metals

Editorial
Editorial
Advances in Metal Casting Technology: A Review of State of
Advances in Metal Casting Technology: A Review of State of
the Art,
the Art, Challenges
Challenges and
and Trends—Part
Trends—Part I:I: Changing
ChangingMarkets,
Markets,
Changing Products
Dirk Lehmhus

Fraunhofer Institute
Fraunhofer Institute for
for Manufacturing
Manufacturing Technology
Technologyand
andAdvanced
AdvancedMaterials
MaterialsIFAM,
IFAM,Wiener
WienerStraße
Straße12,
12,
28359 Bremen,
28359 Bremen, Germany;
Germany; dirk.lehmhus@ifam.fraunhofer.de;
dirk.lehmhus@ifam.fraunhofer.de; Tel.:
Tel.: +49-421-2246-7215
+49-421-2246-7215

1. Introduction
Metal casting
Metal castingisisamong
amongthe the oldest
oldest primary
primary shaping
shaping processes
processes knownknown to humanity.
to humanity. First
First examples
examples of castofparts
cast parts date to
date back back to several
several thousand
thousand years years ago, when
ago, when mainly mainly copper-
copper-based
based were
alloys alloysused
wereand used and processing
processing typically
typically relied relied onstone
on two-part two-part stonemolds.
or ceramic or ceramic
Lost
molds.
wax Lost as
casting wax casting as a of
a predecessor predecessor of moderncasting
modern investment investment casting
appeared appeared
as early as 6000as years
early
ago, possibly
as 6000 originating
years ago, possiblyfrom the Indus
originating valley
from civilization
the Indus valley[1,2]. In Europe,
civilization [1,2]. the bronze
In Europe,
castings
the bronzeof Greek
castingsantiquity
of Greekmark a firstmark
antiquity highpoint
a firstofhighpoint
metal casting, again
of metal usingagain
casting, mainly the
using
lost wax technique [3,4]. Few full-scale statues remain from this time, and
mainly the lost wax technique [3,4]. Few full-scale statues remain from this time, and many are known
only
manythrough
are knowncontemporary
only through descriptions,
contemporary or Roman copiesor
descriptions, inRoman
marblecopies
or other materials.
in marble or
However, the basic
other materials. technique
However, theofbasic
shaping an object
technique ofby solidifying
shaping liquidbymetal
an object in a mold
solidifying has
liquid
been
metaldiscovered by many
in a mold has civilizations—examples
been discovered spread over several cultures
by many civilizations—examples spread are
over collected
several
in Figureare
cultures 1, and the fact
collected inthat some
Figure 1, are
andmissing
the facthere
thatfor
somereasons of spacehere
are missing will for
hopefully
reasonsnotof
offend any reader.
space will hopefully not offend any reader.

Citation: Lehmhus, D. Advances

Citation: Advances in
in
Metal Casting
Metal Casting Technology:
Technology: A
A Review
Review
of of the
State of State of Challenges
Art, the Art, and
Challenges and
Trends—Part Trends—Part
I: Changing I:
Markets,
Changing Products.
Changing Markets, Changing
Metals 2022, 12,
Products.
1959. Metals 2022, 12, x.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
met12111959

Received: 26 October 2022

Received:
Accepted: 12
Accepted: 12 November
November 2022
2022
Published: 16 November 2022
Published:

Publisher’s Note:
Publisher’s Note:MDPI
MDPIstays
stays neu-
neutral
tral regard
with with regard to jurisdictional
to jurisdictional claims in
claims in published
published maps andmaps and institu-
institutional affil-
tional affiliations.
iations.

Copyright: © 2022 by the author. Li-

Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Figure 1. Bronze
Figure 1. Bronze artart representing
representing the
the history
history ofof casting
casting across
across millennia
millennia and and cultures,
cultures, clockwise
clockwise
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. from top left: a Chinese Ding ritual cauldron of the late Shang Dynasty, 18–11th century BC [5];
This article is an open access article from top left: a Chinese Ding ritual cauldron of the late Shang Dynasty, 18th–11th century BC the
[5];
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con- Dancing Girl Girl
the Dancing of Mohenjo-Daro,
of Mohenjo-Daro,IndusIndus
civilization, approx.
civilization, 2300–1750
approx. BC [6];
2300–1750 BCthe[6];Amitābha Buddha
the Amitābha at
Bud-
distributed under the terms and
ditions of the Creative Commons At- dha at Kamakura,
Kamakura, Japan, allegedly
Japan, allegedly castAD
cast in 1252 in 1252 ADbronze
[7]; the [7]; theage
bronze age SunofChariot
Sun Chariot of Trundholm,
Trundholm, Denmark,
conditions of the Creative Commons
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre- Denmark,
now now at Nationalmuseet,
at Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen, Copenhagen,
dating back dating back
to 1400 BCto[8];
1400theBC [8]; the Artemision
Artemision Bronze, aBronze,
classic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). a classic
Greek Greek sculpture
sculpture of either Poseidon
of either Poseidon or Zeus,
or Zeus, cast in thecast
5thin the 5thBC
century century
[9]; theBC [9]; the equestrian
equestrian statue or
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
statue or
Roman RomanMarcus
emperor emperorAurelius,
Marcus Aurelius,
165–166 AD 165–166
[10]. AD [10].
4.0/).

Metals 2022, 12, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2022, 12, 1959. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111959 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 2 of 28

Major additions to the portfolio of processes came up with the industrial revolution
when it finally provided iron and steel in large amounts as a prerequisite for the widespread
introduction of permanent molds as well as casting machinery. Similarly, the advent of
the light alloys aluminum, magnesium and later also titanium as an alternative to bronze,
brass, iron and steel—till then predominant in many technical components—provided new
opportunities for the casting industry. From the turn of the 19th century onwards, the
increasingly broad introduction of automobiles proved a major turning point, as it both
afforded new products and high productivity processes able to supply the emerging mass
production. While Ford was not first in introducing the assembly line principle in this
sector—which as such had already been employed, e.g., by Isambard Kingdom Brunel
in his early 19th century layout of the Royal Navy’s rigging block manufacturing chain,
the company’s name as such still stands as a synonym for what is nowadays perceived
as the second industrial revolution. For the casting industry, the combination of both
developments technically and economically facilitated new processes such as high- and
low-pressure die casting, which afforded complex and robust equipment: the first pressure-
assisted die casting machines, for example, were developed in the mid-19th century, with
a patent for an initial, manually operated device granted to Sturges in 1849 according
to Murray [11]. In this case and in terms of further automation of the casting process,
developers could also build on the needs of the printing industry, which required small
parts, intricate shapes and high volume production, casting its patterns via permanent
molds using Linotype machines and similar devices from 1885 onwards [12]. The first
aluminum pressure die casting systems emerged at the beginning of the 20th century,
closely linked to the upcoming automotive industry, replacing often lever-based, manual
application of pressure first with pneumatics, then hydraulics, until the basic design
of today’s cold chamber HPDC systems was established well before the Second World
War [11].
While the first industrial revolution had thus replaced manual labor with machin-
ery and the second introduced mass production, the third is associated with computer
numerical control and, thus, the implementation of automated systems as a replacement
for human control. The fourth industrial revolution goes beyond this in handing over
decisions otherwise made by humans to automated systems building on the evaluation
of large amounts of data, very often using artificial intelligence (AI) approaches. For this
process, in the midst of which we find ourselves today, terms such as Industry 4.0 and smart
manufacturing have been coined—while Industry 5.0, which attempts to put the human at
the center once again, already looms on the horizon [13]. The casting industry is affected
by this trend just like any other manufacturing sector and responds by pressing ahead, at
varied speed, with digitalization, advanced simulation approaches such as the digital twin
concept adapted to its processes, and the extended use of artificial intelligence techniques.
The following text provides an introduction to a Special Issue of Metals on “Advances
in Metal Casting Technology”. In doing so, it casts spotlights on selected technological
developments in metal casting, but it is also considering current trends in markets and
boundary conditions. As background information, an overview of the global metal casting
markets is provided. Finally, the link between the individual contributions in this Special
Issue to these fields are highlighted. Given the diversity of the casting industry, the
selection of topics can naturally not be complete and will necessarily reflect the author’s
personal perspective. In practice, this means that topics linked to high-pressure die casting,
specifically of aluminum alloys, may receive more attention than some readers might
consider justified. This, I beg to excuse. A rough sketch of the structure of the document is
provided in Figure 2. Due to the width of the topic, the text has been divided in two parts,
of which this is the first. The second part, subtitled “Technologies New and Revived”, will
be published soon after the present one.
 Metals
Metals 2022,
2022, 12,12,1959
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 28 3 of 28

“Thefundamental
Figure2.2.“The
Figure fundamental interconnectedness
interconnectedness of allof all things”
things” [14]: In[14]: In the of
the words words of my namesake,
my namesake, a
a visual
visual guide
guide through
through thisthis present
present text text (PART
(PART I in Ithe
in diagram),
the diagram),
and theandfollowing,
the following,
secondsecond
part part
(PART II)
(PART II) to
tobe
bepublished
publishedinina few
a fewmonths’
months’time—four
time—four colors, four four
colors, mainmainchapters, four subsections
chapters, four subsections
and some selected links between
and some selected links between them.them.

TheGlobal
2. The GlobalCasting
Casting Industry:
Industry: Facts
Facts andand Figures
Figures
Throughout
Throughoutthe early
the early2000s
2000sandandup until 2018,2018,
up until the global castingcasting
the global industry has seenhas
industry a seen
constant
a constantriserise
in in
output
outputinterrupted
interrupted by two phases
by two of apparent
phases stagnation
of apparent from 2007
stagnation fromto2007 to
2010
2010 and,
and,on onaasignificantly
significantly higher
higher level, from
level, from20142014
to 2016. Seeing
to 2016. the drop
Seeing in tonnage
the drop in tonnage
observed in 2019, one might be tempted to at least partly associate it with
observed in 2019, one might be tempted to at least partly associate it with the COVID-19 the COVID-19
pandemic. However,
pandemic. However, at at
closer
closerscrutiny, thisthis
scrutiny, seems
seemsdoubtful
doubtfulgivengiven
the fact
thethat
factChinese
that Chinese
figures, where the pandemic started, only show a slight reduction,
figures, where the pandemic started, only show a slight reduction, with a major with a major part ofpart of
the decline spread over several countries. Among the top five producers,
the decline spread over several countries. Among the top five producers, India produced India produced
14.2% less cast weight. In Japan and Germany, the respective figures were 5.4 and 8.8%,
14.2% less cast weight. In Japan and Germany, the respective figures were 5.4 and 8.8%,
whereas an increase of 5.1% in the USA alone almost compensates for the Chinese decline
whereas an increase of 5.1% in the USA alone almost compensates for the Chinese decline in
in absolute figures (see Table 1). Needless to say, data for the following years must be
absolute figures (see Table 1). Needless to say, data for the following years must be expected
expected to show a different picture, partly because of the direct impact of the pandemic
to show a different picture, partly because of the direct impact of the pandemic and partly
and partly because of its secondary effects such as supply chain disruption and chip short-
because
age, whichof both
its secondary effects
led to massive such as supply
reductions chain disruption
in automotive productionand chip from
starting shortage,
2020. which
Today, these effects are expected to prevail long into 2022 or even 2023. As a consequence, these
both led to massive reductions in automotive production starting from 2020. Today,
effects are expected
production to prevail
figures from long will
this period into not
2022easily
or even 2023.
reveal As a consequence,
information production
about changing
figures
markets. from this period will not easily reveal information about changing markets.

Table 1. Yearly production figures by country, on a global scale, covering all materials and processes, for
Table 1. Yearly production figures by country, on a global scale, covering all materials and pro-
the timeframe
cesses, 2004–2019 2004–2019
for the timeframe according to the World
according to Foundry
the WorldOrganization (WFO) annual
Foundry Organization (WFO)census [15–27].
annual
census [15–27].
Production Volume Per Year 20 [106 t]
Country Production Volume Per14Year 20 [10
15 t]
6
Country 04 05 06 07 08 10 16 17 18 19
04 05 06 07 08 10 14 15 16 17 18 19
China 22.42 24.42 28.09 31.27 33.50 39.60 46.20 45.60 47.20 49.40 49.35 48.75
IndiaChina 4.62 22.426.11 24.427.1828.09 7.7731.27 6.84
33.50 39.60
9.05 46.20
10.02 45.6010.77 47.20 11.3549.4012.06 49.35 13.39
48.75 11.49
USA India 12.31 4.62
12.90 6.1112.457.18 11.82 7.77 10.78
6.84 9.05
8.24 10.02
10.47 10.7710.39 11.359.40 12.06 9.6713.39 10.76 11.49 11.31
JapanUSA 6.39 12.31 6.66 12.907.9312.45 6.9611.82 5.65
10.78 8.24
4.76 10.47
5.54 10.39 5.40 9.405.20 9.67 5.4510.76 5.58 11.31 5.28
Germany Japan 4.98 6.39
5.11 6.66 5.48 7.93 5.846.96 5.78 5.65 4.79
4.76 5.25
5.54 5.31 5.205.17 5.45 5.485.58 5.435.28 4.95
5.40
Russia 1 1 4.20 1 5.173.90 5.48 4.235.43 4.204.95 4.20 3
Germany6.30 4.98 7.62 5.11 6.90 5.48 7.805.84 7.80 5.78 4.20
4.79 4.20
5.25 5.31
Mexico 2 1 3
Russia 2.19 6.30
1.79 7.62 1.68 6.90 1.687.80 1.83 1.65
7.80 1 4.20 1 1.65
4.20 4.202.56
1 3.902.56 4.23 2.914.20 2.91 4.20 3 2.86
S. Korea 1.86 1.90 1.97 2.02 2.07 2.23 2.632 2.62 2.61 2.54 2.52 2.38
Mexico 2.19 1.79 1.68 1.68 1.83 1.65 1.65 2.56 2.56 1 2.91 2.91 2.86 3
Turkey 0.98 1.12 1.21 1.32 1.27 1.29 1.75 1.85 1.90 2.16 2.26 2.31
S. Korea2.83 1.86
Brazil 2.97 1.90 3.09 1.97 3.232.02 3.36 2.07 2.23
3.24 2.63
2.74 2.62
2.32 2.612.10 2.54 2.222.52 2.282.38 2.29
ItalyTurkey 2.44 0.98
2.54 1.12 2.64 1.21 2.741.32 2.64 1.27 1.29
1.97 1.75
2.02 1.85
2.03 1.902.08 2.16 2.242.26 2.262.31 2.07
France Brazil 2.47 2.83
2.34 2.97 2.41 3.09 2.473.23 2.39 3.36 3.24
1.96 2.74
1.73 2.32
1.68 2.101.63 2.22 1.722.28 1.782.29 1.70
TaiwanItaly 1.45 2.44 1.49 2.54 1.56 2.64 1.632.74 1.49 2.64 1.30
1.97 1.32
2.02 1.19 2.081.10 2.24 1.282.26 1.382.07 1.38
2.03
Spain 1.31 1.31 1.33 1.43 1.36 1.14 1.14 1.21 1.28 1.30 1.29 1.27
Others 7.25 7.42 7.48 6.92 6.74 6.28 6.94 6.97 6.92 7.24 7.31 6.85
Total 79.8 85.7 91.4 94.9 93.5 91.7 103.6 104.1 104.4 109.9 112.7 109.1
1 Previous year’s data; 2 2011 data; 3 incl. 2017 data.
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 4 of 28

Apart from such one-off effects, it is obvious from Table 1 below that China dominates
the global casting industry by a considerable margin, with India and the USA following on
similar levels, though at a distance. The order of the table is based on the output ranking in
the final year included, 2019. Ukraine, which also claimed significant production levels
(1.56 million tons in 2015 [15]), is not included, though, as here, no differentiation and no
up-to-date information are available from the WFO files. China has increased its share of
global casting production from 28.1% in 2004 to 44.7% in 2019 (relative top reached in 2016
at 45.2%), more than doubling its output in this period.
In this context, it is of interest to consider the developments in terms of material classes.
Table 2 provides an overview of these, once more based on WFO data [15–27].

Table 2. Yearly casting production figures for the main material classes 2004–2019. Data presented
are based on the census regularly published by the World Foundry Organization [15–27].

Production Volume Per Year 20. [106 t]

Material
04 05 06 07 08 10 14 15 16 17 18 19
Cast Iron, incl. 60.26 61.61 65.37 68.90 68.30 66.71 73.40 73.20 72.53 76.24 78.33 75.55
gray iron 40.44 40.79 42.54 44.92 42.96 43.26 47.46 46.74 46.24 49.04 49.44 51.19
ductile iron 18.71 19.59 21.69 22.88 23.84 23.45 25.03 25.58 25.47 26.43 28.13 23.66
malleable iron 1.12 1.23 1.15 1.10 1.50 -1 0.90 0.88 0.82 0.76 0.76 0.70
Steel 8.59 9.00 9.94 10.18 10.54 10.22 11.05 10.89 10.65 11.28 11.71 10.09
Copper 1.24 1.51 1.49 1.60 1.81 1.65 1.68 1.76 1.87 1.78 1.97 1.90
Aluminum 10.36 11.72 12.27 12.73 10.93 10.88 16.23 16.05 17.88 19.08 18.85 17.21
Magnesium 0.134 0.239 1.26 2 0.278 0.269 0.197 0.193 0.198 0.318 0.197 0.285 0.060
Zinc 0.908 0.937 0.941 0.939 0.664 0.529 0.599 0.675 1.01 0.667 0.678 0.638
other non-Fe 0.247 0.196 0.093 0.165 0.917 1.19 0.493 1.35 0.128 0.372 0.465 1.455
Total 3 81.74 85.21 91.37 94.79 93.43 91.38 103.6 104.1 104.4 109.6 112.3 106.9
1 No data provided; 2 Questionable data. 3 Note that total annual figures between country- (Table 1) and
material-related (Table 2) data differ. This deviation is manifest in the underlying WFO data and cannot be
resolved here.

The relative importance of the various materials in terms of tonnage of castings

produced is depicted in Figure 3 based on the absolute values given in Table 2. Both the
table and figure underline the fact that global casting production is dominated by the three
material classes cast iron, steel and aluminum. Figures 4 and 5 partially extend the data
presented above to the year 2025 based on data collected and evaluated by Büchner [28,29].
In contrast to Table 1, Figure 4 distinguishes between material groups, covering data for
cast iron and aluminum. The projections suggest an increase in production of aluminum
castings and a parallel decline in cast iron almost equal in volume. While global production
shares are expected to largely remain stable, Western Europe’s part in cast iron is forecasted
to decrease, while both Western Europe and NAFTA are supposed to win in aluminum
alloys. Seen individually, this development may illustrate a continuation of the trend that
the production of lower complexity and thus lower added value components is being
shifted to lower-wage countries. In this respect, it is interesting to note changes in the
Fe-based castings in China, as reported by Büchner: While the total volume has increased,
there is a notable shift to higher grades exemplified by the proportions of grey cast iron,
which steadily declined from almost 57% to approximately 52.5% in production weight
between 2000 and 2015, and ductile iron (nodular and vermicular), which rose from below
24 to above 32% during the same period—a development not seen in global production, as
Table 2 underlines [15,27,28]. This is in line with an observation by Boston Consulting Group
passed on by Spada as early as 2015, stating that “Mexico now has lower manufacturing
costs than China whose manufacturing advantage over the US market has shrunk to less
than 5%”, while “costs in eastern European nations are at parity or above costs in the
U.S.” [30].
 in global production, as Table 2 underlines [15,27,28]. This is in line with an observation
by Boston Consulting Group passed on by Spada as early as 2015, stating that “Mexico
now has lower manufacturing costs than China whose manufacturing advantage over the
US market has shrunk to less than 5%”, while “costs in eastern European nations are at
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 5 of 28
parity or above costs in the U.S.” [30].

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.Figure 3. Graphical
Graphical representation
representation of the
of the development of
development ofthe
therelative importance
relative importanceof cast
ofmaterials
cast materials
betweenbetween
2004 and 20042017
and based
2017 based on WFO
on WFO data,asassummarized
data, summarized ininTable 2, (a)
Table 2, in
(a)absolute and (b)
in absolute in (b) in
and
relative numbers.
relative numbers.
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 28
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 6 of 28

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure4.4.Prognosis
Figure Prognosisregarding
regardingfuture
futuredevelopment
developmentofofthe
thecasting
castingindustry
industryuntil
until2025
2025based
basedon
ondata
data
presented by Büchner [28], covering (a,b) cast iron and (c,d) aluminum alloys in terms of absolute
presented by Büchner [28], covering (a,b) cast iron and (c,d) aluminum alloys in terms of absolute
(a,c) and relative (b,d) figures. See Table 3 for production data per material class, including others.
(a,c) and relative (b,d) figures. See Table 3 for production data per material class, including others.

AAmore
morerecent
recentprognosis
prognosispublished
publishedby bythe
theGerman
GermanFoundry
FoundryIndustry
IndustryAssociation
Association
(BDG) elaborates on global markets and producers in the ferrous,
(BDG) elaborates on global markets and producers in the ferrous, light metal and light metal andcopper
copper
foundry industry. Among ferrous foundries in Europe, while recovery from 2020 levelsis
foundry industry. Among ferrous foundries in Europe, while recovery from 2020 levels
isexpected
expected forfor
Germany,
Germany, Eastern
EasternEurope
Europe andand
Turkey, stagnation
Turkey, stagnationis predicted
is predictedfor other
for otherma-
jor producing
major producing countries. Similarly,
countries. in Asia,
Similarly, growth
in Asia, is foreseen
growth for India
is foreseen basedbased
for India on recent
on
investments,
recent while while
investments, ChinaChina
may maycannibalize Japanese
cannibalize and and
Japanese Korean
Koreanproduction.
production.For For
the
NAFTA
the NAFTA region, production
region, production levels in in
levels 2027 areare
2027 believed
believed to to
only
onlyslightly
slightlyexceed
exceedthose
thoseof
2020. For aluminum, despite the transition to e-mobility, which in the
of 2020. For aluminum, despite the transition to e-mobility, which in the short term will short term will re-
duce the
reduce thedemand
demandfor forcastings,
castings, anan increase
increase in demand is suggested
suggested basedbased ononcontinued
continued
effortsof
efforts ofthe
theautomotive
automotiveindustry
industryin inlightweight
lightweightdesign.
design. InIn the
the NAFTA
NAFTAregion,region,Mexico
Mexico
mayprofit
may profitin inthe
themid-term,
mid-term,whilewhileAsia
Asiawill
willsee
seeaageneral
generalrecovery,
recovery,probably
probablyweakest
weakestin in
Koreaand
Korea andTaiwan,
Taiwan,withwithVietnam
Vietnamemerging
emergingas asaanew
newplayer.
player.Linked
Linkedto todevelopments
developmentsin in
automotivestructural
automotive structural castings,
castings, China
China maymay benefit
benefit disproportionately
disproportionately highthefrom
high from growththe
of its domestic automotive industry in the wake of electrification.
growth of its domestic automotive industry in the wake of electrification. In Europe, aIn Europe, a general
return
generaltoreturn
pre-pandemic levels and
to pre-pandemic above
levels andisabove
expected, with Germany
is expected, with Germany and Italy
andas well
Italy as
as certain
well Eastern
as certain European
Eastern countries,
European which
countries, havehave
which seenseen
a build-up
a build-upof light alloy
of light casting
alloy cast-
facilities recently,
ing facilities plus plus
recently, Turkey outperforming
Turkey outperformingothersothers
(see Figure 5) [29].
(see Figure 5) [29].
When analyzing, e.g., Büchner’s projections, it must be taken into account that they
lack the disrupting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has hit the various producers
as well as their customer base in different ways. This is evident when comparing Büchner’s
prediction for global cast iron and steel as well as aluminum production for 2018/2020
with actual WFO figures for 2018 and 2019: For Fe-based materials, Büchner assumed
91.8/92 million tons worldwide compared to the 90/85.6 actually reached. For aluminum,
 Metals 2022, 12, 1959 7 of 28

the figures are 17.4/17.8 and 18.9/17.2 million tons, respectively [28]. Currently, both a
normalization of the global economy and, thus, a return to general trends already observed
before the pandemic from the second half of 2022 or at least 2023 onwards seems just
as possible as a continued influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the prevalence of
major shifts induced by it. In this respect, it will be interesting to observe whether the
vulnerability of Chinese-centered supply chains experienced by many sectors during the
COVID-19 pandemic will lead to significant shifts in the global distribution of casting
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW production—the more so since China currently seems to intensify activities towards7 its of 28
strategic goal of making the world depend on China but China on no one. This approach,
which is certainly not new, will affect international business and trade.

(a)

(b)
Figure Figure 5. Projected
5. Projected development
development of the
of the casting
casting in in industryaccording
industry according to
tothe
theGerman
GermanFoundry
FoundryIndustry
Indus-
try Association
Association [29]:
[29]:(a)
(a)Europe
Europe and (b)Asia,
and (b) Asia,both
both with
with NAFTA
NAFTA datadata for comparison.
for comparison. Note
Note the the dif-
difference
ferenceininthe
thescale
scale
of of
thethe y-axis
y-axis between
between (a,b).(a,b).

Similar to the aftermath of the pandemic, the economic consequences of the recent,
When analyzing, e.g., Büchner’s projections, it must be taken into account that they
deliberate breach of international law represented by the Russian Federation’s war of
lack the disrupting
aggression impact
against of thecannot
Ukraine COVID-19 pandemic,
be foreseen at thiswhich
stage:has hit therole
Russia’s various
in the produc-
global
ers as well as their customer base in different ways. This is evident when comparing
economy as a supplier of raw materials such as oil and gas and as a major producer Büch-
of
ner’s prediction for global cast iron and steel as well as aluminum production
metals such as aluminum plus Ukraine’s share in the world’s titanium production certainly for
2018/2020 with actual WFO figures for 2018 and 2019: For Fe-based materials, Büchner
assumed 91.8/92 million tons worldwide compared to the 90/85.6 actually reached. For
aluminum, the figures are 17.4/17.8 and 18.9/17.2 million tons, respectively [28]. Currently,
both a normalization of the global economy and, thus, a return to general trends already
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 8 of 28

foreshadow a notable impact. While during the initial stages of the war, this impact seemed
to be limited to a further disruption of supply chains, it has since become obvious that
Russia is using its position as a major supplier of fossil fuels to Europe and especially
Germany for extortion by deliberately shortening supplies. The results are rising energy
costs, which will likely affect the European casting industry. In this respect, German
foundries may suffer more than others, as the industry in Germany is characterized by
many small and medium-sized enterprise (in 2021, 91% of non-ferrous foundries and 90%
of ferrous foundries in Germany employed a workforce of 500 or less [31]), which are likely
to find it harder to compensate for the added financial burden: In a survey dating from
April 2022 performed by the German Foundry Industry Association, 40% of the foundries
in Germany declared that the cost for fossil fuels threatened the existence of the enterprise,
while the figure for electricity was even 45% [32].

3. Changing Markets, Changing Products

3.1. Challenges and Trends
In 2015, Bonollo et al., focusing on high-pressure die casting, identified six major
challenges the industry faced back then [33], namely
• The need to move towards a “zero-defect environment”;
• The establishment of real-time process control;
• The identification of correlations between the main process parameters, as well as
their constant monitoring;
• The broad introduction of knowledge-based techniques for process set-up and optimization;
• The realization of multi-disciplinary research activities to foster understanding of
process-quality interrelations;
• The transfer of the respective knowledge, processes and tools to the foundry industry.
It is easy to see that although Bonollo et al. discuss the HPDC process, many of the
issues they bring up also apply to other casting processes. What their analysis excludes,
though, are boundary conditions to which a foundry is subject. These include the advent of
new, competing production processes such as AM, changing markets as represented, e.g.,
by the automotive industries rapid shift to E-mobility, or new environmental regulations
essentially requiring foundries to become “green”. A slightly more recent review of
development trends in the aluminum casting industry in general but, once again, clearly
stressing HPDC has been published by Messer in 2019 [34]. Here, in terms of boundary
conditions that apply to the whole industry, internationalization and human resources are
named, while the change in product portfolios and, among them, specifically the move
towards automotive structural components produced by HPDC, as well as the ensuing
need for new equipment and technologies, are highlighted [34]. Büchner’s more general
projections introduced in the preceding chapter, though biased by a European perspective,
confirm many of these aspects, stressing the following as major industry challenges [28]:
• Globalization: Growth in emerging markets, increased importance of local presence.
• Technology: Maintaining technological leadership a key factor for survival; continued
importance of lightweight design affords alloys in addition to process competence.
• Economics:
# Investment requirements: Surface treatment, alloy complexity, etc. as well as
logistic challenges associated with globalization will require action. In Germany,
the need for investment has led to a decrease in the capital base across the
industry between 2011 and 2013 [28].
# Margin pressure: Increased global competition in the automotive industry for-
bids passing cost increases to end customers, affecting suppliers.
# Industrial consolidation: Globalization and investment pressure will lead to
consolidation. Succession-related problems of family businesses may add to
the trend.
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 9 of 28

• Human resources: A large fraction of qualified personnel nearing retirement, causing

increased competition for staff.
Summing up, just like many other manufacturing industries, metal casting is subject
to constant change. The speed and impact of these changes has recently increased, fueled
by developments subsumed under headlines such as smart manufacturing, smart factory
or industry 4.0. Technological trends add to the picture: The consequences of the soon-to-
be-expected dominance of electric over ICE-powered vehicles in the industry still remain
somewhat unclear (see Section 3.2.1), the more so since they leverage compensating effects
such as the move towards large structural castings, exemplified, e.g., by Tesla’s Gigacasting
approach (see Section 3.2.2). As additive manufacturing matures, it may develop into
a competing technology in some areas (see Section 3.2.3). Boundary conditions such as
the need for greening of the manufacturing sector are likely to shift the balance between
markets as well as technologies (see Section 3.2.4). Time will tell whether the industry can
turn these challenges into opportunities—many of them are intertwined anyway: castings
for e-mobility will benefit from integrated cooling channels, e.g., in motor or battery pack
housings, the manufacture of which profits from compound casting techniques just as the
casting of rotors affords aluminum alloys exhibiting high conductivity at sufficient strength
while still being castable. Simulation techniques have a part in digitalization just as in
facilitating new sophisticated processes. The list of links is long and shall not be extended
further here: it will shine, though, in the collection of topics gathered below.

3.2. Current Development Directions

3.2.1. E-Mobility
Currently, all signs indicate that for automotive applications, the internal combustion
engine (ICE) has passed its prime. While it may not be obvious at first sight, this develop-
ment does have consequences for the casting industry: the reader may just take a minute to
consider how many parts of an ICE powertrain are actually cast, and how their number
and cumulated weight compare to the corresponding figure for an electric power train. In
two recent publications looking specifically at the impact on the German casting industry,
Wilhelm et al. have gathered the respective data for small, compact and medium-sized cars,
comparing ICE, hybrid (HEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV) [35,36]. The respective
data are summarized in Figure 6 below for subcompact, compact and mid-size cars, also
indicating, beyond the total weight of powertrain castings, the subsystem they belong to
(engine, transmission, etc.).
Not surprisingly, the comparison shows that hybrid cars combining two propulsion
systems lead to an increase in cast weight. However, since these may merely represent a
transitory solution, the focus should remain on the truly significant contrast between ICE
and BEV: Depending on vehicle size class, reductions between 35 and 52% on a weight
basis are observed. Even though the study is certainly not fully representative, as it focusses
on just one individual model per size class and powertrain variant, the tendency is clear
and cannot be denied. In effect, this puts significant pressure on the casting industry and,
specifically, on aluminum foundries, which heavily depend on the automotive industry—a
pressure to which short- to mid-term factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic itself as well
as its secondary consequences such as chip shortage and supply chain disruptions still
add. Needless to say, the casting industry is responding to the E-mobility challenge. This is
particularly evident in the case of a strong move towards structural castings, as these may
provide compensation for the loss of production volume in powertrain components. Tesla
has once again taken a lead by introducing the Gigacasting concept, but the trend as such
is not limited to this manufacturer and will be discussed in more detail in the following
Section 3.2.2. Beyond this move to alternative products, aluminum foundries direct their
attention to special requirements of components unique to the electric powertrain. On
the one hand, this concerns housings for electric motors, power electronics and battery
packs. On the other hand, it refers to applications where functional properties are at least
 Metals 2022, 12, 1959 10 of 28

Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28

as important as structural ones and where castability becomes an issue: rotor castings,
for example.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 6.Figure
E-mobility’s impact on
6. E-mobility’s the weight
impact of castings
on the weight in the in
of castings automotive powertrain;
the automotive (a) subcom-
powertrain; (a) subcompact
pact cars,cars,
(b) (b)
compact cars and (c) mid-size cars [35,36].
compact cars and (c) mid-size cars [35,36].

Housings the
Not surprisingly, for comparison
electric powertrain
shows that hybrid cars combining to
components—Common twothe aforementioned
propulsion
systemshousings
lead to an inincrease
an electrical powertrain
in cast is the need
weight. However, for these
since thermal
maymanagement.
merely represent The standard
a
way of solving this issue is liquid cooling. This implies a need for
transitory solution, the focus should remain on the truly significant contrast between ICE cooling channels or
water jackets integrated in the castings. Several solutions have
and BEV: Depending on vehicle size class, reductions between 35 and 52% on a weight been suggested in this
respect—their
basis are observed. Even advantages
though the andstudy
disadvantages
is certainlystrongly
not fullydepend on the application
representative, as it focus-scenario,
and one
ses on just naturally also on
individual the component
model per size class in and
question. Take an
powertrain electric
variant, motor
the housing
tendency is as an
example
clear and cannot[37]: The straightforward
be denied. way significant
In effect, this puts of realizingpressure
a water jacket
on thehere is a industry
casting two-part design.
and, specifically, on aluminum foundries, which heavily depend on the automotive in-
dustry—a pressure to which short- to mid-term factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic
 Metals 2022, 12, 1959 11 of 28

Solutions range from a combination of two HPDC parts joined either by welding or via
bolted joints (see, e.g., the Volkswagen E-Golf design) to casting and extrusion or sheet
metal structure as in some Tesla models. In as far as two castings are concerned, by def-
inition, this approach affords two complex HPDC tools. These are needed because of a
lack of established, commercially available solutions for complex cores which can reliably
sustain the loads exerted during the HPDC process ([Mic10], see the section on complexity
in the upcoming second part of this study). A potential further drawback is the need for
machining of sealing and joining surfaces. This partly applies to combinations of an inner
casting with an outer sheet metal or extrusion, too, which however relinquishes the need
for a second mold.
Since the use of cores proves difficult in HPDC, the embedding of hollow structures
such as tubes has emerged as an alternative. The integration of steel tubes, e.g., as hydraulic
lines in HPDC gearboxes is well-established (see, for example, ZF’s 8HP eight speed
transmission housing [38,39]) and profits from the higher thermal stability and strength of
the material. However, from a thermal point of view, the integration of aluminum tubes
offering higher thermal conductivity and eliminating the mismatch in coefficients of thermal
expansion (CTE) between fluid channel and casting would seem attractive. It has been
shown, though, that embedded aluminum tubes reach temperatures in excess of 500 ◦ C
during casting, at which the remaining yield strength falls well below 20 MPa, leading to
collapse and/or infiltration unless the tubes are supported by some means [40]. Stabilizing
fillers removed after casting can solve this problem. A well-known concept in this respect
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW is the Combicore process, in the course of which an aluminum tube is filled with salt,
12 of 28
then drawn to compact the filler, after which step bending or further forming operations,
e.g., to realize local changes of the cross sectional shape, can be implemented. Tubes are
available in a wide range of diameters and wall thickness and have been demonstrated
stability, thermal transfer and flow resistance [40]: Currently, the realization of such
to withstand pressure levels in excess of 1200 bar in HPDC [41,42]. A related concept
highly performant solutions is blocked by cost issues, but the potential of the approach is
employing a two-component system based on an outer salt layer and a sand core has
undisputed (see the section on complexity in the second part of this study as well as Sec-
recently been patented by MH Technologies [43]. Here, permeability of the core eases filler
tion 3.2.3 below).
removal, while stability has been demonstrated to match the Combicore approach [44]. An
If HPDC is not mandatory and LPDC, sand casting or related processes can be em-
advantage of any concept based on integrated tubes is that leakage does not depend solely
ployed, e.g., for smaller production rates, complex cores become an option. Examples of
on the soundness of the casting anymore—hence, e.g., the term ZLeak Tube® (i.e., zero
this kind have been demonstrated, e.g., by NEMAK [45] or Volkswagen in its
leak) adopted by MH Technologies for marketing their product (see Figure 7). Instead of
ID.4. Among
these, the Volkswagen
stabilization solution
via temporary is of internal
fillers, specific structuring,
interest, as itwhich
combines
may three
further castings:
improve twoheat
lids produced via HPDC and a shell made by LPDC. The geometry of the
transfer, can be applied. Beyond the use of extrusions, the flexibility of metal additive latter is such
that in future variants,
manufacturing replacement
processes allows forwith anrespective
the extrusion structures
might be considered.
to be optimizedIf this in
could
terms
in of
factstability, thermal transfer and flow resistance [40]: Currently, the realization of in-
be realized, it would allow for comparatively simple scaling of motor sizes by such
creasing
highly or decreasingsolutions
performant the length of the extrusion
is blocked and, accordingly,
by cost issues, the rotor
but the potential andapproach
of the stator
dimensions.
is undisputedA further alternative
(see the section on to complexity
LPDC is low-pressure
in the secondsand casting,
part of this asstudy
suggested
as wellby as
JinSection
et al., who employ
3.2.3 below). hot and cold box sand cores to realize the water jacket [46].

Figure
Figure 7. Electric
7. Electric motor
motor housing
housing demonstrator
demonstrator castcast
at aeat ae group
group using
using thethe
MH MH Technologies
Technologies ZLeak
ZLeak
Tube ® concept
Tube ® concept forfor realization
realization of cooling
of cooling channels:
channels: left,left,
CAD CAD image
image showing
showing geometry
geometry andand position
position
of of
thethe tubes
tubes (tube
(tube length
length is approx.
is approx. 1400
1400 mm,mm, outer
outer diameter
diameter 14 mm,
14 mm, wall
wall thickness
thickness 2 mm);
2 mm); center,
center,
CADCAD image
imageof of
casting
castingwith runner,
with overflows,
runner, etc.etc.
overflows, withwithparts of of
parts thethe
mold;
mold;right, photograph
right, photographof of
an an
actual casting
actual [44].
casting [44].

Transfer of the various techniques to housings for other components such as batteries
or power electronics is possible, though for reasons of geometrical complexity, electric
motor housings tend to be the greater challenge.
Common to all methods that rely on integrating a secondary structure in a casting
instead of using a core is the problem of achieving optimal heat transfer across the added
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 12 of 28

If HPDC is not mandatory and LPDC, sand casting or related processes can be em-
ployed, e.g., for smaller production rates, complex cores become an option. Examples of
this kind have been demonstrated, e.g., by NEMAK [45] or Volkswagen in its ID.4. Among
these, the Volkswagen solution is of specific interest, as it combines three castings: two lids
produced via HPDC and a shell made by LPDC. The geometry of the latter is such that in
future variants, replacement with an extrusion might be considered. If this could in fact be
realized, it would allow for comparatively simple scaling of motor sizes by increasing or
decreasing the length of the extrusion and, accordingly, the rotor and stator dimensions. A
further alternative to LPDC is low-pressure sand casting, as suggested by Jin et al., who
employ hot and cold box sand cores to realize the water jacket [46].
Transfer of the various techniques to housings for other components such as batteries
or power electronics is possible, though for reasons of geometrical complexity, electric
motor housings tend to be the greater challenge.
Common to all methods that rely on integrating a secondary structure in a casting
instead of using a core is the problem of achieving optimal heat transfer across the added in-
terface: gap formation between a casting and an insert is a common effect with detrimental
consequences for cooling performance, as are intermetallic phases with disadvantageous
thermal characteristics, e.g., in the Al-Cu system [47–49]. Compound casting research
attempts to alleviate these effect, e.g., via surface coating or microstructuring (see the
second part of this study).
Rotor castings—Casting the short-circuit rings of an asynchronous electric motor’s
rotor and the longitudinally connecting conductor bars between them is a challenge for two
reasons at least: For one thing, what is required here is an alloy optimized not for its casting
characteristics but for electrical conductivity. As the latter typically affords almost pure
aluminum, the former is usually compromised. The issue is further complicated by the
geometry of the casting, which almost inevitably leads to high levels of shrinkage porosity in
the conductor bars, as these naturally solidify after the short circuit rings, making sufficient
feeding almost impossible while potentially causing additional issues such as cold runs or
flow front oxide layers hidden within the lamination stack [50]. The former effect is further
stressed by the fact that highly conductive and thus low alloyed materials exhibit excessive
levels of shrinkage compared to conventional casting alloys. Yun et al. report up to 7%
of shrinkage and typical fill factors of aluminum die cast rotors between 85 and 98% [51].
To add to this, visualizing the porosity by X-ray computed tomography (CT) is rendered
difficult by the extreme contrast in atomic number between steel and aluminum—however,
advanced CT devices and reconstruction methods have recently been demonstrated to
be capable of solving this problem ([50], see Figure 8 below). Against this background,
alternative quality control approaches have been suggested, such as longitudinal X-ray
scans along the axis of the bars [51] or methods based on electromagnetic flux injection [52].
An overview of such electromagnetic approaches is part of a study by Lee et al. [53].
Porosity within rotor castings has both mechanical and electromagnetic effects. Me-
chanically, the stochastic distribution of porosity will cause mass-related unbalance, which
needs to be compensated. Electromagnetic consequences include inhomogeneous current
distributions in the conductor bars, resulting in distortions of electromagnetic fields, inho-
mogeneity of electromagnetic forces acting on the rotor and once more uneven rotation [50].
Moreover, the direct impact of porosity and other casting defects on conductivity will re-
duce the efficiency of the device. Several studies have scrutinized such effects, concluding,
e.g., that increasing fill factors from 67 to 100% corresponds to efficiencies ranging from
approximately 90 to slightly above 92%. Even more significant is the thermal effect though,
as conductor bar temperatures drop from 117 to 81 ◦ C and stator winding temperatures
drop from 97 to 81 ◦ C in parallel [51]: As the amount of thermal energy to be extracted
drops, the dimensioning of the cooling system and potentially even the cooling method
itself can be reconsidered, offering secondary weight savings.
 been demonstrated to be capable of solving this problem ([50], see Figure 8 below).
Against this background, alternative quality control approaches have been suggested,
such as longitudinal X-ray scans along the axis of the bars [51] or methods based on elec-
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 tromagnetic flux injection [52]. An overview of such electromagnetic approaches is13part
of 28
of a study by Lee et al. [53].

Figure 8.
Figure 8. The
The pitfalls
pitfallsof
ofrotor
rotorcasting
castingmade
madevisible
visiblevia
viaadvanced
advanced CTCT techniques
techniques byby Yxlon
Yxlon in cooper-
in cooperation
ationFraunhofer
with with Fraunhofer IFAM: photograph
IFAM: photograph of the
of the actual actual
rotor (toprotor
left), (top left), 3D high-energy
3D high-energy CT image
CT image highlighting
highlighting porosity in short-circuit rings and conductor bars (top right), 2D conventional (bottom
porosity in short-circuit rings and conductor bars (top right), 2D conventional (bottom left) and high-
left) and high-energy CT image (bottom right), with the latter clearly showing the differences in
energy CT image (bottom right), with the latter clearly showing the differences in discernability of
discernability of features within the cast material (images courtesy of Yxlon and Fraunhofer IFAM
features
[50]). within the cast material (images courtesy of Yxlon and Fraunhofer IFAM [50]).

With many
Porosity problems
within unsolved,
rotor castings hasaluminum rotor casting
both mechanical remains a playing
and electromagnetic field
effects. for
Me-
process and alloy development. Specifically in terms of alloys, combining
chanically, the stochastic distribution of porosity will cause mass-related unbalance, conductivity
near
which theneeds
limit toof be
pure aluminum (235
compensated. W/(mK)) with
Electromagnetic sufficient strength
consequences and castability is
include inhomogeneous
an objective addressed via alloy design or process adjustment, including
current distributions in the conductor bars, resulting in distortions of electromagnetic heat treatment.
Examples of the alloy systems studied are summarized in Table
fields, inhomogeneity of electromagnetic forces acting on the rotor and once more 3. In many publications,
uneven
the focus is on replacing the Al-Si with the Al-Fe or Al-Ni eutectic system,
rotation [50]. Moreover, the direct impact of porosity and other casting defects on conduc- plus variations
on thiswill
tivity theme.
reduce Anthe
advantage
efficiencyofofthese systems
the device. is the high
Several volume
studies percentage such
have scrutinized of eutectic
effects,at
low Fe or Ni e.g.,
concluding, additions plus the low
that increasing fill solubility
factors from of both
67 toelements in the α-Altophase,
100% corresponds which
efficiencies
guarantees a high purity and thus highly conductive primary phase. A
ranging from approximately 90 to slightly above 92%. Even more significant is the thermal further mechanism
to improve conductivity is controlled precipitation of detrimental elements such as Cr,
effect though, as conductor bar temperatures drop from 117 to 81 °C and stator winding
V, Zr and Ti, e.g.,
temperatures dropasfrom
borides
97 to[54,55].
81 °C inAparallel
detailed[51]:
discussion of the various
As the amount alloy
of thermal systems
energy to
and the microstructural background of their specific properties has been
be extracted drops, the dimensioning of the cooling system and potentially even the cool-
put together by
Kotiadis et al. [56]. Kim et al. studied the influence of individual
ing method itself can be reconsidered, offering secondary weight savings. elementary additions
of Si, With
Cu, Mg, Fe and Mn at levels between 0.2 and 2.0 wt.% on thermal conductivity of
many problems unsolved, aluminum rotor casting remains a playing field for
pure aluminum in search of high-conductivity HPDC alloys and developed more complex
process and alloy development. Specifically in terms of alloys, combining conductivity
compositions from these initial experiments, which were also tested in terms of their
near the limit of pure aluminum (235 W/(mK)) with sufficient strength and castability is
fluidity [57]. A more recent investigation by Abdo et al. covers combinations of Cu with
an objective addressed via alloy design or process adjustment, including heat treatment.
the additional alloying elements Mg and Ag, including the combination of all three [58].
Examples of the alloy systems studied are summarized in Table 3. In many publications,
the focus
Table is on replacing
3. Exemplary thealloy
aluminum Al-Sisystems
with the Al-Fe
and orcompared
alloys Al-Ni eutectic system,
in terms of theirplus variations
thermal conduc-
on this theme. An
tivity and strength. advantage of these systems is the high volume percentage of eutectic at
low Fe or Ni additions plus the low solubility of both elements in the α-Al phase, which
Alloy System guarantees
Composition Al- a high purity
Thermal Cond.andElectr.
thus highly
Cond. conductive
UTS primary phase. A further mechanism
Elongation at
1 [%IACS] YS [MPa] Ref.
Al- [wt.%]to improve conductivity
[W/mK] is controlled precipitation
[MPa] of detrimental elements
Failuresuch
[%] as Cr, V,
pure Al Al99.8Zr and Ti, e.g., as borides [54,55].-A detailed discussion
225.3 58 of the
- various alloy
24.8 systems [57]
and
Al100 the
3 microstructural
251 2background of
60.53their specific
73 properties has
65.79 been put together
- by Ko-
[58]
Cu 2Cu 3tiadis et al. [56].237
Kim2 et al. studied the influence
57.16 150of individual
95.48elementary -additions of Si,
[58]
Cu-Ag 2Cu-0.5Ag 3 230 2 55.42 183 113.53 - [58]
Cu-Mg 2Cu-0.5Mg 3 214 2 51.68 260 232.64 - [58]
Cu-Mg-Ag 2Cu-0.5Ag-0.5Mg 3 222 2 53.54 294 216.28 - [58]
Fe-Ni 0.52Fe-0.53Ni 241 2 58 88.7 37.7 23.2 [59]
0.52Fe-1.03Ni 228 2 55 89 42 14 [59]
0.34Fe-1.55Ni 224 2 54 93.2 45 13 [59]
0.34Fe-2.06Ni 220 2 53 102 46 10 [59]
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 14 of 28

Table 3. Cont.

Alloy System Composition Al- Thermal Cond. Electr. Cond. UTS Elongation at
1 [%IACS] YS [MPa] Ref.
Al- [wt.%] [W/mK] [MPa] Failure [%]
Si-Fe 1Si-0.6Fe 198.0 - 129 - 21 [57]
1.96Si-0.62Fe 185.7 - 131 - 18.4 [57]
Si-Fe-Cu 0.98Si-0.39Fe-1.12Cu 181.6 - 152 - 18.7 [57]
1.48Si-0.62Fe-0.59Cu 172.7 - 151 - 19.9 [57]
1.68Si-0.39Fe-0.24Cu 185.7 - 128 - 21 [57]
Si-Fe-Cu-Mg- 10.58Si-0.72Fe-2.03Cu-
117.6 - 228 - 2.3 [57]
Mn 0.30Mg-0.13Mn
1 IACS = International Annealed Copper Standard, 100% equivalent to 58 × 106 S/m. 2 Calculated from %IACS
value based on Wiedemann-Franz law for room temperature with κ = LTσ and L = 2.44 × 10−8 WΩK−2 : Values
obtained thus seem rather high. 3 Samples were cast and then rolled. Transferability to castings is doubtful. The
reference contains data on further heat treatment states, which tend to affect strength but much less conductivity.

Composition is not all, though: Li et al. have shown that extended heat treatment at
520 ◦ C can be employed to boost thermal conductivity from 152 to 171 W/(mK) in common
Al-7Si type casting alloys based on fragmentation, spheroidization and coarsening of the
eutectic silicon [60]. Similarly, the homogeneous distribution of smaller size precipitates
and generally finer grain structures expressed, e.g., in secondary dendrite arm spacing
(SDAS), have been reported to improve electrical and thermal conductivity [61–63]. In
terms of primary rather than secondary processes, a reduction in porosity can be achieved
by limiting solidification shrinkage. Semi-solid processes offer just this, plus the advantage
of laminar flow during mold filling, reducing a second source of porosity, entrapped gas.
Rheocasting and other semi-solid techniques will be discussed in more detail in part two of
this paper.

3.2.2. Automotive Structural Castings

As mentioned above, the E-mobility challenge has led to an increasing interest in
structural castings. Tesla has strongly adopted this approach by producing front and rear
bodies as single castings [64,65], labelling their technique Gigacasting, but in fact, the trend
is both older and broader than that, as shall be shown further below. Nevertheless, as
in the case of E-mobility in general, Tesla has opened the doors for a re-evaluation and
potential adoption of such techniques, where the final aim, as suggested by Tesla, may be
the casting of the complete automotive body structure in a single shot: this, at least, is what
Tesla suggests in a recent, though rejected, patent application [66]. What Tesla does today,
however, is a stepwise introduction of rear and front underbodies of their Model 3 and
Model Y as a single casting, replacing an assembly of altogether 70+ sheet metal parts and
shortening manufacturing lines by, according to Musk, 300 robots each otherwise needed
for assembly [65]. A prerequisite of this technique is the introduction of HPDC machines
of hitherto unknown dimensions. Within recent years, locking forces had largely been
limited to roughly 4500 tons. When IDRA and their mother company LK Machinery offered
machines that were capable of up to 6000 tons, the technological background for realizing
Tesla’s single piece rear and front casting was there. Meanwhile, several other manufac-
turers of HPDC equipment have updated their product portfolios to include machines of
similar or even larger sizes, including, e.g., Italpresse Gauss and Bühler. The current leader
by size is Bühler, offering the Carat 840, which is rated at 84,000 kN locking force (see
Figure 9), while the company website, introducing the Carat 920, claims the locking force
range of their machines only ends at 92,000 kN by now [67]. However, rumors had been
around earlier that either Tesla or one of its suppliers is acquiring machines offering at least
8000 tons [65], and these seem to have materialized given the information that IDRA has
shipped their first 9000 ton machine to Texas for use in Tesla’s Cybertruck production [68].
Such messages, however, may be short-lived these days, as Volvo announces its own Mega-
Casting approach [69], Volkswagen apparently considers the same for its new Wolfsburg
plant [70] and LK Machinery promotes the development of a 12,000 t machine [71]. The
 kN locking force (see Figure 9), while the company website, introducing the Carat 920,
claims the locking force range of their machines only ends at 92,000 kN by now [67]. How-
ever, rumors had been around earlier that either Tesla or one of its suppliers is acquiring
machines offering at least 8000 tons [65], and these seem to have materialized given the
information that IDRA has shipped their first 9000 ton machine to Texas for use in Tesla’s
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 Cybertruck production [68]. Such messages, however, may be short-lived these days,15as of 28
Volvo announces its own Mega-Casting approach [69], Volkswagen apparently considers
the same for its new Wolfsburg plant [70] and LK Machinery promotes the development
of a 12,000
latter t machine
is being built for [71].
local The latter isnamely
customers, being built for local
Hongtu customers,
Technology Co. namely Hongtu
Ltd., who already
Technology Co. Ltd., who already own a 6800 ton machine [71], highlighting the fact that
own a 6800 ton machine [71], highlighting the fact that many Chinese (relative) newcomers
many Chinese (relative) newcomers in the automotive sector such as Nio, HiPhi and Xiao-
in the automotive sector such as Nio, HiPhi and Xiaopeng seem willing to take up Giga-
peng seem willing to take up Gigacasting [72]. This supports the observation that for ob-
casting [72]. This supports the observation that for obvious reasons (large investment costs
vious reasons (large investment costs and partial replacement of conventional assembly
and partial replacement of conventional assembly lines), Gigacasting generally lends itself
lines), Gigacasting generally lends itself more easily to greenfield rather than brownfield
more easily to greenfield rather than brownfield approaches and, thus, favors stakeholders
approaches and, thus, favors stakeholders in need of building up production from scratch,
in need of building up production from scratch, anyway. It is thus not surprising that an
anyway. It is thus not surprising that an overview of recent installations of HPDC ma-
overview of recent installations of HPDC machines in the locking force range of 4000 tons
chines in the locking force range of 4000 tons and above offered by Gärtner and Zhou
and above offered by Gärtner and Zhou underlines that China clearly leads this trend
underlines that China clearly leads this trend (see Figure 10 below). At the same time, new
(see Figure 10 below). At the same time, new producers of HPDC equipment of this size
producers of HPDC equipment of this size are emerging in China besides the trendsetter
are emerging in China besides the trendsetter LK/IDRA, including, e.g., Haitian, Yizumi
LK/IDRA, including, e.g., Haitian, Yizumi and Lanson [73]. An interesting side aspect is
and Lanson [73]. An interesting side aspect is that while most of the equipment is in fact
that while most of the equipment is in fact installed to supply the automotive industry
installed
with fronttoor
supply the automotive
rear body structures asindustry with front
well as battery or rear
housings, 5Gbody structures
applications areas well as
emerg-
battery
ing as ahousings,
secondary5G applications
market, e.g., in are emerging as a secondary market, e.g., in Vietnam.
Vietnam.

Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 28

(a) (b)
Figure9.9.State
Figure Stateofof
thethe
artart
andand
thethe shape
shape andand
sizesize of things
of things to come:
to come: (a) Bühler’s
(a) Bühler’s CaratCarat 610 high-
610 high-pressure
Carat 840die
pressure machine.
castingThe casting
machine for athe
with latter’sforce
locking movable die half’s
of 61,000 kN—themounting
personplate alonebeside
standing weighs 99.5
it may
die casting machine with a locking force of 61,000 kN—the person standing beside it may serve
tons
serve(images provided by
as an indication for Bühler AG).
the sheer size of this device, as does (b) the car in the rendering of the
as an indication for the sheer size of this device, as does (b) the car in the rendering of the Carat
840 machine. The casting for the latter’s movable die half’s mounting plate alone weighs 99.5 tons
(images provided by Bühler AG).

Figure 10.Overview
Figure10. Overview ofof global ordersfor
global orders forHPDC
HPDCmachines
machineswith with locking
locking forces
forces of of 4000
4000 t and
t and above,
above,
asascompiled
compiledby
by Gärtner
Gärtner and Zhou
Zhou [73].
[73]. Note
Notethat
thatthere
thereisissome
someambiguity
ambiguity ininthethe data:
data: nine
nine smaller
smaller
HPDCmachines
HPDC machinesininthe
the“unknown”
“unknown”category
categoryarearelinked
linkedtotoTesla—here,
Tesla—here, it it
is is
notnot clear
clear with
with which
which Giga
Giga Factory
Factory they
they are are associated.
associated. Similarly,
Similarly, a batcha of
batch of 8 machines
8 machines of 5500oftons
5500purportedly
tons purportedly ordered
ordered by Tesla
by Tesla from IDRA for Grünheide and Fremont has been evenly shared between USA and Ger-
from IDRA for Grünheide and Fremont has been evenly shared between USA and Germany here.
many here.

Needless to say, the prerequisites for an economically viable implementation of the

Gigacasting approach are not limited to the engineering problem of sufficiently high lock-
ing forces and controlling a process anyway dubbed stochastic at this scale: producing
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 16 of 28

Needless to say, the prerequisites for an economically viable implementation of the

Gigacasting approach are not limited to the engineering problem of sufficiently high locking
forces and controlling a process anyway dubbed stochastic at this scale: producing HPDC
castings of this size has several side effects.
The number of toolmakers capable of producing the required tools is limited. Handling
and transport of tools becomes a problem when a complete die easily exceeds a weight
of 100 or even 150 tons. Furthermore, primary and peripheral machinery as well as dies
develop into a massive investment, which is further increased by the fact that casting of
such large parts does not necessarily fit into the cycle time slots typical in the automotive
industry. This basically means that a need for several large-size casting lines may arise. For
decentralized production and just-in-time delivery, the transport of large parts in sufficient
numbers also becomes critical, specifically if the parts are of complex shape, as in this case,
volume instead of weight may become the limiting factor for road transport. Investment
costs as well as the transportation issue mean that economic viability is critical unless a
greenfield approach is chosen, and the associated new foundries are located side by side
with the automotive production and assembly plants. Not surprisingly, this is exactly
what Tesla does by building new factories around the world and equipping them from the
start with Gigacasting facilities. Volkswagen currently appears to follow a similar path
with the suggested Trinity plant in the vicinity of its Wolfsburg headquarters [70]. All the
above issues point towards difficulties in realizing dual sourcing strategies: if the OEM,
unlike Tesla, decides against taking production in its own hands, setting up more than
one supplier for Gigacasting will face additional difficulties beyond technological ones
as machines of 6000+ tons may remain scarce for quite some time and can likely not be
installed in existing foundries. This said, the rapid take-up of the technology in China may
cancel out this concern sooner than anticipated.
There are alternatives to Gigacasting, too, and they are justified: casting large compo-
nents in one shot necessarily means that decisions on part geometry are not exclusively
controlled by the loads that need to be borne by the final part but, to some degree, also by
process requirements. This compromise between castability and strength may effectively
mean that the weight optimum is missed by Gigacasting components. In any case, a large,
single material component contradicts the lightweight design paradigm of putting each ma-
terial in the place in which it is of optimal use for overall structural behavior. Furthermore,
crashworthiness as well as repairability is an issue with cast structures. The original design
of the Tesla Model Y rear body structure foresaw, among others, an extrusion screwed to a
cast structure—the updated single-piece design realizes this section as part of the casting.
Tesla has addressed crashworthiness issues in a recent patent, which describes geometrical
adaptations meant to guarantee controlled collapse of such areas [74]. However, these solu-
tions inevitably add material to achieve what could have been achieved with an extrusion
at less weight and most likely less scatter of properties. Thus, the question is whether it is
possible to realize a “best of both worlds”-approach in which the advantages of Gigacasting,
such as the reduction in component numbers and assembly operations, are consciously
combined with property-based local selection of materials, cross-sectional geometries and
dimensions while at the same time easing the casting process itself. What comes to mind in
this respect are large-scale hybrid or compound casting approaches [75,76], which shall be
discussed in Part II of this work. Furthermore, from a still somewhat theoretical point of
view, rheocasting (also treated in more detail in the upcoming second part of this paper)
may profit in this context from its lower requirements in terms of intensification pressure,
as due to this, parts of identical size can be produced on smaller machines compared to
conventional HPDC [77]. Typical advantages of rheocasting such as low porosity and
increased flow length come in as added benefits. One challenge that remains, however,
is the reproducible production of slurry for shot weights of 100 kg and more, which has
not surprisingly never been demonstrated yet for any of the commercialized rheocasting
processes; after all, it still is quite a bit of a novelty for HPDC, too.
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 17 of 28

This said, automotive structural castings is certainly more than Gigacasting. Roos et al.
recently published a White Paper related to this product class, highlighting the fact that their
use, though originally limited to luxury class vehicles, has since spread to the middle class:
good indicators of this are cast shock towers as well as longitudinal beams. Components
of this type were found in 5.9 million vehicles in 2018, with a 50% rise to 8.9 million units
expected until 2025. As a driver for an even broader introduction of structural automotive
castings, the study identified three conditions, highlighting and partly also quantifying the
expected benefits based on realistic case studies [78]:
• Improved thermal management of molds:
# Reduction in cycle times by roughly 33%;
# Increase in die life by up to 50%;
• Choice of alloys—use of systems providing strength without heat treatment:
# Elimination of process steps, with direct cost reductions estimated at 10%;
# Elimination of sources of distortion and residual stress;
# Improvement in the overall energy balance;
• Lightweight solutions via improved product design:
# Shifting of process boundaries towards a minimum thickness below 2.5 mm;
# Use of advanced optimization tools fully exploiting the capabilities of material
and process.
While the study mentions the increasing number of electric vehicles, it does not yet
incorporate the impact of new vehicle structural concepts such as Gigacasting facilitated by
the switch in powertrain technology and may thus still underestimate the real potential.
In any case, especially the first two issues stressed by Roos et al. are probably even more
relevant in a Gigacasting context, the practical implementation of which already now
relinquishes heat treatment. New structural alloys that fulfill the respective requirement
are under development. State-of-the-art solutions include the systems Al-Mg-Fe as well as
Al-Mg-Si-Mn-Zr, of which the first is used in as cast state (e.g., AlMg4Fe2), while the second
just affords a T5 treatment (e.g., AlMg6Si2MnZr [78]). A broad overview of structural
aluminum casting alloys has recently been published by Sigworth and Donahue: their
focus remains on heat treatable alloys, but the disadvantages of these are explained and
alternatives are described with a focus on commercially available compositions [79].

3.2.3. Opportunity or Threat: Additive Manufacturing as Competing Technology

At first sight, the answer to the question whether additive manufacturing (AM) is a
danger or a benefit for the casting industry seems straight forward—this is the perspective
of the final products, where AM appears to excel in realizing geometries accessible to
casting either not at all or only with great effort, e.g., depending on the casting process, via
extensive use of sliders, cores or core packages. Recently, the topic has been discussed by
Kang et al., who come to the conclusion that AM of metal parts is no challenge to casting
in most fields due to deficient properties of parts [80]. As will be shown later, there are
doubts that this opinion can indeed be fully substantiated—with respect to strength at
least, the opposite appears to be true [81]. However, competitiveness of AM is somewhat
limited by cost issues: metal AM, which is what is to be considered in this context, is
predominantly a powder-based process, and powder is expensive. The disparity in the
price of a standard casting alloy of AlSi10Mg-type as an ingot on the one hand and as a
powder suitable for AM on the other is currently somewhere in between one and two orders
of magnitude. Assuming that in the long run, AM powder prices may reach parity with
those for PM powders, the remaining difference will still be one order of magnitude. At
the same time productivity of the dominant metal AM process Laser Beam Melting (LBM)
falls desperately short of, say, high-pressure die casting, with production volume per unit
time being measured in cm3 /hour [82]. This said, there are for sure other processes that
have received less attention until recently but promise higher productivity, such as binder
jetting [83–85] or arc-based AM processes [86]. Table 4 provides a rough overview of
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 18 of 28

typical production rates based on and extending data previously collected by Lehmhus
and Busse [87].

Table 4. Overview of typical build rates achieved by metal AM processes.

Material Process System Build Rate [cm3 /h] Ref.

Inconel® LENS Optomec LENS® MR-7 up to 12 [88]
TiAl6V4 EBM Arcam A2X 55–80 [89]
unspecified EBM Arcam Q 10, Q 20 up to 80 [90]
unspecified LBM unspecific 5–20 [91]
unspecified LBM SLM Solutions SLM 500HL up to 70 [90]
unspecified LBM SLM Solutions NXG XII 600 up to 1000 [92]
unspecified LBM SLM Solution SLM500 1 up to 171 [93]
unspecified LBM/LaserCusing ConceptLaser xline 2000R up to 120 [94]
unspecified LMD-p unspecified 5–25 [95]
unspecified LMD-w unspecified 60–130 [95]
unspecified UAM unspecified ca. 500 [96]
unspecified BJ ExOne X1 160 ProTM up to 10000 [97]
aluminum WAAM unspecified/Fronius CMT ca. 370–3700 [86]
titanium WAAM unspecified/Fronius CMT ca. 220 [86]
steel WAAM unspecified/Fronius CMT ca. 380–1270 [86]
steel WAAM unspecified ca. 1270 2 [98]
1 Quadruple laser system with max. 700W each. 2 Given in kg/h and converted to cm3 /h assuming full density
steel (approx. 8 g/cm3 ). Green (as printed) part volume and, thus, the green part build rate might be 50% higher.

Productivity advantages of some processes come at a cost, though: while arc-based

AM processes such as WAAM achieve the highest build-up rates, the parts they produce
typically require surface machining. Binder jetting on the other hand achieves geometrical
resolutions and surface qualities similar to LBM and is projected to deliver build rates of up
to the level of dm3 /h just like WAAM. However, what it provides at this rate is a green part
that needs further processing steps known from many other powder metallurgical (PM)
processes, such as the removal of the binder printed into the powder bed during shape
generation and the sintering of the part to full density [85,99]. This alternative process
chain also implies that the parts produced do not benefit from the microstructural effect of
the extremely high cooling rates (104 –106 K/s) typical of the LBM process. Consequently,
the properties of binder jetting parts roughly match those of conventional PM parts, whereas
LBM specimens exceed both these as well as those of cast materials: for a standard alloy
of type AlSi10Mg, UTS for HPDC is in a range of 250 to 290 MPa in as cast and 290 to
360 MPa in the T6 state—which is only achievable with extra effort in HPDC—(AlSi10MnMg
Silafont® -36 [100]), while for LBM, values between 250 and 436 MPa have been reported
for as-fabricated materials in a review by Hitzler et al. [101], with Lehmhus et al. gathering
data indicating a UTS maximum as high as 500.7 MPa [102]. Chen et al. call up 455 MPa
in contrast, also reporting 190 MPa for PM-AlSi10Mg originating from a hot extrusion
process following spark plasma sintering of the extrusion billet [103]. Among the best
references may be a study by Roth et al. using partially automated, high-throughput testing
to compare large numbers of cast and LBM-fabricated test samples. The results showed a
20% increase in strength for LBM, but advantages in terms of elongation at failure for cast
materials: the casting process used was gravity die casting in this case [81].
An interesting side aspect of the AM vs. casting dilemma has been studied by Bekker
and Verlinden, who contrast the environmental impact of WAAM to green sand casting
and machining of stainless steel parts via a cradle-to-gate LCA. The result is a slight
advantage for WAAM compared to sand casting and parity with machining at a material
utilization ratio of 0.75. For WAAM, the machining step typically required after build-up
is not included in the calculation though. Since the difference between casting and AM
is low, it may safely be assumed that the widespread LPBF process would fare worse
than casting due to the added step of powder production—typically via melt atomization,
 Metals 2022, 12, 1959 19 of 28

which necessitates remelting of the material—and the lower energy efficiency of the laser
process [104].
In conclusion, as a direct part-production process, AM certainly remains a technol-
ogy to watch, though currently only for smaller-scale production, where the increased
complexity of many casting processes such as the need for tools for both parts and—if
applicable—cores gains additional weight in cost calculations relative to the material costs.
Currently, this niche for AM in direct competition with casting is small, but it is likely
to grow with AM productivity increase and material cost decrease. The development of
software tools capable of identifying the respective limits for a given part geometry would
thus be a rewarding task to support both industries. In any case, from today’s point of view,
there is no indication that AM will one day fully replace casting. At the same time, the
undeniable advantages of additive manufacturing can benefit casting processes, too: here,
3D-printed sand molds and cores as well as permanent casting tools come to mind. These
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW will be discussed in the second part of this work in the context of complexity of20castings.
of 28
As a teaser, an idea of the capabilities of the process is conveyed by Figure 11 below.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. More
Figure promise
11. More thanthan
promise threat: binder
threat: jetting
binder additive
jetting manufacturing
additive usedused
manufacturing to produce molds
to produce molds
and cores for sand casting. (a) Engine block core printed using an inorganic binder system, (b) water
and cores for sand casting. (a) Engine block core printed using an inorganic binder system, (b) water
jacket core package printed with furan-based organic (black) and inorganic binders (Picture kindly
jacket core package printed with furan-based organic (black) and inorganic binders (Picture kindly
provided by ExOne; copyright: ExOne).
provided by ExOne; copyright: ExOne).
Another
Anotherpossible combination
possible of casting
combination and AM
of casting and is the
AMintegration, by meansbyofmeans
is the integration, com- of
pound casting casting
compound processes, of inserts
processes, that profit
of inserts from the
that profit fromextreme geometrical
the extreme flexibility
geometrical of of
flexibility
the AM process and, thus, provide added functionality to the cast part.
the AM process and, thus, provide added functionality to the cast part. A good example of A good example
of this
thisisisthe
theintegration
integrationof of cooling
cooling channels
channels inin high-pressure
high-pressuredie diecast
casthousings,
housings,an anapplication
appli-
cation already discussed in Section 3.2.1 above: here, AM can provide
already discussed in Section 3.2.1 above: here, AM can provide solutions optimized forsolutions optimized
for (a)
(a) heat
heat transfer,
transfer,(b)(b)flow
flowresistance
resistance and
and (c)(c) maintaining
maintaining structural
structural integrity
integrity duringduring
casting.
casting. Investigations
Investigations alongalong
thesethese
lineslines
havehave recently
recently been been performed
performed by Lehmhus
by Lehmhus et al. et al. the
with
withaim
theofaim of eliminating the filler otherwise indispensable for HPDC
eliminating the filler otherwise indispensable for HPDC integration of aluminum integration of
aluminum tubes [40]. A prerequisite for successful design of such structures
tubes [40]. A prerequisite for successful design of such structures is a deeper understanding is a deeper
understanding of the high-temperature
of the high-temperature performanceperformance
of AM materialsof AM materialsthe
to facilitate to prediction
facilitate theof pre-
stability
diction of stability as a function of process parameters [102]. Besides this
as a function of process parameters [102]. Besides this application, smart castings can profit application,
smart
fromcastings can profit
the capability of from the capability
AM processes of AM processes
to encapsulate sensorsto or,encapsulate
more generally,sensors or,
electronic
more generally,
systems and electronic
thus prepare systems
themand thus prepare
for casting them for topic
integration—a castingto integration—a
be treated in the topic
second
to be treated
part in study
of this the second part of this study [105,106].
[105,106].

3.2.4.
3.2.4. Environmental
Environmental Issues
Issues
Certainly,
Certainly, a boundary
a boundary condition
condition that
that increasingly
increasingly affectsthe
affects thecasting
castingindustry
industryinin full
full are
are environmental concerns and requirements
requirements derived
derived from
fromthem.
them.Casting
Castingisisnot
notnecessarily
neces-
a green
sarily technology.
a green technology. InIn
fact, it it
fact, has been
has beencalled
calleda a“3D
“3Dindustry”
industry”by bysome—dark,
some—dark,dirtydirtyand
and dangerous. The main aspects of its environmental impact include energy consump-
tion, direct emissions and waste.
Needless to say, not all potential corrective measures can be discussed here. It is note-
worthy, though sometimes overlooked, that a reduction in energy needs can be achieved
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 20 of 28

dangerous. The main aspects of its environmental impact include energy consumption,
direct emissions and waste.
Needless to say, not all potential corrective measures can be discussed here. It is note-
worthy, though sometimes overlooked, that a reduction in energy needs can be achieved
through advanced, higher efficiency production technologies. The effect may be direct, in
the sense that the respective, adapted process requires less energy in itself compared to pre-
vious implementations, or indirect, if secondary processes are positively affected or reject
rates and, thus, emissions relative to product weight are reduced. There are several other
examples of how technological change can improve the foundry industry’s environmental
balance—to name but a few, arbitrarily selected ones:
• Use of inorganic binders in sand casting and production of sand cores will reduce
workplace emissions, improve indoor air quality and greatly reduce the amount of
waste foundry sand for which landfill is the only available form of disposal [107,108];
• Reclamation and reuse of foundry sand will directly save natural sand resources, and
limit waste as well as emissions and energy consumption linked to transport of new
and waste sand [109], etc.;
• Microspraying in high-pressure die casting leads to less waste and workplace emis-
sions and can, through better thermal control, improve part quality, reducing re-
ject rates;
• Heat treatment and other furnaces nowadays fired with natural gas may be
# Adapted to work with—preferably green—hydrogen, an option that gained
additional interest in the course of rising gas prizes caused by the Russian
attack on Ukraine;
# Be replaced by electric systems facilitating the direct use of renewable energy
sources without requiring an energetically inefficient power-to-gas bypass;
• Advanced process monitoring and control approaches based, e.g., on Industry 4.0
paradigms may enhance product quality and reduce reject rates, or allow fine-tuning
of processes towards optimal energy efficiency.
The above examples are snapshots, no more. They do, however, underline that for a
thorough evaluation of potentials, holistic approaches accounting for the whole process
chain are needed. Such studies by now exist for several casting processes:
Already in 2001, Stephens et al. have provided an in-depth life cycle assessment (LCA)
of aluminum casting, covering lost foam, semi-permanent mold and precision sand casting.
Their results indicate environmental advantages of the lost foam process, which came out
similar to semi-permanent mold casting but performed better than precision sand casting
by a wide margin. The analysis covered factors such as energy consumption, amount of
solid and liquid waste produced, CO2 emissions, etc. per 1000 kg of degated casting weight
and identified electrical energy needs as well as aluminum production and melting as
major aspects determining the outcome [110].
Liu et al. extended the scope of processes to HPDC, vacuum high-pressure die
casting and semi-solid casting processes. Their study defines a system boundary that
excludes aluminum alloy production as well as the product life cycle and end-of-life aspects,
focusing on the actual manufacturing process and including all aspects related to this,
such as die manufacturing or secondary processes beyond casting such as heat treatment,
machining and surface treatment. Interestingly, the authors found higher environmental
costs associated with structural parts compared to typical housings or engine blocks and
question the formers’ environmental viability on this basis despite acknowledging their
contribution to lightweight design. Furthermore, the author stress the importance of the
melting and holding step for overall energy consumption and the fact that increasing yield
by whatever means may be a silver bullet in terms of saving energy. However, the latter
effect does not explain why the vacuum and semi-solid processes are scoring well in this
comparison—instead, energy consumption of the die casting machine and extended die
life turn out to be major factors [111].
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 21 of 28

A narrower focus on HPDC is provided by Cecchel et al. using an automotive sus-

pension cross beam as basis of their study, which is performed in accordance with ISO
14040:2006 [112] and extends the previous example by also incorporating primary material
production starting from raw material extraction. Not surprisingly, Cecchel et al. conclude
that primary aluminum production accounts for the largest part of energy consumption,
while the casting process itself only affords—though still significant—18%, and end-of-life
recovery of aluminum scrap can gain a 42% benefit. This stresses the environmental neces-
sity of relying in as much as is possible on secondary aluminum: together with considering
the energy mix used in production of primary material wherever the latter is required,
this will significantly reduce both energy consumption and carbon footprint [113]. Recent
figures imply that the average CO2 equivalent for 1 kg of primary aluminum of the common
alloy AlSi10Mg produced in Europe amounts to 9.76 kg, while the respective value for
secondary material is 1.95 kg [114]. The downside, however, is that with increasing use of
aluminum in the automotive industry and many recycling paths being industry-centered,
like in the case of beverage cans, the amount of aluminum scrap available does not match
the increasing demand. The problem is further blown up by the fact that many vehicles do
not see the end of their lifecycle in the producing countries but in others and are thus not
available for closed loop recycling [115]. This situation may cause a greenwashing effect in
the sense that companies highlight secondary aluminum-based products, which, in order
to be able to reach this status, have to clandestinely cannibalize other products and deprive
them of their share of recycled material.
In the course of recent developments such as the attempts at slowing down climate
change, environmental aspects have received increasing attention, and the findings as-
sociated with this attention may soon be cast into rules that the foundry industry has to
observe: currently, the “Smitheries and Foundries” best available technology (BAT) refer-
ence document (BREF), which in its present form dates from 2005 [116], is being revised
under the auspices of the European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau
(EIPPCB) according to the so-called Sevilla process, with an initial draft available since
February this year [117]. Once finished and adopted by the European Commission, this
document will contribute to defining standards to be maintained by the European foundry
industry, covering all aspects of casting and directly related processes. Publication of the
final document and adoption of the rules it sets is expected to take place before 2025.
However, though the European Union’s contribution to global production of castings
is certainly relevant (EU members contribute a share well in excess of 10%, see Section 2),
global impact would still be limited unless countries such as China, India and the USA,
which together stand for almost 60% of annual production, would join the effort. This,
however, is apparently the case: Li et al. have published a detailed survey on energy
consumption and CO2 reduction measures as early as 2010, looking also into supporting
political measures and comparing the Chinese approach in this respect to those adopted
in other parts of the world [118], Zhang et al. have provided an updated perspective on
the greening of the Chinese foundry industry [119], and similar efforts are known from
the US. Initiatives such as this blend in with the overall national CO2 reduction targets
as well as the United Sustainable Development Goals formulated by the United Nations
in their 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [120]. Nevertheless, it remains to be
seen whether any stricter EU regulations may be exported to other regions of the world
via European companies’ role as customer of other countries’ foundry industry: Since the
European market share typically exceeds local production by a notable amount, European
enterprises can be expected to continue sourcing castings from abroad. Needless to say,
sustainability comes at a cost, and this cost can only be balanced by the benefit aspired
to if implementing regulations does not simply result in a shift in production to places
where they do not bind—more so since such delocalization creates further CO2 emissions
during transport. Meanwhile, besides direct regulatory approaches, indirect effects are
beginning to shape the industry, too. Among these are, e.g., the automotive companies’
increasing concern for their carbon footprint, which is handed down to their suppliers,
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 22 of 28

further amplifying the latter’s individual efforts. As one example, ae group AG may be
mentioned, who claim total CO2 neutrality for their production reached, among others, by
full reliance on secondary aluminum and sourcing of green energy [121].

4. Conclusions and Outlook

As a manufacturing technology, metal casting faces several challenges. However,
challenges provide an impetus for change and can thus enhance competitiveness. This
first part of the editorial for the Special Issue of Metals on “Advances in Metal Casting
Technology” has highlighted several such challenges—in doing so, because of the width of
the field, it is necessarily biased by the activities and interests of the author. It is also not
conclusive, as it concentrates on changing markets and boundary conditions. Remarks on
new and emerging technologies such as semi-solid processes, hybrid as well as compound
casting, smart castings as well as other Industry 4.0 aspects such as advanced simulation
techniques and data analytics will follow in a second part of this text, which is due to be
published soon.
Discussed in the present text was the development of the casting industry as a whole,
which, while slowly recovering from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, has now been
hit in particular in Europe by the Russian attack on Ukraine and the drastic rise in energy
cost it entailed. The duration of this conflict as well as its final outcome will determine how
large a dent is left in this industrial sector in Europe. Fortunately, the size of the market
temporarily lost in Russia is of limited significance for the industry as a whole.
In terms of market trends and changing boundary conditions in general, four specific
developments were highlighted:
• E-mobility has changed the product portfolio of the casting industry, as it eliminated
many of the components traditionally produced by casting. It has opened up new
opportunities, too, though in the form of electric powertrain components often re-
quiring new capabilities, such as identification of new alloys offering, e.g., increased
conductivity at good castability and reasonable strength, compound casting or ad-
vanced solutions for integrating cooling channels. All in all, however, in terms of
product weight, castings in an electric powertrain typically do not match those in an
ICE-based design.
• Structural castings for automotive applications represent a trend that is older than
e-mobility, having been introduced first in higher class vehicles and diffusing now
to the mid- and lower classes. Gigacasting has provided this area with a whole new
impetus, which is specifically adjusted to electric vehicles and can finally lead to the
battery electric vehicles incorporating far more cast weight than a comparable ICE
car. Linked to the topic are development needs in materials science covering alloys
providing strength without heat treatment, digitalization for optimized control in
scenarios characterized by dwindling process windows and manufacturing equipment
in hitherto unknown size ranges.
• Additive Manufacturing is sometimes seen as a process capable of challenging casting
as a production process. However, when it comes to direct manufacture of parts, many
processes of this kind are hampered by limited productivity and high material costs,
which in the case of metal powders used as raw material exceed those of the cast metal
by at least an order of magnitude. Thus, it is assumed that, in this role, AM may rather
prove a complementary technique which may be used to endow castings with special
functionalities, e.g., via inserts. The situation is different when it comes to AM of
molds and cores, which is well-established in the industry for low to medium-sized
series and complex parts.
• Green casting, or the transformation of the casting industry to reduced energy con-
sumption and CO2 footprints as well as less waste, is an integral part of national and
global strategies to mitigate climate change. With increasing awareness of this issue,
additional pressure to act is exerted on the foundries by their customers. The impor-
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 23 of 28

tance of the topic is indirectly increased by rising costs of energy, the latter an outcome
of the war in Ukraine and potentially not of a lasting nature, and waste disposal.
One issue faced by the casting industry on the global scale has not been discussed here
yet: the problem of sourcing qualified personnel. A lack of human resources is reportedly
developing into a major problem for the industry, with experienced workers retiring and
not enough new employees available on the market first to replace them and second
to acquire and carry on their vast experience. Since this development is also linked to
demographics in many highly industrialized countries, there is probably no easy solution.
However, the industry will have to address it by better communicating the positions it
has to offer as fascinating, high-tech alternatives to occupations in other industrial sectors:
digitalization as well as disruptive changes such as the Gigacasting approach introduced
by Tesla in light metal casting may help in this respect. Similarly, a possible closer link to
automotive OEMs as a consequence of increased demand for structural casting solutions
could increase attractiveness of this part of the industry for some.
Summing up, two things are clear: The casting industry is certainly in difficult waters,
but it is wide awake, showing multiple ideas as to how the challenges it faces may be
addressed. Gigacasting is just one example in this respect which brought this industry back
into the spotlight, showing that though ancient, it is certainly not old-fashioned and may
still revamp a full industrial sector. The technological developments towards this end will
be discussed in Part II of this editorial—so watch out for things to come!

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: The author thanks Bühler AG and specifically Martin Lagler and Lucienne
Sproll, as well as Martin Kaiser and Anica Melia of ExOne for providing the images that illustrate
the points made in this article, specifically with respect to developments in casting of structural
automotive components, the Gigacasting approach and the capabilities of sand printing by means of
the binder jetting process.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

AI Artificial Intelligence
AM Additive Manufacturing
BAT Best Available Technique
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BJ Binder Jetting (AM process)
BOL Beginning Of Life Life-Cycle Phase
BREF Best Available Technique Reference Document
CAD Computer Aided Design
CT Computed Tomography
CTE Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
EBM Electron Beam Melting (AM process)
EBAM Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing
EU European Union
GDC Gravity Die Casting
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HPDC High-Pressure Die Casting
IACS International Annealed Copper Standard
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
ICEV Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle
LBM Laser Beam Melting (AM process)
LCA Life Cycle Analysis
LENS Laser Engineered Net Shaping (AM process)
LMD-p Laser Metal Deposition, Powder-Based (AM process)
LMD-w Laser Metal Deposition, Wire-Based (AM process)
LPBF Laser Powder Bed Fusion (AM process)
Metals 2022, 12, 1959 24 of 28

LPDC Low Pressure Die Casting

MOL Middle Of Life Life-Cycle Phase
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PM Powder Metallurgy
SDAS Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing
SLM Selective Laser Melting (AM process)
UAM Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
WAAM Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
WBAM Wire-Based Additive Manufacturing
WFO World Foundry Organization
YS Yield Strength

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