, or complement.
You do this by using an adverbial. An adverbial is a word
or group of words that you use when you want to say
when an event or situation occurs, how it occurs, how
much it occurs, or where it occurs.
a. Adverbs modifying verbs
Adverbs as single head of adverb phrases commonly function as
the adverbial constituent in a clause, representing the
circumstances of time, place, manner, and so on. The unmarked
position (the most common one) is clause-final, that is, as the last
constituent of a clause.
E.g. The old food-terraces still showed n the slopes, along which
the cows walked sideways.
But adverbials are much more freely ‘moveable’ than other
constituents, and may be placed in a number of positions in a
clause, including immediately before the verb:
E.g. I felt this was rather overdoing it.
I arrived at the school fatly wrapped in my scarves.
Adverbs which are part of phrasal verbs consisting of verb +
adverb particle3 always follow the verb they modify, as in:
E.g. But my time was slowly running out.
The rabble closed in.
Set a. are sometimes called circumstance adverbs.
b. Adverbs modifying adjectives
Adverbs modifying adjectives may function as intensifiers, either
‘amplifying’ the meaning, scaling it down, or adding some
descriptive element:
E.g. Angry faces surrounded me, very red.
I began to feel vaguely uneasy.
Miss B., the Head Teacher, was about as physically soothing as a
rake.
c. Adverbs modifying other adverbs
Adverbs modifying other adverbs function similarly to those
which modify adjectives, as intensifiers.
E.g. The place had decayed even further.
3 For a definition and more information about adverb particles,
you may consult
http://www.englishpractice.com/grammar/adverb-particles/

Sets b. and c. are degree adverbs, and modify adjectives and

adverbs to a ‘certain degree’. Such adjectives and adverbs are said
to be gradable, because they can be modified to show grades
(degrees) of size and quality.
d. Adverbs modifying sentences or clauses
The fourth common function of adverbs is to modify, not one of
the constituents of a clause, but the meaning of the whole clause:
E.g. Indeed, he was so bright he made us uncomfortable.
Set d. illustrates sentence adverbs. They modify the whole clause
or sentence, and can express a speaker´s attitude to or evaluation
of what he or she is saying, or act as a connecting link between
sentences or clauses:
E.g. Frankly, I never saw such a mess in my life.
Besides, it was too early to start work.
What’re adverbials?
Adverbials are prepositional phrases, noun phrases,
adverbial clauses, and adverbs.
Adverbs can be adverbials, but adverbials cannot be
adverbs.

What’s a sentence? A clause? A phrase?

A sentence is a grammatical unit conformed by a
subject and predicate. The subject and predicate are
grouped inside a clause.
A clause is constructed by one or more words, and
they’re the ones to bear (carry) the subject and
predicate function.
A phrase is a group of words that are unable to
express a situation. Also, they lack of a subject and a
predicate.
To summarize, a sentence is formed by one or more
clauses, and these are constructed by phrases.
There are three types of sentence:
Divided by their degree of complexity; simple,
compound and complex.
Simple sentences are formed by only one main
clause. On the other hand, complex sentences are
constructed by two or more clauses connected by a
coordinating conjunction. Compound sentences are
composed by a main clause, and one or more
dependent clauses.
*Coordinating conjunctions: F.A.N.B.O.Y.S = For,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
What is an independent clause?
Is a group of words that express a full thought. They
contain both a subject and a predicate. Main clauses
are always finite.
What is a dependent clause?
This clause also has a subject and a predicate, but
it’s unable to express a thought on its own.
Dependent clauses have always subordinating
conjunctions, can be noun clauses, or adjective
clauses.
Dependent clauses can be divided in two types;
Embedded and subordinate.
The embedded clauses are important and essential
constituents in a sentence, whereas subordinate
classes are not.
Embedded clauses use That, If, For, Whether.
Subordinate clauses use subordinating conjunctions,
after, before, because, until, if. AKA,
AAAWWWBBUIS
Clauses according to the verb element: Finite,
nonfinite, and verbless clauses.
A finite clause has a finite verb. This verb is a
modal, or shows tense. Conjugated verb. Introduced
with that, whether, if. Embedded or independent
clauses.
A nonfinite clause has a verb which is not
conjugated, is an infinitive, participle (ing, ed). With
a to-. Introduced with -for or -whether. Nearly
always dependent clauses.

According to their function:

Nominal: They have the same function as a np, they
start with subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions: AAATWWWBBUIS.
Although, as, after, that, when, whether, while,
before, because, until, if, since.
Adverbial clauses: These clauses are defined as dependent
clauses they have the purpose of an adverb. They are
ADJCUNTS, because they can be removed of the sentence
and it still would be grammatically correct.
Relative clauses: The role of relative clauses is to be a
postmodifier of a noun phrase. They usually describe and
provide information about the subject. It uses relative
pronouns; who, whom, whose, where, when, which, why
and that. She doesn´t know the girl whom sits behind you.

Comparative clauses: They are postmodifiers of NPs,

ADJPs and ADJPs. They are used to modify a component
of the independent clause acting like a degree adverb.

Grammatical relations:

Subject, verb, object, modifier, adverbial.

Phrase categories: Head, premodifier, postmodifier and

determiner.

Subject: Is the first participant.

Verb: Action or process

Direct Object: the second participant, nearly always a

thing. The thing acted on by the verb. Always a noun if
it’s possible. Example: He is lending her money What is
he lending? The money.

Indirect Object: third participant that involves. Can have

pronouns. The beneficiary of the action. He is lending her
money. Who is going to be the one receiving the money?
Her.
Subject complement: Something about the subject or first
participant.

Object complement: Something about the second

participant. An object complement is a noun, a pronoun, or
an adjective which follows a direct object to rename it or
state what it has become.

Adverbial: the setting.

Subordinator: subordinating conjunctions.

Phrases according to complementation:

Not single:
Transitive clause:
S + V + DO = The verb is followed by a np, or
embedded clause. This phrase can be converted to
passive voice.
Single ladies:
Intransitive:
S + V (+A optional) = No objects. Cannot be
transformed into passive voice. Verbs of movement
are intransitive.
Copular:
S + V + SC The verbs need to be linking verbs.
Not single:
Ditransitive: The first noun phrase after the verb
refers to a living being and the next does not.
S + V + DO + IO
S + V + IO + DO
Bogus ditransitive:
S + V + DO + OC
Time is a concept which is related to our perception of
reality. There are three times: past, present and future.
Tense is a grammatical category which is marked by verb
inflection and expresses when an event or action happens
in the flow of time.

The aspect of a verb does not indicate when an action

takes place in time; it rather shows the relationship
between the action and the passage of time as seen from
the speaker's point of view.
There are two aspects in English: the continuous (also
called the progressive) aspect expresses duration; the
perfect aspect expresses completion. The combination of
these two aspects makes the perfect continuous.
In grammar, the word tense refers to the time period in
which the verb of a sentence places an action.
There are two tenses in English: present and past. Unlike
many languages, English does not have a future tense. To
talk about the future, English requires either the modal
verb WILL or the present progressive. Learn how to talk
about the future in the lesson future constructions in
English.
For each grammatical tense, there are subcategories called
aspects. Aspect refers to the duration of an event within a
particular tense. In other words, the aspect of a tense
allows us to describe or understand.
Types of adjectives:
Gradable: Their intensity varies. Use pretty, very,
comparative, superlative form to confirm.
Non-gradable: Their intensity does not vary. They usually
go alone without any intensifiers. They can be used with
non-grading adverbs; absolutely, almost, completely,
totally, mainly.
Classifying: Classifying adjectives place people and
things into categories or classes. Do you read a daily
newspaper or a weekly one? Does your house have an
electric oven or a gas oven? Non-gradable.
Qualitative: Qualitative adjectives describe the qualities
or characteristics of a person or thing – whether they are
large or small, happy or sad, etc. This type of adjective is
gradable
Predicative: After the verb. Here, there, and ready can be
used as predicatives.
Attributive: Before the noun.
Simple:
Compound: A compound adjective is an adjective that
comprises more than one word. Usually, a hyphen (or hyphens) is
used to link the words together to show that it is one adjective.

Derived: DERIVED ADJECTIVES are formed when

adjective-forming suffixes are added to common nouns or verbs.
These words are derived from nouns, and verbs