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INST 240 (Pressure and Level Measurement), section 2

Lab Pressure measurement loop: Questions 91 and 92, completed objectives due by the end of day 4 Exam Day 5 only a simple calculator may be used! Specic objectives for the mastery exam: Build a circuit to energize an electromechanical relay (question 93) Convert between dierent pressure units (PSI, W.C., bar, etc.) Calculate pressure applied to a DP instrument in a realistic scenario Calculate instrument input and output values given calibrated ranges Determine the possibility of suggested faults in a simple circuit given measured values (voltage, current), a schematic diagram, and reported symptoms INST251 Review: Convert gain value to proportional band value, or visa-versa INST260 Review: Sketch proper wire connections for a data acquisition unit to measure an analog sensor signal Recommended daily schedule Day 1 Theory session topic: Pressure instrument accessories Questions 1 through 20; answer questions 1-10 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 2 Theory session topic: Pneumatic pressure instruments Questions 21 through 40; answer questions 21-30 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 3 Theory session topic: Pneumatic pressure instruments (continued) and pressure switches Questions 41 through 60; answer questions 41-50 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 4 Theory session topic: Review for exam Questions 61 through 80; answer questions 61-70 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Build and test mastery exam circuit (Question 93) Feedback questions (81 through 90) are optional and may be submitted for review at the end of the day Day 5 Exam

Course Syllabus INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION: Tony Kuphaldt (360)-752-8477 [oce phone] (360)-752-7277 [fax] tkuphald@btc.ctc.edu DEPT/COURSE #: INST 240 CREDITS: 6 Lecture Hours: 26 Lab Hours: 82 Work-based Hours: 0

COURSE TITLE: Pressure and Level Measurement COURSE OUTCOMES: Commission, analyze, and eciently diagnose instrumented systems measuring uid pressure and liquid level. COURSE DESCRIPTION: In this course you will learn how to precisely measure both uid pressure and uid/solids level in a variety of applications, as well as accurately calibrate and eciently troubleshoot pressure and level measurement systems. Pre/Corequisite course: INST 200 (Introduction to Instrumentation) COURSE OUTLINE: a course calendar in electronic format (Excel spreadsheet) resides on the Y: network drive, and also in printed paper format in classroom DMC130, for convenient student access. This calendar is updated to reect schedule changes resulting from employer recruiting visits, interviews, and other impromptu events. Course worksheets provide comprehensive lists of all course assignments and activities, with the rst page outlining the schedule and sequencing of topics and assignment due dates. These worksheets are available in PDF format at http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst INST240 Section 1 (Pressure and pressure instruments): 4 days theory and labwork INST240 Section 2 (Pneumatic instrumentation): 4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for mastery/proportional Exams INST240 Section 3 (Hydrostatic, displacer, and interface level measurement): 4 days theory and labwork INST240 Section 4 (Other level measurement technologies): 4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for mastery/proportional Exams

STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES: Without references or notes, within a limited time (3 hours total for each exam session), independently perform the following tasks. Multiple re-tries are allowed on mastery (100% accuracy) objectives, each with a dierent set of problems: Build a circuit to energize an electromechanical relay given a switch and relay both randomly selected by the instructor, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Build a circuit to sense either pressure or vacuum using a DP transmitter randomly selected by the instructor, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Convert between dierent pressure units (PSI, W.C., bar. etc.) with 100% accuracy (mastery) Determine suitability of dierent level-measuring technologies for a given process uid type, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Calculate pressure applied to a DP instrument given a pictorial diagram, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Calculate ranges for hydrostatic (DP) level-measuring instruments given physical dimensions and uid densities, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Calculate instrument input and output values given calibrated ranges, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Determine the possibility of suggested faults in simple circuits given measured values (voltage, current), schematic diagrams, and reported symptoms, with 100% accuracy (mastery) Predict the response of automatic pressure and level control systems to component faults and changes in process conditions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations Sketch proper power and signal connections between individual instruments to fulll specied control system functions, given pictorial and/or schematic illustrations of those instruments In a team environment and with full access to references, notes, and instructor assistance, perform the following tasks: Demonstrate proper use of safety equipment and application of safe procedures while using power tools, and working on live systems Communicate eectively with teammates to plan work, arrange for absences, and share responsibilities in completing all labwork Construct and commission a working pressure-measurement loop consisting of an electronic pressure transmitter, signal wiring, and indicator Construct and commission a working level-measurement loop consisting of a pneumatic level transmitter, signal tubing, and indicator Generate accurate loop diagrams compliant with ISA standards documenting your teams systems Independently perform the following tasks with 100% accuracy (mastery). Multiple re-tries are allowed with dierent specications/conditions each time): Calibrate an electronic pressure transmitter to specied accuracy using industry-standard calibration equipment Demonstrate the proper usage of a deadweight tester for generating precise pressures Calibrate a pneumatic level transmitter to specied accuracy using industry-standard calibration equipment Demonstrate the proper usage of a manometer for measuring gas pressure Diagnose a random fault placed in another teams pressure measurement system by the instructor within a limited time using no test equipment except a multimeter, logically justifying your steps in the instructors direct presence Diagnose a random fault placed in another teams level measurement system by the instructor within a limited time using no test equipment except a pressure gauge, logically justifying your steps in the instructors direct presence

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: Course structure and methods are intentionally designed to develop critical-thinking and life-long learning abilities, continually placing the student in an active rather than a passive role. Independent study: daily worksheet questions specify reading assignments, problems to solve, and experiments to perform in preparation (before) classroom theory sessions. Open-note quizzes and work inspections ensure accountability for this essential preparatory work. The purpose of this is to convey information and basic concepts, so valuable class time isnt wasted transmitting bare facts, and also to foster the independent research ability necessary for self-directed learning in your career. Classroom sessions: a combination of Socratic discussion, short lectures, small-group problem-solving, and hands-on demonstrations/experiments review and illuminate concepts covered in the preparatory questions. The purpose of this is to develop problem-solving skills, strengthen conceptual understanding, and practice both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. Lab activities: an emphasis on constructing and documenting working projects (real instrumentation and control systems) to illuminate theoretical knowledge with practical contexts. Special projects o-campus or in dierent areas of campus (e.g. BTCs Fish Hatchery) are encouraged. Hands-on troubleshooting exercises build diagnostic skills. Feedback questions: sets of practice problems at the end of each course section challenge your knowledge and problem-solving ability in current as as well as rst year (Electronics) subjects. These are optional assignments, counting neither for nor against your grade. Their purpose is to provide you and your instructor with direct feedback on what you have learned. Tours and guest speakers: quarterly tours of local industry and guest speakers on technical topics add breadth and additional context to the learning experience. STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly documented in the following course worksheets located at: http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst/index.html INST240 INST240 INST240 INST240 sec1.pdf sec2.pdf sec3.pdf sec4.pdf

EVALUATION AND GRADING STANDARDS: (out of 100% for the course grade) Mastery exams and mastery lab objectives = 50% of course grade Proportional exams = 40% (2 exams at 20% each) Lab questions = 10% (2 question sets at 5% each) Quiz penalty = -1% per failed quiz Tardiness penalty = -1% per incident (1 free tardy per course) Attendance penalty = -1% per hour (12 hours sick time per quarter) Repair bonus = +5% per repaired instrument (instruments broken and repaired statuses must be veried by the instructor) All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a curve) 100% A 95% 90% > B+ 86% 80% > C+ 76% 70% > D+ 66% 95% > A- 90% 86% > B 83% 76% > C 73% 66% > D 63% 83% > B- 80% 73% > C- 70% (minimum passing course grade) 63% > D- 60% 60% > F

Graded quizzes at the start of each classroom session gauge your independent learning. If absent or late, you may receive credit by passing a comparable quiz afterward or by having your preparatory work (reading outlines, work done answering questions) thoroughly reviewed prior to the absence. Absence on a scheduled exam day will result in a 0% score for the proportional exam unless you provide documented evidence of an unavoidable emergency. Failing a mastery exam will result in a 10% deduction from the proportional exam score, and you must still pass the mastery exam before the next scheduled course exam date. Multiple re-tries on new versions of the mastery exam are allowed with no further grade deduction. Failure to pass the mastery exam by the due date will result in a failing grade (F) for the course. If any other mastery objectives are not completed by their specied deadlines, your overall grade for the course will be capped at 70% (C- grade), and you will have one more school day to complete the unnished objectives. Failure to complete those mastery objectives by the end of that extra day (except in the case of documented, unavoidable emergencies) will result in a failing grade (F) for the course. Lab questions are assessed by individual questioning, at any date after the respective lab objective (mastery) has been completed by your team. These questions serve to guide your completion of each lab exercise and conrm participation of each individual student. Grading is as follows: full credit for thorough, correct answers; half credit for partially correct answers; and zero credit for major conceptual errors. All lab questions must be answered by the due date of the lab exercise.

REQUIRED STUDENT SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS: Course worksheets available for download in PDF format Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation textbook, available for download in PDF format Access worksheets and book at: http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst Spiral-bound notebook for reading annotation, homework documentation, and note-taking. Instrumentation reference CD-ROM (free, from instructor). This disk contains many tutorials and datasheets in PDF format to supplement your textbook(s). Tool kit (see detailed list) Simple scientic calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no unit conversions, no numeration system conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS recommended ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES: The BTC Library hosts a substantial collection of textbooks and references on the subject of Instrumentation, as well as links in its online catalog to free Instrumentation e-book resources available on the Internet. BTCInstrumentation channel on YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/BTCInstrumentation), hosts a variety of short video tutorials and demonstrations on instrumentation. ISA Student Section at BTC meets regularly to set up industry tours, raise funds for scholarships, and serve as a general resource for Instrumentation students. Membership in the ISA is $10 per year, payable to the national ISA organization. Membership includes a complementary subscription to InTech magazine. ISA website (http://www.isa.org) provides all of its standards in electronic format, many of which are freely available to ISA members. Instrument Engineers Handbook, Volume 1: Process Measurement and Analysis, edited by Bla Liptk, e a published by CRC Press. 4th edition ISBN-10: 0849310830 ; ISBN-13: 978-0849310836. Purdys Instrument Handbook, by Ralph Dewey. ISBN-10: 1-880215-26-8. A pocket-sized eld reference on basic measurement and control. Cad Standard (CadStd) or similar AutoCAD-like drafting software (useful for sketching loop and wiring diagrams). Cad Standard is a simplied clone of AutoCAD, and is freely available at: http://www.cadstd.com To receive classroom accommodations, registration with Disability Support Services (DSS) is required. Call 360-752-8450, email mgerard@btc.ctc.edu, or visit the DSS oce in the Counseling and Career Center (room 106, College Services building).

le INST240syllabus 6

Sequence of second-year Instrumentation courses

Core Electronics -- 3 qtrs


including MATH 141 (Precalculus 1)

(Only if 4th quarter was Summer: INST23x)

Prerequisite for all INST24x, INST25x, and INST26x courses

INST 200 -- 1 wk Intro. to Instrumentation

Offered 1st week of Fall, Winter, and Spring quarters

Summer quarter INST 230 -- 3 cr


Motor Controls

Fall quarter INST 240 -- 6 cr


Pressure/Level Measurement

Winter quarter INST 250 -- 5 cr


Final Control Elements

Spring quarter INST 260 -- 4 cr


Data Acquisition Systems

INST 231 -- 3 cr
PLC Programming

INST 241 -- 6 cr
Temp./Flow Measurement

INST 251 -- 5 cr
PID Control

INST 262 -- 5 cr
DCS and Fieldbus

INST 232 -- 3 cr
PLC Systems

INST 242 -- 5 cr
Analytical Measurement

INST 252 -- 4 cr
Loop Tuning

INST 263 -- 5 cr
Control Strategies

PHYS 121 -- 5 cr
Physics I

ENGT 122 -- 6 cr
CAD 1: Basics

Prerequisite for INST206

All courses completed?

INST 205 -- 1 cr Job Prep I No INST 206 -- 1 cr Job Prep II

Yes Graduate!!!

Offered 1st week of Fall, Winter, and Spring quarters

The particular sequence of courses you take during the second year depends on when you complete all rst-year courses and enter the second year. Since students enter the second year of Instrumentation at four dierent times (beginnings of Summer, Fall, Winter, and Spring quarters), the particular course sequence for any student will likely be dierent from the course sequence of classmates. Some second-year courses are only oered in particular quarters with those quarters not having to be in sequence, while others are oered three out of the four quarters and must be taken in sequence. The following layout shows four typical course sequences for second-year Instrumentation students, depending on when they rst enter the second year of the program:

Possible course schedules depending on date of entry into 2nd year


Beginning in Summer July Summer quarter INST 230 -- 3 cr
Motor Controls

Beginning in Fall Sept. Fall quarter INST 200 -- 1 wk


Intro. to Instrumentation

Beginning in Winter Jan. Winter quarter INST 200 -- 1 wk


Intro. to Instrumentation

Beginning in Spring April Spring quarter INST 200 -- 1 wk


Intro. to Instrumentation

INST 231 -- 3 cr
PLC Programming

INST 240 -- 6 cr
Pressure/Level Measurement

INST 250 -- 5 cr
Final Control Elements

INST 260 -- 4 cr
Data Acquisition Systems

INST 232 -- 3 cr Aug. Sept.


PLC Systems

INST 241 -- 6 cr
Temp./Flow Measurement

INST 251 -- 5 cr
PID Control

INST 262 -- 5 cr
DCS and Fieldbus

Fall quarter INST 200 -- 1 wk


Intro. to Instrumentation

INST 242 -- 5 cr Dec. Jan.


Analytical Measurement

INST 252 -- 4 cr
Loop Tuning

INST 263 -- 5 cr
Control Strategies

Winter quarter INST 205 -- 1 cr Job Prep I INST 250 -- 5 cr


Final Control Elements

PHYS 121 -- 5 cr Mar. April


Physics I

ENGT 122 -- 6 cr June July


CAD 1: Basics

INST 240 -- 6 cr
Pressure/Level Measurement

Spring quarter INST 205 -- 1 cr Job Prep I INST 260 -- 4 cr


Data Acquisition Systems

Summer quarter INST 230 -- 3 cr


Motor Controls

INST 241 -- 6 cr
Temp./Flow Measurement

INST 242 -- 5 cr Dec. Jan.


Analytical Measurement

INST 251 -- 5 cr
PID Control

INST 231 -- 3 cr
PLC Programming

Winter quarter INST 205 -- 1 cr Job Prep I INST 250 -- 5 cr


Final Control Elements

INST 252 -- 4 cr
Loop Tuning

INST 262 -- 5 cr
DCS and Fieldbus

INST 232 -- 3 cr Aug. Sept.


PLC Systems

PHYS 121 -- 5 cr Mar. April


Physics I

INST 263 -- 5 cr
Control Strategies

Fall quarter INST 205 -- 1 cr Job Prep I INST 240 -- 6 cr


Pressure/Level Measurement

Spring quarter INST 206 -- 1 cr Job Prep II INST 260 -- 4 cr


Data Acquisition Systems

ENGT 122 -- 6 cr June July


CAD 1: Basics

INST 251 -- 5 cr
PID Control

Summer quarter INST 230 -- 3 cr


Motor Controls

INST 252 -- 4 cr
Loop Tuning

INST 241 -- 6 cr
Temp./Flow Measurement

PHYS 121 -- 5 cr Mar. April


Physics I

INST 262 -- 5 cr
DCS and Fieldbus

INST 231 -- 3 cr
PLC Programming

INST 242 -- 5 cr Dec. Jan.


Analytical Measurement

Spring quarter INST 206 -- 1 cr Job Prep II INST 260 -- 4 cr


Data Acquisition Systems

INST 263 -- 5 cr
Control Strategies

INST 232 -- 3 cr Aug. Sept.


PLC Systems

Winter quarter INST 206 -- 1 cr Job Prep II INST 250 -- 5 cr


Final Control Elements

ENGT 122 -- 6 cr June July


CAD 1: Basics

Fall quarter INST 206 -- 1 cr Job Prep II INST 240 -- 6 cr


Pressure/Level Measurement

Summer quarter INST 230 -- 3 cr


Motor Controls

INST 262 -- 5 cr
DCS and Fieldbus

INST 251 -- 5 cr
PID Control

INST 263 -- 5 cr
Control Strategies

INST 231 -- 3 cr
PLC Programming

INST 241 -- 6 cr
Temp./Flow Measurement

INST 252 -- 4 cr
Loop Tuning

ENGT 122 -- 6 cr June


CAD 1: Basics

INST 232 -- 3 cr Aug.


PLC Systems

INST 242 -- 5 cr Dec.


Analytical Measurement

PHYS 121 -- 5 cr Mar.


Physics I

Graduation!

Graduation!

Graduation!

Graduation!

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General student expectations Your future employer expects you to: show up for work on time, prepared, every day; to work safely, eciently, conscientiously, and with a clear mind; to seek help when you need it; to follow through with all your commitments and to take responsibility for all your actions and for the consequences of those actions. Instrument technicians work on highly complex, mission-critical measurement and control systems, where incompetence and/or lack of integrity invites disaster. This is also why employers check legal records and social networking websites for signs of irresponsibility when considering a student for hire. Drug and alcohol use is particularly noteworthy to employers because these impair your ability to reason, and this is rst and foremost a thinking career. (Punctuality and Attendance) You are expected to arrive for each theory and lab session on time, every day, just as you would for a job. If a session begins at 12:00 noon, 12:00:01 is considered late; however, one late arrival is permitted in each course with no grade deduction. You are expected to attend all day, every day. Each student has 12 sick hours per quarter applicable to absences not veriably employment-related, school-related, weather-related, or required by law. Each student must confer with the instructor to apply sick hours to any missed time this is not done automatically for the student. Students may donate unused sick hours to whomever they specically choose. You should contact your instructor and team members immediately if you know you will be late or absent, and it is your responsibility to catch up on all activities during your absence. Absence on an exam day will result in a failing grade for that exam, unless due to a documented emergency. Exams may be taken in advance for full credit. (Independent learning) This career demands continuous learning outside of formal (i.e. instructor-led) school environments. You will build this vital skill by studying and completing assignments on new subjects before class begins. You are expected to check the course schedule (outlined on page 1 of each worksheet), read ahead to see for yourself what assignments will be due (and when!), and to identify areas of confusion in your studies so you may raise these points in class and better understand the subjects. Most students nd 2 hours per day the absolute minimum time commitment for adequate preparation. Question 0 (included in every worksheet) lists practical tips for independent learning and problem-solving. (Safety) You are expected to work safely in the lab just as you will be on the job. This includes wearing proper attire (safety glasses when working with tools producing chips or dust, no open-toed shoes in the lab), implementing lock-out/tag-out procedures when working on circuits over 24 volts, using ladders to reach high places rather than standing on tables or chairs, and maintaining an orderly work environment. (Teamwork) You will work in instructor-assigned teams to complete lab assignments, just as you will work in teams to complete complex assignments on the job. Any student regularly compromising team performance through absence, tardiness, disrespect, unsafe work, or other disruptive behavior(s) will be expelled from their team and required to complete all labwork independently for the remainder of the quarter. (Responsibility for actions) If you lose or damage college property (e.g. lab equipment), you must nd, repair, or help replace it. If your actions strain the relationship between the program and an employer (e.g. poor behavior during a tour or an internship), you must make amends. The general rule here (as in life) is this: If you break it, you x it! Everyone makes mistakes, but the mark of a responsible person is how they rectify their mistakes. (Disciplinary action) The Student Code of Conduct (Washington Administrative Codes WAC 495B-120) explicitly authorizes disciplinary action against misconduct including: academic dishonesty (e.g. cheating, plagiarism), dangerous or lewd behavior, theft, harassment, intoxication, destruction of property, and disruption of the learning environment.

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General tool and supply list Wrenches Combination (box- and open-end) wrench set, 1/4 to 3/4 the most important wrench sizes are 7/16, 1/2, 9/16, and 5/8; get these immediately! Adjustable wrench, 6 handle (sometimes called Crescent wrench) Hex wrench (Allen wrench) set, fractional 1/16 to 3/8 Optional: Hex wrench (Allen wrench) set, metric 1.5 mm to 10 mm Optional: Miniature combination wrench set, 3/32 to 1/4 (sometimes called an ignition wrench set) Note: when turning a bolt, nut, or tube tting with a hexagonal body, the preferred ranking of hand tools to use (from rst to last) is box-end wrench or socket, open-end wrench, and nally adjustable wrench. Pliers should never be used to turn the head of a tting or fastener unless it is absolutely unavoidable! Pliers Needle-nose pliers Slip-joint pliers (sometimes called Channel-lock pliers) Diagonal wire cutters (sometimes called dikes) Screwdrivers Slotted, 1/8 and 1/4 shaft Phillips, #1 and #2 Jewelers screwdriver set Measurement tools Tape measure. 12 feet minimum Optional: Vernier calipers Electrical Multimeter, Fluke model 87-IV or better Wire strippers/terminal crimpers with a range including 10 AWG to 18 AWG wire Soldering iron, 10 to 25 watt Rosin-core solder Package of compression-style fork terminals (e.g. Thomas & Betts Sta-Kon part number 14RB-10F, 14 to 18 AWG wire size, #10 stud size) Safety Safety glasses or goggles (available at BTC bookstore) Earplugs (available at BTC bookstore) Miscellaneous Simple scientic calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no unit conversions, no numeration system conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS recommended. On some of the exams you will take, only a simple calculator will be allowed! Teon pipe tape Utility knife An inexpensive source of high-quality tools is your local pawn shop. Look for name-brand tools with unlimited lifetime guarantees (e.g. Sears Craftsman brand, Snap-On, etc.).

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Methods of instruction This course develops self-instructional and diagnostic skills by placing students in situations where they are required to research and think independently. In all portions of the curriculum, the goal is to avoid a passive learning environment, favoring instead active engagement of the learner through reading, reection, problem-solving, and experimental activities. The curriculum may be roughly divided into two portions: theory and practical.

Theory In the theory portion of each course, students independently research subjects prior to entering the classroom for discussion. This means working through all the days assigned questions as completely as possible. This usually requires a fair amount of technical reading, and may also require setting up and running simple experiments. At the start of the classroom session, the instructor will check each students preparation with a quiz. Students then spend the rest of the classroom time working in groups and directly with the instructor to thoroughly answer all questions assigned for that day, articulate problem-solving strategies, and to approach the questions from multiple perspectives. To put it simply: fact-gathering happens outside of class and is the individual responsibility of each student, so that class time may be devoted to the more complex tasks of critical thinking and problem solving where the instructors attention is best applied. Each student is free to leave the classroom when they have completely worked through all problems and have answered a summary quiz designed to gauge their learning during the theory session. If a student nishes ahead of time, they are free to leave, or may help tutor classmates who need extra help. The express goal of this teaching methodology is to help each student cultivate critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, and to sharpen their abilities as independent learners. While this approach may be unusual compared to traditional lecture-driven classroom settings, it is more realistic and benecial to the type of work done in instrumentation, where critical thinking and problem-solving are the most important skills a technician can possess. Students are far more engaged with the subject matter and learn much more this way, than when lectured to for hours on end.

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Lab In the lab portion of each course, students work in teams to install, congure, document, calibrate, and troubleshoot working instrument loop systems. Each lab exercise focuses on a dierent type of instrument, with a eight-day period typically allotted for completion. An ordinary lab session might look like this: (1) Start of practical (lab) session: announcements and planning (a) The instructor makes general announcements to all students (b) The instructor works with team to plan that days goals, making sure each team member has a clear idea of what they should accomplish (2) Teams work on lab unit completion according to recommended schedule: (First day) Select and bench-test instrument(s) (One day) Connect instrument(s) into a complete loop (One day) Each team member drafts their own loop documentation, inspection done as a team (with instructor) (One or two days) Each team member calibrates/congures the instrument(s) (Remaining days, up to last) Each team member troubleshoots the instrument loop (3) End of practical (lab) session: debrieng where each team reports on their work to the whole class Troubleshooting assessments will be conducted in the following manner: The student approaches instructor when ready to troubleshoot. The instructor selects a loop diagram for a system not built by that students team. The student evaluates that system to ensure it is working properly. The student submits the loop diagram to the instructor and leaves the lab room with all teammates. The instructor faults the system, then calls the whole team back into the lab room. It is entirely valid to fault a component of the system the student has not studied in detail! The instructor plays the part of a bewildered operator, declaring the system broken. Throughout the exercise, the student may ask questions of the instructor, who will answer as a real operator would: describing symptoms but not providing any recommendations. The instructor will have a realistic scenario in mind, and answer these questions accordingly. The student must begin their troubleshooting with a measurement or a response test. The instructor will start a timer as soon as this rst diagnostic step begins, giving the student 5 minutes to identify the location and nature of the fault. Most importantly, the instructor challenges the student to defend all diagnostic steps throughout the exercise. Every step must be logically justied, with the student correctly narrowing the eld of possible faults as time goes on. If the student at any point concludes a type or location of fault incompatible with the gathered data, they fail the exercise. Likewise, if the student begins looking for specic faults (e.g. checking conguration parameters, looking for loose wires) prior to gathering test data sucient to positively identify that location and type of fault, they fail the exercise. If by the end of the allotted time the student correctly identies the location and type of fault (e.g. open, short, ground, mis-calibration, mis-conguration, etc.), they will be given extra time if needed to precisely pinpoint the fault without instructor supervision. If the fault happens to be something of a nature the student has not yet studied in detail (e.g. a controller mis-conguration, prior to the student having learned how to congure controllers), and the student has correctly identied that component as the culprit, the exercise is declared a success. If by the end of the allotted time the student fails to correctly identify the location and type of fault, any observing teammate may continue diagnosis of the same system for full credit, with the instructor re-starting the timer for another 5 minutes. The instructor reviews the entire eort with student and teammates, identifying correct procedures and logical conclusions as well as any incorrect or inecient steps. The student then repairs the fault and veries the system works properly. The student returns loop diagram to the common holding area. le instructional 12

Distance delivery methods Sometimes the demands of life prevent students from attending college 6 hours per day. In such cases, there exist alternatives to the normal 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM class/lab schedule, allowing students to complete coursework in non-traditional ways, at a distance from the college campus proper. For such distance students, the same worksheets, lab activities, exams, and academic standards still apply. Instead of working in small groups and in teams to complete theory and lab sections, though, students participating in an alternative fashion must do all the work themselves. Participation via teleconferencing, video- or audio-recorded small-group sessions, and such is encouraged and supported. There is no recording of hours attended or tardiness for students participating in this manner. The pace of the course is likewise determined by the distance student. Experience has shown that it is a benet for distance students to maintain the same pace as their on-campus classmates whenever possible. In lieu of small-group activities and class discussions, comprehension of the theory portion of each course will be ensured by completing and submitting detailed answers for all worksheet questions, not just passing daily quizzes as is the standard for conventional students. The instructor will discuss any incomplete and/or incorrect worksheet answers with the student, and ask that those questions be re-answered by the student to correct any misunderstandings before moving on. Labwork is perhaps the most dicult portion of the curriculum for a distance student to complete, since the equipment used in Instrumentation is typically too large and expensive to leave the school lab facility. Distance students must nd a way to complete the required lab activities, either by arranging time in the school lab facility and/or completing activities on equivalent equipment outside of school (e.g. at their place of employment, if applicable). Labwork completed outside of school must be validated by a supervisor and/or documented via photograph or videorecording. Conventional students may opt to switch to distance mode at any time. This has proven to be a benet to students whose lives are disrupted by catastrophic events. Likewise, distance students may switch back to conventional mode if and when their schedules permit. Although the existence of alternative modes of student participation is a great benet for students with challenging schedules, it requires a greater investment of time and a greater level of self-discipline than the traditional mode where the student attends school for 6 hours every day. No student should consider the distance mode of learning a way to have more free time to themselves, because they will actually spend more time engaged in the coursework than if they attend school on a regular schedule. It exists merely for the sake of those who cannot attend during regular school hours, as an alternative to course withdrawal.

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General advice for successful learning Cultivate meta-cognitive skills (the ability to monitor your own thinking on a subject)! Whenever you get stuck trying to understand a concept, clearly identify where you are getting stuck, and where things stop making sense. When you think you understand a concept, test your understanding by explaining it in your own words. You can do this by trying to explain it to a willing classmate, or by imagining yourself trying to explain it to someone. If you cannot clearly explain a concept to someone else, you do not understand it well enough yourself ! The technique of trying to explain a concept also works well to identify where you are stuck. The point at which you nd yourself unable to clearly articulate the concept is very likely the exact point of your misconception or confusion. Join or create a study group with like-minded classmates! Read the textbook assignments together. Solve assigned problems together. Collectively identify dicult concepts and areas needing clarication, to bring up later during class. Take turns trying to explain complicated concepts to each other, then critiquing those explanations. Eliminate distractions in your life! Time-wasting technologies: televisions, internet, video games, mobile phones, etc. Unhelpful friends, unhealthy relationships, etc. Make use of wasted time to study! Carefully plan your lab sessions with your teammates to reserve a portion of each days lab time for study. Bring a meal to school every day and use your one-hour lunch break for study instead of eating out. This will not just save you time, but also money! Plan to arrive at school at least a half-hour early (the doors unlock at 7:00 AM) and use the time to study as opposed to studying late at night. This also helps guard against tardiness in the event of unexpected delays, and ensures you a better parking space! Take responsibility for your learning and your life! Do not procrastinate, waiting until the last minute to do something. Obtain all the required books, and any supplementary study materials available to you. If the books cost too much, look on the internet for used texts (www.amazon.com, www.half.com, etc.) and use the money from the sale of your television and video games to buy them! Make an honest attempt to solve problems before asking someone else to help you. Being able to problem-solve is a skill that will improve only if you continue to work at it. If you detect trouble understanding a basic concept, address it immediately. Never ignore an area of confusion, believing you will pick up on it later. Later may be too late! Do not wait for others to do things for you. No one is going to make extra eort purely on your behalf.

. . . And the number one tip for success . . . Realize that there are no shortcuts to learning. Every time you seek a shortcut, you are actually cheating yourself out of a learning opportunity!!

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Creative Commons License This worksheet is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, version 1.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. The terms and conditions of this license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modication of all licensed works by the general public.

Simple explanation of Attribution License: The licensor (Tony Kuphaldt) permits others to copy, distribute, display, and otherwise use this work. In return, licensees must give the original author(s) credit. For the full license text, please visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ on the internet.

More detailed explanation of Attribution License: Under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License, you may make freely use, make copies, and even modify these worksheets (and the individual source les comprising them) without having to ask me (the author and licensor) for permission. The one thing you must do is properly credit my original authorship. Basically, this protects my eorts against plagiarism without hindering the end-user as would normally be the case under full copyright protection. This gives educators a great deal of freedom in how they might adapt my learning materials to their unique needs, removing all nancial and legal barriers which would normally hinder if not prevent creative use. Nothing in the License prohibits the sale of original or adapted materials by others. You are free to copy what I have created, modify them if you please (or not), and then sell them at any price. Once again, the only catch is that you must give proper credit to myself as the original author and licensor. Given that these worksheets will be continually made available on the internet for free download, though, few people will pay for what you are selling unless you have somehow added value. Nothing in the License prohibits the application of a more restrictive license (or no license at all) to derivative works. This means you can add your own content to that which I have made, and then exercise full copyright restriction over the new (derivative) work, choosing not to release your additions under the same free and open terms. An example of where you might wish to do this is if you are a teacher who desires to add a detailed answer key for your own benet but not to make this answer key available to anyone else (e.g. students).

Note: the text on this page is not a license. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the Legal Code (the full license) - it is a human-readable expression of some of its key terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the Legal Code beneath. This simple explanation itself has no legal value, and its contents do not appear in the actual license.

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Metric prexes and conversion constants Metric prexes Yotta = 1024 Symbol: Y Zeta = 1021 Symbol: Z Exa = 1018 Symbol: E Peta = 1015 Symbol: P Tera = 1012 Symbol: T Giga = 109 Symbol: G Mega = 106 Symbol: M Kilo = 103 Symbol: k Hecto = 102 Symbol: h Deca = 101 Symbol: da Deci = 101 Symbol: d Centi = 102 Symbol: c Milli = 103 Symbol: m Micro = 106 Symbol: Nano = 109 Symbol: n Pico = 1012 Symbol: p Femto = 1015 Symbol: f Atto = 1018 Symbol: a Zepto = 1021 Symbol: z Yocto = 1024 Symbol: y
METRIC PREFIX SCALE T tera 1012 G M giga mega 109 106 k kilo 103 (none) 100 m milli micro 10-3 10-6 n nano 10-9 p pico 10-12

102 101 10-1 10-2 hecto deca deci centi h da d c

Conversion formulae for temperature o F = (o C)(9/5) + 32 o C = (o F - 32)(5/9) o R = o F + 459.67 K = o C + 273.15 Conversion equivalencies for distance 1 inch (in) = 2.540000 centimeter (cm) 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft)

16

Conversion equivalencies for volume 1 gallon (gal) = 231.0 cubic inches (in3 ) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt) = 128 uid ounces (. oz.) = 3.7854 liters (l) 1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )

Conversion equivalencies for velocity 1 mile per hour (mi/h) = 88 feet per minute (ft/m) = 1.46667 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.60934 kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.44704 meter per second (m/s) = 0.868976 knot (knot international)

Conversion equivalencies for mass 1 pound (lbm) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) = 0.031081 slugs

Conversion equivalencies for force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)

Conversion equivalencies for area 1 acre = 43560 square feet (ft2 ) = 4840 square yards (yd2 ) = 4046.86 square meters (m2 )

Conversion equivalencies for common pressure units (either all gauge or all absolute) 1 pound per square inch (PSI) = 2.03602 inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6799 inches of water (in. W.C.) = 6.894757 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 0.06894757 bar 1 bar = 100 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 14.504 pounds per square inch (PSI)

Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only) 1 atmosphere (Atm) = 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 101.325 kilo-pascals absolute (kPaA) = 1.01325 bar (bar) = 760 millimeters of mercury absolute (mmHgA) = 760 torr (torr)

Conversion equivalencies for energy or work 1 british thermal unit (Btu International Table) = 251.996 calories (cal International Table) = 1055.06 joules (J) = 1055.06 watt-seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) = 1.05506 x 1010 ergs (erg) = 778.169 foot-pound-force (ft-lbf)

Conversion equivalencies for power 1 horsepower (hp 550 ft-lbf/s) = 745.7 watts (W) = 2544.43 british thermal units per hour (Btu/hr) = 0.0760181 boiler horsepower (hp boiler)

Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard 9.806650 meters per second per second (m/s2 ) = 32.1740 feet per second per second (ft/s2 )

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Physical constants Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 2.9979 108 meters per second (m/s) = 186,281 miles per second (mi/s) Avogadros number (NA ) = 6.022 1023 per mole (mol1 ) Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 1019 Coulomb (C) Boltzmanns constant (k) = 1.38 1023 Joules per Kelvin (J/K) Stefan-Boltzmann constant () = 5.67 108 Watts per square meter-Kelvin4 (W/m2 K4 ) Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K) Properties of Water Freezing point at sea level = 32o F = 0o C Boiling point at sea level = 212o F = 100o C Density of water at 4o C = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/liter = 62.428 lb/ft3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3 Specic heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/go C = 1 BTU/lbo F = 4.1869 Joules/go C Specic heat of ice 0.5 calories/go C Specic heat of steam 0.48 calories/go C Absolute viscosity of water at 20o C = 1.0019 centipoise (cp) = 0.0010019 Pascal-seconds (Pas) Surface tension of water (in contact with air) at 18o C = 73.05 dynes/cm pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14) Properties of Dry Air at sea level Density of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 1.204 mg/cm3 = 1.204 kg/m3 = 0.075 lb/ft3 = 0.00235 slugs/ft3 Absolute viscosity of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 0.018 centipoise (cp) = 1.8 105 Pascalseconds (Pas)

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Question 0 How to read actively: If youre not reading with a pencil, youre not actively reading! Shorthand notation, diagrams, and other notes jotted in a notebook are more eective than underlining, highlighting, or otherwise marking up the original text. Identify as clearly as possible which concepts or points confuse you the most. This is the rst and most important step to understanding something challenging. Be as specic as you can! Link new concepts to previously-learned concepts, and imagine how new concepts might apply to applications not mentioned in the text. Make notes on these points so you may raise them as questions during class time. Note page numbers where important concepts, equations, images, tables, and problem-solving techniques are introduced, and also any sections of the reading that confound you. This will help you locate these important references during class time when you will contribute in the discussion and raise questions of your own (e.g. On page 572 it shows . . .). If the text demonstrates a mathematical calculation, such as how to apply a new equation to solving a problem, pick up your calculator and work through the example as you read! Applications of math are an ideal opportunity to actively read a technical book. Reserve the front pages of your notebook (or keep a separate notebook) for all mathematical formulae you come across in your reading. Briey explain in your own words what each formula does and what its terms mean. Imagine trying to explain what youve just read to an intelligent child someone with the capacity to understand but without the experience to immediately relate. This forces you to distill each concept to its essence. Your rst attempt will rarely be right, but subsequent attempts will get better and better. Once you have an explanation that satises you, write it out using the fewest words possible. Problem-solving tips: Clearly identify all given information, and also what the question is asking you to determine or solve. Sketch a diagram or graph to organize all the given information and show where the answer will t. Perform thought experiments to visualize the eects of dierent conditions. Work backward from a hypothetical solution to a new set of given conditions. Change the problem to make it simpler, and then solve the simplied problem (e.g. change quantitative to qualitative, or visa-versa; substitute dierent numerical values to make them easier to work with; eliminate confusing details; add details to eliminate unknowns; consider limiting cases that are easier to grasp). Identify any rst principles of science (e.g. Conservation laws, Ohms Law, etc.) that might apply. Specically identify which portion(s) of the question you nd most confusing and need help with. The more specically you are able to express your point(s) of confusion, the better. Above all, cultivate an attitude of persistence in your studies. Persistence and unbroken focus precedes mastery of anything non-trivial. They keys to persistence are (1) having the desire to achieve that mastery, and (2) knowing that challenges are normal and not an indication of something gone wrong. A common error is to equate easy with eective: students often believe learning should be easy if everything is done right. The truth is that mastery never comes easy, and that easier methods usually substitute memorization for understanding! le question0 19

Questions Question 1 Read and outline the Valve Manifolds subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03916 Question 2 Read and outline the Bleed (Vent) Fittings subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03917 Question 3 Read and outline the Pressure Pulsation Damping subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03918 Question 4 Read and outline the Remote and Chemical Seals subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03919 Question 5 Read and outline the Filled Impulse Lines and Purged Impulse Lines subsections of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03920 Question 6 Read and outline the Heat-Traced Impulse Lines subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03921

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Question 7 Read and outline the Water Traps and Pigtail Siphons subsection of the Pressure Sensor Accessories section of the Continuous Pressure Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03922 Question 8 Read the 1199 Fill Fluid Specications document published by Rosemount (00840-2100-4016, revision AA), and answer the following questions: In what ways does DC704 ll uid dier from the general-purpose DC200? Which ll uid is most appropriate for high-reactivity applications such as pure oxygen pressure measurement? Which ll uid is most common in Rosemount remote seals? Which ll uids are appropriate for sanitary (food processing and pharmaceutical) applications? Which ll uid has the most potential to cause calibration errors as a result of large elevation dierences between the transmitter and the remote seal(s)? Explain why. Which ll uid has the most potential to exhibit slow response times when measuring fast-changing process pressures? Explain why. le i03923

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Question 9 Dierential pressure transmitters are very common in the process industries. Besides being used to measure pressure (both dierential and gauge), they may also be used to infer uid level, uid ow, and uid density. A standard manifold called a three-valve manifold is often used to connect a dierential pressure transmitter to the process. These manifolds consist of two block valves (to isolate the high and low transmitter ports from the process) and one equalizing valve (to connect both ports together to ensure zero dierential pressure). Three-valve manifolds are usually found as single units: a billet of metal with valves and ports machined into it, ready to bolt directly to a transmitter. However, you can build your own three-valve manifold using three individual valves, two tee ttings, and whatever other ttings are necessary to connect to the transmitter. Suppose we encounter a dierential pressure transmitter used to measure pressure drop across a heat exchanger. The typical pressure on the upstream side of the heat exchanger is 1000 PSI, while the typical pressure on the downstream side of the exchanger is 970 PSI. The transmitter connects to this heat exchanger via a three-valve manifold. A single bleed valve installed on the transmitters low-pressure side is used to vent pressure to atmosphere prior to removal of the transmitter from the manifold:

Flow

"Bleed"

"Flange tap"

Heat exchanger

"Flange tap"

The common procedure for operating a 3-valve manifold to take a transmitter out of service is to rst close the high-side block valve, then open the equalizing valve, then close the low-side block valve. Once these manifold valves have been thus arranged to isolate the transmitter from the process and equalize dierential pressure inside the transmitter, the bleed valve may be carefully opened to release stored pressure 22

to atmosphere. Determine how much uid pressure will be on each side of the transmitter through every step of this procedure: Step Transmitter in service Close high-side block valve Open equalizing valve Close low-side block valve Open bleed valve High-side pressure 1000 PSI Low-side pressure 970 PSI

Now, suppose someone else (at a later date) were to remove this transmitter from service using the three-valve manifold, but following a dierent order of steps: closing the low-side block valve rst, then equalizing, then blocking the high side. Determine how much uid pressure will be on each side of the transmitter through every step of this (alternative) procedure: Step Transmitter in service Close low-side block valve Open equalizing valve Close high-side block valve Open bleed valve High-side pressure 1000 PSI Low-side pressure 970 PSI

Based on the pressures seen by the transmitter in both procedures, would you recommend one procedure over the other? If so, why? le i00211

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Question 10 Convert between the following units of pressure: 71.5 PSIA = ??? PSIG 5.03 bar (gauge) = ??? Hg 101 kPa = ??? PSIA 800 torr = ??? PSIG 41 Hg = ??? W.C. 2.2 feet Hg = ??? kPa 11 PSI vacuum = ??? torr 350 W.C.G = ??? W.C.A 66 cm W.C. = ??? Hg 910 PSIG = ??? atm 35 W.C. = ??? HgA 125 PSIA = ??? kPa

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for these conversion problems without using a calculator. le i04177

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Question 11 In connecting a pressure transmitter or other pressure-measuring instrument to a process pipe or vessel, there must be some means of disconnecting the instrument from the pressurized process so that it may be calibrated or removed safely without depressurizing the entire process. Usually, this feature is provided in the form of an instrument manifold, consisting of one or more valves between the instrument and the process pipe or vessel. Take this pressure gauge installation, for example:

Pressure gauge Process vessel "block"

"bleed"

Two small valves connect the process vessel to the pressure gauge through a tee tting, one called the block and the other called the bleed. In normal operation, the block valve remains in the open position and the bleed valve remains in the closed position. Suppose you wished to remove this pressure gauge from the process vessel and take it to the instrument shop for re-calibration. In what sequence would you operate the block and bleed valves before loosening the gauge from the tubing? After the gauge had been calibrated and installed, and you are ready to place it back in service, how would you sequence the opening and closing of the block and bleed valves? Be very careful about the sequence of your steps! le i00209

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Question 12 On processes where the uid in question is especially dangerous, double block-and-bleed manifolds are often used to isolate instruments from the process piping. Consider this example:

Pressure gauge Process vessel "block" "block"

"bleed"

Vent tube goes to a safe location, far, far away from where you are!
Describe the proper procedure for block and bleed valve opening/closing when removing and replacing an instrument connected to a process through such a manifold. le i00210

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Question 13 Some dierential pressure transmitters are equipped with ve-valve manifolds. These valve networks allow for blocking, equalizing, and bleeding of the transmitters two pressure ports, the valves being arranged in this pattern:

"equalizing" "block" vent

"equalizing" "block"

. . . to process
Shown using standard P&ID (Process and Instrument Diagram) symbols instrumentation equivalent of an electrical schematic diagram the transmitter and manifold arrangement looks like this:

Differential Pressure Transmitter PDT

Five-valve manifold

To Vent To High pressure Low pressure process connection process connection


Identify the normal, operating valve positions (open/closed) for a ve-valve manifold. Describe the proper sequence of manifold valve operation to successfully prepare the transmitter for removal from the process. Why do you think we have such things as 5-valve manifolds? What can be done with this manifold that cannot be done with a three-valve manifold? le i00212

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Question 14 A dierential pressure transmitter has been taken out of service, with the isolation, equalization, and bleed valves left in the following conditions:

4
H L

Vent

Valve Valve Valve Valve

1 2 3 4

shut open shut open

Suppose a technician places this transmitter back into service with the following steps: (1) (2) (3) (4) Shut valve 4 Shut valve 2 Open valve 3 Open valve 1

Explain why this technicians steps are incorrect, and what bad thing(s) might happen to the transmitter as a result. le i00797

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Question 15 Some pressure instruments come equipped with chemical seals consisting of diaphragm units connected to the instrument with small-bore capillary tubing lled with a liquid such as silicone oil:

Pneumatic differential pressure transmitter Regulated compressed air supply orifice nozzle flapper bellows Air pressure signal out fulcrum and seal
force bar

diaphragm

(transmitter filled with oil as well)

capillary tubing diaphragm diaphragm

oil

oil

Chemical seal

Chemical seal

29

These seals may then be connected to a process vessel to measure pressure, at some distance from the transmitter:

Transmitter

Process vessel

Chemical seal Chemical seal

For what purpose(s) do these seals function? What advantage(s) do they lend to the instrument in measuring pressure? le i00216 Question 16 Why is temperature an important factor in pressure transmitters equipped with remote seals (sometimes called chemical seals)? Specically, what temperature condition(s) could cause a dierential pressure instrument with remote seals to experience measurement errors? Also, describe what would happen to a pressure instrument equipped with remote seals if ever a leak developed in one of the capillary tubes. le i00217

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Question 17 Identify the functions of the following pressure-related accessory devices. Some of these are used in conjunction with pressure-measuring instruments, while others are used all by themselves: Snubber Relief valve Siphon (pigtail) Rupture disk le i00218 Question 18 The following dierential pressure sensor uses a matched pair of strain gauges. As the dierential pressure increases, one strain gauge becomes compressed while the other becomes stretched. A voltmeter registers the bridge circuits imbalance and displays it as a pressure measurement:

Pressure sensor illustration Port "A"


Strain gauge

Schematic diagram

#1 Diaphragm

R1 Vsource +
Strain gauge

R2
Voltmeter

Strain gauge

#2

#1

Strain gauge

#2

Port "B"

Credit will be given for determining the following: Identify Identify Identify Identify which port is the high pressure port what the voltmeter will register if xed resistor R1 fails open a component fault that would drive the voltmeter full upscale (peg positive) another component fault that would drive the voltmeter full upscale (peg positive)

le i00468 Question 19 Question 20 Question 21 Read and outline the Pneumatic Sensing Elements section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03924

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Question 22 Read and outline the Self Balancing Pneumatic Instrument Principles section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03926 Question 23 Read and outline the Pilot Valves and Pneumatic Amplifying Relays section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03925

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Question 24 What will happen to the pressures in this apper/nozzle system if the nozzle becomes completely plugged, from debris in the tube (most likely from an unclean air supply)?

???

???

From compressed air supply Debris plugging nozzle


What will happen to the pressures in this apper/nozzle system if the orice becomes completely plugged, from debris in the tube?

???

???

From compressed air supply Debris plugging orifice


In both scenarios, the blockage limits air ow out the nozzle. Will this reduction in air ow have any eect on the apper? Explain why or why not. Suggestions for Socratic discussion A very useful qualitative test for any pneumatic mechanism is to force the apper toward and away from the nozzle to check for an immediate air pressure response. Explain why this test is informative, and what would happen if we were to perform this test on each of these plugged mechanisms. What real-life conditions might cause blockages to develop in pneumatic instrument mechanisms? How would a technician remove such a blockage from a nozzle or orice if one develops? le i00192

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Question 25 Does the output pressure of this relay increase with increasing input pressure, or decrease with increasing input pressure? In other words, is it a direct-acting or reverse acting type of relay?

Input

Supply

vent

Output

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Explain this comparison: A relay is to a pilot what a transistor is to a hand switch How do you think a leak or tear in the diaphragm would aect the behavior of this relay? How do you think a plugged orice would aect the behavior of this relay? How do you think variations in the supply pressure would aect the behavior of this relay? le i00197

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Question 26 What is the response of this pneumatic relay to increasing pressure on each of its inputs? Does the output pressure increase as input As pressure increases? What happens when input Bs pressure increases?

Input B
sealing diaphragm

Input A

sensing diaphragm

Supply

vent

Output

Can you think of an electronic circuit or device that acts in an analogous manner? Also, explain why the following relay design is better, using two sealing diaphragms instead of just one:

Input A

Input B

Supply

vent

Output

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Explain how one might apply a thought experiment to these mechanisms to analyze their behavior. Why use sealing diaphragms in mechanisms such as this? Do you think there might be an alternative construction that achieves the same design goal? Explain how the behavior of this relay is similar to that of an operational amplier. Which of the two inputs is the non-inverting (+) and which of the two is inverting (-)? le i00198

35

Question 27 A pneumatic dierential pressure transmitter has a calibrated range of -100 to +100 inches of water column ( W.C.), and its output signal range is 3 to 15 PSI. Complete the following table of values for this transmitter, assuming perfect calibration (zero error). Be sure to show your work! Input pressure applied (W.C.) 0 -30 Percent of span (%) Output signal (PSI)

8 13 65 10

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Develop a linear equation in the form of y = mx + b that directly relates input pressure (x) to output pressure (y). Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator. le i00096 Question 28 Read and outline the Zero and Span Adjustments (Analog Instruments) section of the Instrument Calibration chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03903

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Question 29 Suppose an electronic pressure transmitter has an input range of 0 to 100 PSI and an output range of 4 to 20 mA. When subjected to a series of known pressures to obtain an As-Found calibration table, it responds as such: Applied pressure (PSI) 0 25 50 75 100 Output signal (mA) 3.5 7.5 11.5 15.5 19.5

Sketch this instruments ideal transfer function on the graph below, along with its actual transfer function graph based on the measured values recorded above. Then, determine what kind of calibration error it has (zero shift, span shift, and/or linearity):

20 16 12 8 4 0

Output (mA)

25

50

75

100

Input (PSI)
Finally, identify how this calibration error might be corrected. What steps or procedures would you follow to rectify this problem? Suggestions for Socratic discussion How might the other two calibration errors appear when graphed? Which constant in the y = mx + b linear equation represents zero, and which represents span? Describe how a computer spreadsheet program (e.g. Microsoft Excel) might be a useful tool in graphing this instruments response. le i00081

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Question 30 Complete the following table of equivalent pressures: bar 0.59 PSI 4.1 200 35 308 105 88 5.91 inches W.C. inches mercury

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for these conversion problems without using a calculator. le i03927

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Question 31 The transfer function (graph of output versus input) for a pneumatic bae/nozzle assembly looks something like this:

Clearance

From compressed air supply (20 PSI) 20 18 16 14 12 Pressure at 10 nozzle (PSI) 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Nozzle

Baffle

9 10

Clearance, mils (thousandths of an inch)


As you can see, this is a very sensitive mechanism. A nearly full swing of pressure (0 PSI to supply) is obtained with just several thousandths of an inch of bae movement. It is this extreme sensitivity that allows us to assume there is negligible motion in a pneumatic force-balance mechanism operating within its calibrated range. However, the bae/nozzle mechanism is certainly not equally sensitive throughout all portions of its operating range. Identify the most sensitive portion of its range on the transfer function graph, and explain you selection criterion. le i02907

39

Question 32 One of the most basic components of a pneumatic instrument is the so-called apper/nozzle, or bae/nozzle assembly. It consists of two restrictions to air ow, one within a tube (the orice) and the other at the end of a tube (the nozzle). The apper, or bae, is nothing more than a at piece of metal in close proximity to the nozzle tip. These mechanisms serve as extremely sensitive position detectors, generating a pneumatic pressure output signal that varies with apper (bae) position:

Output pressure port From compressed air supply Orifice Nozzle Flapper, or Baffle

Suppose that two pressure gauges were installed along the length of the tube, one upstream of the orice and the other downstream of the orice, like this:

???

???

From compressed air supply Orifice Nozzle

Flapper, or Baffle

Qualitatively speaking, what would these two pressure gauges indicate? Assume that the air supply is regulated by a pressure regulator, and so remains at a constant pressure. Would the two pressure gauges indicate the same amount of pressure? Would one of them indicate a higher pressure than the other? Explain your answer. If the apper (bae) is brought closer to the nozzle, the nozzle will become more restrictive to air ow through it. What eect will this have on the two pressure gauge indications in this apper/nozzle system?

???

???

From compressed air supply Flapper moved closer to nozzle

If the apper travels further away from the nozzle, what eect will it have on the two pressure gauges indications? 40

???

???

From compressed air supply Flapper moved further away from nozzle
le i00191 Question 33 Here, a simple pneumatic relay is shown next to an electronic circuit performing an analogous function:

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure

Vin

Vout

(vent)
diaphragm

-V

Input pressure
Describe what happens to the output of each system (pneumatic relay, and electronic circuit) if the input signal increases. For the pneumatic relay, this means an increasing (positive) input pressure to the diaphragm. For the electronic circuit, this means a more positive Vin with respect to ground. Will the output signal(s) increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain your answers. Do either of these devices consume power (i.e. pass air from source to vent, or electrical current from rail to rail) under steady-state conditions? Why or why not? le i00195

41

Question 34 Here, a simple pneumatic relay is shown next to an electronic circuit performing a similar, analogous, function:

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure

spring

Vin

Vout

sealing diaphragm sensing diaphragm

(vent)

-V

Input pressure
Describe what happens to the output of each system (pneumatic relay, and electronic circuit) if the input signal increases. For the pneumatic relay, this means an increasing (positive) input pressure to the diaphragm. For the electronic circuit, this means a more positive Vin with respect to ground. Will the output signal(s) increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain your answers. Do either of these devices consume power (i.e. pass air from source to vent, or electrical current from rail to rail) under steady-state conditions? Why or why not? le i00196

42

Question 35 Since precision pneumatic instruments operate best when their supply air pressure is at a constant pressure, it is necessary to regulate the uctuating air pressure from the receiver vessel down to a lower, more constant level for the instrument. The device designed to do this is called an air pressure regulator. A cut-away diagram of an air pressure regulator is shown here:

setpoint adjust (turn down for more pressure)


screw vent

spring diaphragm

Low pressure (regulated) air out

plug

High pressure air in

The wedge-shaped plug can move down to open the passageway and allow more of the high-pressure air to enter the chamber below the diaphragm, and can move up to close o the passageway and reduce the ow of incoming air into the diaphragm chamber. The regulation setpoint is adjustable by the position of the threaded rod pressing down on the diaphragm through a spring. Describe how this air pressure regulator functions. Suppose that the outlet air pressure is below setpoint. How does this mechanism respond to bring the outlet pressure back up to where it is supposed to be? If the outlet air pressure rises to too high a level, how does the mechanism compensate to reduce it back down to the setpoint level? Suggestions for Socratic discussion Suppose the spring inside this regulator were to break. What eect would this have on the regulators output pressure, and why? Suppose the vent hole were to plug. What eect would this have on the regulators output pressure, and why? le i00190

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Question 36 Shown here is a cut-away diagram of a simple pressure repeater, a device used to duplicate the pressure inside an enclosed process vessel with clean pneumatic (air) pressure, so it may be read with a remote gauge:

Vessel wall

Pressure indicating gauge


diaphragm

Process pressure

Vent
nozzle

Output pressure

orifice

Vessel wall

Compressed air supply


Describe the response of this device, step by step, to an increase in process pressure. Hint: the diaphragm in this device is slack, meaning it has negligible spring eect. This means even very small pressure dierences are sucient to move the diaphragm signicantly. Also, explain where we might want to use such a device, in lieu of simply connecting the pressure indicating gauge directly to the process vessel. le i00199

44

Question 37 What will the output voltage do if the variable resistance increases in value? Will the output voltage increase, decrease, or stay the same?

+V

Vout ???

What change in pneumatic output pressure will result in this pilot valve mechanism if the control rod moves in the downward direction (so that the plug moves closer to the seat)?

Compressed air supply Output pressure ???

orifice

plug
se at se at

(vent)

(vent) Control rod moved down

Compare these two systems, one electrical and one pneumatic. What similarities and dierences do you notice? le i00193

45

Question 38 Compare the following devices: a pneumatic pilot comprised of two plug/seat valve assemblies actuated by the same control rod, and a two-rheostat voltage divider circuit actuated by the same control knob:

Compressed air supply Output pressure


plug

+V

Control knob
plug
se at at se

Vout

(vent) (vent) Control rod


If the control rod of the pneumatic pilot moves up, what will the output pressure do (increase, decrease, or stay the same)? Assuming the two rheostats in the voltage divider circuit move in complementary fashion (one increases resistance while the other decreases resistance, with the same knob motion), which resistance must increase and which must decrease in order to mimic the behavior of the pneumatic pilot? In other words, after determining the pilot mechanisms output response, determine what changes in electrical resistance will produce an analogous response in the voltage divider circuit. Now compare the following devices: a dierent pneumatic pilot comprised of two plug/seat valve assemblies actuated by the same control rod, and a two-rheostat voltage divider circuit actuated by the same control knob:

Compressed air supply Output pressure +V

Control knob

Vout

(vent)

(vent)

Control rod
46

If the control rod of the pneumatic pilot moves up, what will the output pressure do (increase, decrease, or stay the same)? Once again, determine what resistance changes must occur in the electrical circuit to achieve results analogous to the pilot mechanisms actions. le i00194 Question 39 Question 40 Question 41 Read and outline the Analogy to Opamp Circuits section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03930

47

Question 42 Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:

Pout +V Vin(-) Vin(+) + -V Vout Air supply


Bellows Bellows Orifice Nozzle

Baffle

Pin(-)
Pivot

Pin(+)

Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:

Pout +V Vin + -V
Pivot Orifice Nozzle

Baffle Bellows Pin

Vout

Air supply

Challenge question: research the work of Harold Black in the 1920s, when he applied the principle of negative feedback to the design of telephone amplier circuits. How well was this novel concept accepted by the professional community? Suggestions for Socratic discussion Feedback systems are highly non-intuitive, and therefore cause much grief for students learning to master them. Discuss how to use thought experiments to help better understand the operation of a feedback system, whether it be an operational amplier circuit or a pneumatic mechanism. In general terms, what does the addition of negative feedback do to the over-all gain of a system? What practical uses might we nd for each of these circuits (and pneumatic systems)? le i03928

48

Question 43 Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:

R Pout +V Vin + -V x Vout Air supply


Orifice Nozzle

Baffle Bellows Pin 2x

Calculate Vout if Vin = 3.4 volts. Calculate Pout if Pin = 3.4 PSI. Is the pneumatic system a motionbalance or a force-balance mechanism? Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:

R Pout +V Vin + -V Vout Air supply 2x


Orifice Nozzle

Pin

Calculate Vout if Vin = 5.1 volts. Calculate Pout if Pin = 5.1 PSI. Is the pneumatic system a motionbalance or a force-balance mechanism? Suggestions for Socratic discussion The distinction between force-balance and motion-balance is one that tends to confuse students. A common tactical error students make is to attempt to memorize distinguishing characteristics in order to identify what type of balancing a particular mechanism employs. A better approach is to think through the operation of such pneumatic mechanisms using thought experiments to identify which balance principle they employ. Why do you think it is bad to go with the memorization approach instead of the thought experiment approach? What dierence does it make to us (as technicians) to know whether a mechanism is force- or motionbalance? In other words, who cares??? le i03929

49

Question 44 In the following bae/nozzle system, the nozzle pressure is allowed to react against any external force by generating a force with a bellows unit, to push the bae away from the nozzle. The particular bellows in this mechanism is designed to be slack, having little spring eect to self-restrain its motion. Whatever force generated by the pressure acting against the bellows surface area gets directly transferred to the lever:

P = ???

From compressed air supply

Nozzle Baffle

Bellows

Applied force 1.2 lbs

0.75 in2

Pivot
What will happen if someone pushes the lever toward the nozzle with their thumb, with a force of 1.2 pounds? Assuming a bellows area of 0.75 square inches, how much pressure should the gauge register? How far do you think the bae will be moved by this applied force? Now, suppose we modify this system to have a larger bellows unit (area = 1.5 square inches), once again designed to directly transfer the force of the air pressure to the lever:

P = ???

From compressed air supply

Nozzle Baffle

Bellows

Applied force 1.2 lbs

1.5 in2

Pivot
What will happen if someone pushes the lever toward the nozzle with the same amount of force as before (with the smaller bellows)? How will this system respond to the same stimulus? Suggestions for Socratic discussion Explain, in simple terms, what eect bellows size has on the gain of the system, and why. 50

Suppose the compressed air supply pressure was 10 PSI in both cases. If this supply pressure were to drop to a lower value such as 8 PSI, what eect (if any) would this have on the gauge pressure in each scenario as the system responds to the same amount of applied force? Why or why not? le i00200

51

Question 45 Explain how each of the following pressure instruments works, identifying whether each one uses the principle of motion-balance or the principle of force-balance: Example 1:
Compressed air supply

Pressure signal output Flexure Bellows Nozzle


force bar

Flapper Bellows

Applied pressure

Example 2:
Compressed air supply

Flexible tube Bellows

Pressure signal output

Nozzle Spring (compression) Fulcrum Flapper Bellows

Applied pressure

52

Example 3:
Current signal output + Light source Amplifier S N "Force motor" (applies force proportional to DC current)

Flexure

Diaphragm Box

Closely-spaced photoresistors Applied pressure

Suggestions for Socratic discussion The distinction between force-balance and motion-balance is one that tends to confuse students. A common tactical error students make is to attempt to memorize distinguishing characteristics in order to identify what type of balancing a particular mechanism employs. A better approach is to think through the operation of such pneumatic mechanisms using thought experiments to identify which balance principle they employ. Why do you think it is bad to go with the memorization approach instead of the thought experiment approach? What dierence does it make to us (as technicians) to know whether a mechanism is force- or motionbalance? In other words, who cares??? le i00208 Question 46 Read and outline the Foxboro Model 13A Dierential Pressure Transmitter subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03931 Question 47 Read and outline the Foxboro Model E69 I/P Electro-Pneumatic Transducer subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03932

53

Question 48 Read and outline the Fisher Model 546 I/P Electro-Pneumatic Transducer subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03933 Question 49 Read and outline the Pressure Switches section of the Discrete Process Measurement chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03934

54

Question 50 Calculate the amount of dierential pressure seen by this pneumatic DP transmitter across this baghouse (used to lter dust from air) in units of PSID and units of bar (dierential), then calculate its output signal (in units of PSIG) assuming a calibrated range of 0 to 30 inches water column dierential:

0-30 "W.C. calibration 20 PSI supply


H L

Output = ??? PSI (3-15 PSI range) Plow = 0.939 Atm

Phigh = 0.498 kPa

To suction fan Dusty air inlet

Filter bags

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Why do you suppose it is important to continuously measure the pressure dierential across an industrial baghouse? How would a rip in one of the fabric bags aect the dierential pressure drop across the baghouse? Suppose a technician accidently left one of the hand valves shut on one of the transmitters impulse lines. How might this change aect the transmitters ability to sense dierential pressure? le i03935

55

Question 51 The sensitivity and linearity of a pneumatic force-balance instrument may be improved with the addition of a pneumatic amplifying relay to amplify the response of the apper/nozzle assembly. It other words, the inclusion of an amplier into the system increases the systems gain. Explain what happens, step by step, in the system shown, if force is applied to the lever by someones thumb:

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal


input

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force
Bellows
output supply (vent)

leaf spring ball

Pneumatic amplifying relay

stem valve diaphragm

Pivot

Also, determine whether the mechanism will still produce the same amount of output pressure for any given amount of applied force without the amplifying relay in place. In other words, if we removed the relay from the system, would the output pressure be greater than before, less than before, or the same as before given the same force applied to the lever?

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force
Bellows

Pivot
Challenge question: if we reduced the restriction (orice) bore size in this system such that less air owed through the nozzle, would the output pressure be greater than before, less than before, or the same as before given the same force applied to the lever? le i00201

56

Question 52 Determine the nal eect of each fault for this pneumatic force-balance system:

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal


input

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force
Bellows
output supply (vent)

leaf spring ball

Pneumatic amplifying relay


stem valve diaphragm

Pivot

Clogged nozzle Clogged restriction Clogged tube at supply port of amplifying relay Broken leaf spring inside amplifying relay Major hole or tear in diaphragm inside amplifying relay Be sure to explain the nal eects for each of these faults! le i00202

Question 53 The following pneumatic transducer converts between a 3-15 PSI signal range and a 6-30 PSI signal range. Based on the illustration shown here, which pressure range corresponds to the input and which pressure range corresponds to the output? Does it input 3-15 PSI and output 6-30 PSI, or visa-versa? How can you tell??

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal


input

Input pressure
Bellows
output supply (vent)

Bellows

Pivot Pneumatic amplifying relay


spring ball

stem valve diaphragm

le i00680

57

Question 54 The following force-balance mechanism responds to an applied force by increasing its output pressure:

From compressed air supply

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force

Bellows
output input supply (vent)

Pivot Pneumatic amplifying relay


leaf spring ball

stem valve diaphragm

How will this mechanism respond to the exact same amount of manual force applied at a lower level, closer to the pivot point?

From compressed air supply

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force
Bellows
output input supply (vent)

Pivot Pneumatic amplifying relay


leaf spring ball

stem valve diaphragm

Be sure to explain why this is! le i00798

58

Question 55 Switches, whether they be hand-actuated or actuated by a physical process, come in two varieties: normally-open (NO) and normally-closed (NC). You are probably accustomed to seeing both types of switch represented in pushbutton form on schematic diagrams:

Normally-open pushbutton switch

Normally-closed pushbutton switch

Normally-open pushbutton switches close (pass current) when actuated (pressed). When un-actuated, they return to their normal (open) state. Normally-closed pushbutton switches are just the opposite: they open (stop current) when actuated (pressed) and return to their normal (closed, passing current) state when un-actuated. This is simple enough to comprehend: the normal status of a momentary-contact pushbutton switch is the state it is in when no one is touching it. When pressed, the pushbutton switch goes to the other (opposite) state. Things get more confusing, though, when we examine process switches, such as pressure switches, level switches, temperature switches, and ow switches:

Normally-open pressure switch

Normally-closed pressure switch

Normally-open level switch

Normally-closed level switch

Normally-open temperature switch

Normally-closed temperature switch

Normally-open flow switch

Normally-closed flow switch

Dene normal for each of these process switches. In other words, explain what condition(s) each process switch must be in to ensure it is in the normal state; and conversely, what condition(s) need to be applied to each switch to force it into its other state. le i02966

59

Question 56 Two pressure switches are plumbed together so as to receive the exact same pressure at all times, and they both sense the pressure of compressed air in a pneumatic system. Based on the wiring diagram for these switches, identify the function of the lamp:

L1 85 PSI 115 PSI

L2

le i02964 Question 57 Draw the appropriate pressure switch symbol in this ladder-logic diagram for a low-pressure alarm which turns on a lamp if the oil pressure of an industrial machine ever drops below 10 PSI:

L1

L2 Low oil pressure warning lamp

Be sure to specify whether the pressure switch needs to be normally-open (NC) or normally-closed (NC). le i02965 Question 58 This illustration shows a diaphragm-operated pressure switch. connecting process uid pressure to the switch: The impulse tube is the tube

Com

NC

NO Pressure switch

To process connection

impulse tube

Show how a voltage source and lamp would be connected to this switch to form a high-pressure alarm, turning the lamp on if the process pressure ever exceeds a certain set value. le i02968

60

Question 59 Draw a ladder logic control circuit for the electric motor of an air compressor, controlled by two pressure switches: one switch turns the motor on when the pressure falls to 80 PSI, while the other switch turns the motor o when the pressure rises to 105 PSI:

L1

L2

M OL 480 VAC 3 motor

Be sure to include the overload (OL) contact in the 120 volt control circuit (L1 & L2), and include a manual on/o switch as well. le i00799

61

Question 60
Air supply

Relay Nozzle Baffle


Flexure

Range wheel Range bar Force bar Bellows Output signal Zero screw Diaphragm seal High pressure input Capsule

Flexure

Low pressure input

Sketch an arrow showing the direction the range wheel must be moved in order to increase the transmitters measurement span (i.e. so that 3-15 PSI output represents a greater span of process pressures than before). Sketch an arrow showing the direction of force applied by the zero screw on the range bar to increase the output pressure when there is no process pressure applied to the transmitter (e.g. 3.1 PSI instead of 3.0 PSI at 0 PSID input). le i00025

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Question 61 All dierential pressure instruments, whether gauges, transmitters, or switches, have two uid pressure ports: one labeled high and the other labeled low. At rst, one might be inclined to think these labels imply the high port must always be subjected to the greater pressure, but this is not necessarily true. A more accurate statement would be to say that the high and low labels are analogous to the + and - labels on a dierential electronic amplier they denote the direction of response, not necessarily the relative magnitudes. Explain how a dierential amplier responds when ground-referenced voltage signals are applied to the two dierent input terminals, and relate this to the response of a P transmitter:

Differential amplifier Output

Differential pressure transmitter Output

Inputs

Suggestions for Socratic discussion If the input terminals of a dierential amplier are shorted together, how should the amplier respond to various amounts of voltage applied equally to both input terminals? If the input ports of a dierential pressure transmitter are directly connected together, how should the transmitter respond to various amounts of pressure applied equally to both input ports? le i00214

Inputs

63

Question 62 You are asked to install a pressure transmitter to measure the pressure on a process vessel. Plant operations wants a transmitter to give an increasing signal in direct proportion to an increasing uid pressure in the vessel. The vessels pressure ranges anywhere from atmospheric (0 PSI gauge) to 200 PSIG. Because dierential pressure transmitters (DP cells) are so commonplace in industry, and so versatile, you choose to use one in this application.

Process vessel 0 to 200 PSIG

???

However, the transmitter, being a dierential pressure unit, has two pressure ports: one marked high and one marked low. The pressure vessel only has one tube connection on it for you to connect the transmitter. Which port of the transmitter do you choose to connect to the vessel? What do you do with the other port on the transmitter? Now, suppose this process vessel contained a vacuum instead of a pressure greater than atmosphere, and operations personnel wanted the transmitters output signal to increase as the vacuum grows stronger. Suggestions for Socratic discussion What purpose would a three-valve manifold serve if installed between the vessel and the transmitter? What safety hazards might there be for a technician disconnecting and connecting a pressure transmitter to a process vessel such as this? le i00213 64

Question 63 Suppose you wish to calibrate a pneumatic pressure transmitter to an input range of 0 to 200 inches of water, with an output range of 3 to 15 PSI. Complete the following calibration table showing the test pressures to use and the allowable low/high output signals for a calibrated tolerance of +/- 0.5% (of span): Input pressure applied ( W.C.) Percent of span (%) 0 25 50 75 100 Output signal ideal (PSI) Output signal low (PSI) Output signal high (PSI)

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator. le i00227 Question 64 Suppose you wish to calibrate an electronic pressure transmitter to an input range of -50 to 300 inches of water, with an output range of 4 to 20 mA. Complete the following calibration table showing the test pressures to use and the allowable low/high output signals for a calibrated tolerance of +/- 0.1% (of span). Assume you can only use positive test pressures (no vacuum), and be sure to designate which side the test pressure should be applied to (H = high ; L = low): Input pressure applied ( W.C.) Percent of span (%) 0 25 50 75 100 Output signal ideal (mA) Output signal low (mA) Output signal high (mA)

Suggestions for Socratic discussion Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator. le i00228

65

Question 65 Shown here is a pneumatic pressure repeater. Analyze its response to an increasing process pressure, step by step:

Compressed air supply Orifice


Output Input Supply Vent

Nozzle Flapper
Vessel wall

Beam

Amplifying relay

fluid-filled "capsule" diaphragm

Fulcrum

Process pressure

Link Sealing diaphragm

Output pressure
Vessel wall

Suggestions for Socratic discussion What practical purpose might a pressure repeater such as this serve? If the fulcrum position is moved, will it aect the calibration of the pressure repeater? How much supply air pressure should this instrument receive in order to work properly? le i00204

66

Question 66 The following diagram is that of a pneumatic moment-balance dierential pressure transmitter, similar to the Foxboro model 13A. The term moment refers to the physics principle of a force acting on a lever to produce a torque. Moment-balance is more appropriate than force-balance in this case because the device pits moment against moment, rather than force against force directly:

Supply air Output


Orifice Nozzle Flapper Range bar Nut
Force bar

"Range wheel" Bellows

Relay
Fluid-filled diaphragm "capsule"

Zero adjust

"High" port

Sealing diaphragm

"Low" port

Describe this instruments response to an increasing dierential pressure (increasing pressure on the High side, and a steady pressure on the Low side; or a decreasing pressure on the Low side with a steady pressure on the High side), step by step. Suggestions for Socratic discussion Describe the purpose of the sealing diaphragm shown roughly mid-way along the length of the force bar. Identify how this instrument will respond to obstructions (blockages) in the following locations: Orice Nozzle Vent (located on relay body) le i00205

67

Question 67 This Foxboro model 13 DP transmitter is designed to output a pneumatic pressure signal of 3 PSI when there is no process pressure applied to the diaphragm (capsule):
Air supply

Relay

Flexure

Range bar

Output signal

Zero spring

High pressure input

Capsule

Flexure

Low pressure input

From this information, determine whether the zero spring is a tension spring (pulling to the right on the range bar) or a compression spring (pushing to the left on the range bar). le i03938

68

Question 68 Suppose this Foxboro model 13 DP transmitter has a calibrated range of 0 to 125 inches water column:
Air supply

Relay Nozzle Baffle


Flexure

Range wheel Range bar Force bar Bellows Output signal Zero screw Diaphragm seal High pressure input Capsule

Flexure

Low pressure input

Identify which way the range wheel would have to be moved in order to re-calibrate the transmitter to a new range of 0 to 180 inches water column (from 0 to 125 W.C.), explaining your reasoning. Identify which way the zero screw would have to be turned in order to re-calibrate the transmitter to a new range of 15 to 140 inches water column (from 0 to 125 W.C.), explaining your reasoning. Suggestions for Socratic discussion Explain why it is important we know whether this mechanism is motion- or force-balance to be able to correctly determine the eects these changes will have on calibration. le i03936

69

Question 69 Suppose this Fisher model 546 I/P transducer has an input range of 4-20 mA and an output range of 3-15 PSI:
4-20 mA current terminals

Identify which way the magnetic shunt would have to be moved in order to re-calibrate the I/P transducer to a new output range of 4-20 PSI (from 3-15 PSI), explaining your reasoning. Identify which way the zero screw would have to be turned in order to re-calibrate the I/P transducer to a new output range of 2-14 PSI (from 3-15 PSI), explaining your reasoning. le i03937

Bellows

Coil

N S

N
Pivot

Spring
Beam

Coil Vent

Relay

Pneumatic signal output

Compressed air supply

70

Question 70 Suppose a DP transmitter is connected to a process vessel so it may measure a vacuum inside that vessel. Calculate the amount of dierential pressure seen by this electronic DP transmitter in units of PSID, then calculate its output signal assuming a calibrated range of 0 to 380 inches water column dierential and an output range of 4-20 mA:

Process vacuum

= 0.15 Atm

0-380 "W.C. calibration Output = ??? mA (4-20 mA range)


Block
L H

Bleed

Atmospheric pressure = 748 mmHgA (vent)

Also, determine the regular operating positions of the block and bleed valves. Suggestions for Socratic discussion What safety hazards might there be for a technician disconnecting and connecting a pressure transmitter to a process vessel such as this? Demonstrate how to estimate numerical answers for this problem without using a calculator. le i03939

71

Question 71 A large water lter occasionally plugs with debris, and operations wants to have a gauge indication of this plugging. Since plugging of the lter will result in greater dierential pressure drop across it for any given amount of water ow through it, measuring pressure drop with a dierential pressure gauge will provide a simple indication of lter plugging. Draw the connecting tubes between the dierential pressure gauge and the lter (the two taps shown on the pipes are ready to connect to instrument tubing) so that the gauge registers more pressure as the lter becomes more plugged:

Differential pressure gauge

Tap

Water out

Water filter

Tap Water in
le i00215

72

Question 72 Shown here is a diagram for an electronic force-balance pressure transmitter:

Current signal output + Magnet


N S N

Magnet Magnet
S beam

S N

"Force motor" (applies force proportional to DC current)

Flexure

Diaphragm Box Hall Effect sensor

Applied pressure
Explain the following things in reference to this transmitter: What is a exure? How is the opposing force generated? What does a Hall Eect sensor do? How is an imbalance of force detected? How would you incorporate a zero adjustment into this transmitter? How would you incorporate a span adjustment into this transmitter? le i00207 Question 73 Describe how a pressure switch could be constructed using a bellows or bourdon tube as the pressuresensing element to trigger an on/o electrical circuit at a certain threshold pressure. le i00220

73

Question 74 Identify the high and low ports on this pneumatic dierential pressure transmitter, and explain your reasoning:

Regulated compressed air supply

orifice

nozzle flapper bellows

Air pressure signal out

force bar

fulcrum diaphragm

Flexure

Port "A"

Port "B"

Also, explain how this transmitter will respond to an increasing pressure at each of its two ports, including the operation of the bellows feedback mechanism. le i00223

74

Question 75 Determine the functions of all pressure switches in this steam boiler monitoring circuit, and what their designations mean:

L1 PSL-1
80 PSI

L2 Low steam warning lamp

PSH-1
200 PSI

High steam warning lamp

PSHH-2
220 PSI

Boiler shutdown solenoid

Also, explain the signicance of the switch symbols: normally open versus normally closed. le i00221

75

Question 76 Describe all that is represented by this P&ID:

PSH

PAH

PSHH

PSL

Compressor M

Filter Blowdown
le i00219

76

Question 77 Dierential pressure instruments have two ports through which pressures are applied to it. On most dierential pressure instruments, one of these ports will be labeled High and the other port Low (an exception to this rule is a Bailey dierential pressure transmitter I once saw with + and - labels instead!). What do these labels represent? In other words, how will the transmitter or gauge respond dierently to pressure applied to the High port versus pressure applied to the Low port?

Differential pressure transmitter (a.k.a. "DP cell")

"High" pressure port

"Low" pressure port

Differential pressure gauge "High" pressure port "Low" pressure port

le i00225

77

Question 78 Many industrial pressure sensing elements, especially diaphragms and bellows, are equipped with stops to limit the physical travel of the sensing element:

Diaphragm pressure gauge equipped with "stops" Scale


spring

fulcrum

stop

stop

Diaphragm

Pressure to be measured Pneumatic force-balance transmitter equipped with a diaphragm travel stop Regulated compressed air supply orifice nozzle flapper bellows Air pressure signal out force bar

fulcrum Applied pressure diaphragm Stop

What important purpose is served by a stop in a pressure measuring instrument? le i00224

78

Question 79 The following pneumatic transducer converts between a 3-15 PSI signal range and a 6-30 PSI signal range. Based on the illustration shown here, which pressure range corresponds to the input and which pressure range corresponds to the output? Does it input 3-15 PSI and output 6-30 PSI, or visa-versa? How can you tell??

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal


input

Input pressure
Bellows
output supply (vent)

Bellows

Pivot Pneumatic amplifying relay


spring ball

stem valve diaphragm

le i00203 Question 80 Question 81 Complete the following table of equivalent pressures. Assume units of gauge pressure except where absolute is implied by the unit: inches Hg 82 inches H2 O 250 1.5 10 9 0 -25 40 Atmospheres PSI

le i00024 79

Question 82 A safety device commonly installed on process vessels containing pressurized gases is a Pressure Safety Valve, or PSV. In this example, a PSV protects a storage tank against rupture from excessive internal gas pressure, with the PSV set to open (lift) and vent the tank if the internal pressure exceeds 2 inches water column:

PSV
Set @ 2"WC

Storage tank

19 feet

30 feet
Calculate the total upward force exerted on the circular roof of this cylindrical storage tank at the PSV lift pressure, expressed in the unit of tons. F = tons

le i03590 80

Question 83 Determine the pressure at each port of the DP transmitter during a technicians step-by-step valve isolation procedure. Assume the process uid sensed by the transmitter is a gas and not a liquid:

"Bleed"

"Flange tap"

735 PSIG

Heat exchanger

729 PSIG

"Flange tap"

Step 1: Transmitter in service 2: Close high-side block valve 3: Close low-side block valve 4: Open equalizing valve 5: Open bleed valve

High-side pressure

Low-side pressure

Also, determine the direction of uid ow through the heat exchanger (either up or down) based on the pressures seen at the pressure transmitter ports.

le i00026 81

Question 84 A pneumatic pressure transmitter has a calibrated range of 50 to 250 PSI, and its output signal range is 3 to 15 PSI. Complete the following table of values for this transmitter, assuming perfect calibration (zero error). Be sure to show your work! Input pressure applied (PSI) 58 7.5 13.7 Percent of span (%) 30 Output signal (PSI)

le i00028 82

Question 85 Calculate the amount of excitation voltage applied to this unbalanced bridge circuit by the DC power supply. Be sure to show all your work!

Power supply + A 4k7 C 3k3 B 2k7 D

1k5

V V
OFF

A A

COM

le i03151 83

Question 86 In machining production technology, the time required to broach a hole in a plate may be estimated by the following equation: T = Where, T = Time to broach hole (minutes) L = Length of stroke (feet) C = Cutting speed (feet per minute) Rc = Return speed (feet per minute) L L + C Rc

Manipulate this equation to solve for L, and again to solve for Rc . Be sure to show all your work!

L=

Rc =

le i03135 84

Question 87 Calculate the sine of angle A and the tangent of angle B in this triangle:

7 A

17 .46

16

le i03159 85

Question 88 Suppose a voltmeter registers 0 volts between test points D and E in this series-parallel circuit, with 22 PSI applied to the pressure switch:

24 volts
(0.25 amps current-limited)

1 k

R1

1 k

R2

1 k
Trip = 30 PSI

R3

Identify the likelihood of each specied fault for this circuit. Consider each fault one at a time (i.e. no multiple faults), determining whether or not each fault could independently account for all measurements and symptoms in this circuit. Fault R1 failed open R2 failed open R3 failed open Pressure switch failed open R1 failed shorted R2 failed shorted R3 failed shorted Pressure switch failed shorted Voltage source dead Possible Impossible

Finally, identify the next diagnostic test or measurement you would make on this system. Explain how the result(s) of this next test or measurement would help you further identify the location and/or nature of the fault.

le i04682 86

Question 89 Sketch a circuit whereby this loop-powered pressure transmitter sends a signal to an analog current meter (acting as a remote pressure gauge). Include any necessary power sources in your completed circuit:

4-20 mA loop-powered pressure transmitter

4-20 mA ammeter

le i02670 87

Question 90 The following electric heater seems to have a problem: it heats up slower than usual with all three switches turned on.

800 W

Oven
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 14 15 16

400 W

9 10 11 12

200 W Fuse

240 volts
With three dierently-sized heating elements (200 watt, 400 watt, and 800 watt), the oven operator can set the power in seven discrete steps by turning on specic combinations of switches: 200 watts, 400 watts, 600 watts, 800 watts, 1000 watts, 1200 watts, and 1400 watts. You are summoned to diagnose this ovens problem without turning it o. You are allowed to turn o any single switch for a few seconds at most, but otherwise you need to leave all three heaters on because the oven needs to heat up as fast as it can! The idea is to gure out where the problem might be, then gather together any parts necessary for repairs while the oven is still being used, and x the oven as fast as possible when you nally get the chance to turn it o completely. Using a magnetic clamp-on ammeter to measure current without breaking the circuit, you read 4.1 amps through the wire between the power plug and terminal 13 with all three switches in the on position. Then, you momentarily turn the 800 watt switch o and on, watching the current fall from 4.1 amps to 0.8 amps and then return to 4.1 amps. Based on this data, identify two things: Two components or wires in the oven circuit that you know must be in good working condition.

Two independent components or wires in the oven circuit that could possibly be bad (and thus cause the slow heating problem), including the type of fault (open or short) you suspect for each.

le i03162 88

Question 91 Lab Exercise introduction Your task is to build, document, and troubleshoot a pressure measurement system consisting of an electronic P or gauge pressure transmitter connected to an electronic indicator, recorder, or indicating controller. Instrument air pressure, either regulated or unregulated, is the suggested process variable to measure. Other pressure variables are open for consideration, though. Alternatives to the standard pressuremeasurement lab are authorized by instructor permission only. The following table of objectives show what you and your team must complete within the scheduled time for this lab exercise. Note how some of these objectives are individual, while others are for the team as a whole: Objective completion table: Performance objective Locate and navigate manual for transmitter Loop diagram and inspection Digital trim (sensor and output) Loop ranging ( 1% of span accuracy) Deadweight tester usage Transmitter valve manifold usage Troubleshooting (5 minute limit) Lab question: Selection/testing Lab question: Commissioning Lab question: Mental math Lab question: Diagnostics Grading mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery proportional proportional proportional proportional 1 2 3 4 Team

The only proportional scoring in this activity are the lab questions, which are answered by each student individually in a private session between the instructor and the team. A listing of potential lab questions are shown at the end of this worksheet question. The lab questions are intended to guide your labwork as much as they are intended to measure your comprehension, and as such the instructor may ask these questions of your team day by day, rather than all at once (on a single day). It is essential that your team plans ahead what to accomplish each day. A short (10 minute) team meeting at the beginning of each lab session is a good way to do this, reviewing whats already been done, whats left to do, and what assessments you should be ready for. There is a lot of work involved with building, documenting, and troubleshooting these working instrument systems! As you and your team work on this system, you will invariably encounter problems. You should always attempt to solve these problems as a team before requesting instructor assistance. If you still require instructor assistance, write your teams color on the lab whiteboard with a brief description of what you need help on. The instructor will meet with each team in order they appear on the whiteboard to address these problems.

Cut out tag(s) with scissors, then affix to instrument(s) using transparent tape to show calibration: CALIBRATED By: Range: Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date:

89

Lab Exercise building the system The Instrumentation lab is set up to facilitate the construction of working instrument loops, with over a dozen junction boxes, pre-pulled signal cables, and racks set up with 2-inch vertical pipes for mounting instruments. The only wires you should need to install to build a working system are those connecting the eld instrument to the nearest junction box, and then small jumper cables connecting dierent pre-installed cables together within intermediate junction boxes. Your rst step should be selecting proper eld instruments from the instrument storage area to use in building your system. In this particular lab, you are looking for a pressure transmitter with electronic (4-20 mA) signal output, and a valve manifold to isolate that transmitter from the process pressure. Refer to the Valve manifolds subsection of Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation for more detail on what these manifolds look like and how they are used. You should choose a transmitter with a pressure range somewhere between 10 PSI and 200 PSI. Avoid low-range (draft) transmitters with ranges of just a few inches of water column, and also high-pressure transmitters ranged for hundreds or thousands of PSI. The next step should be nding appropriate documentation for your pressure transmitter. Nearly every instrument in the lab is documented electronically at the manufacturers website, so your best resource is the internet (and/or your CD-ROM where a variety of instrument manuals have been downloaded for you). Use this documentation to identify how to properly wire, power, and calibrate the transmitter. Your instructor will check to see you have located and are familiar with the equipment manual(s). After locating a suitable instrument and its associated documentation, you should qualitatively test it prior to installing it in your system. For a pressure transmitter, this entails applying an air pressure to the high pressure port and measuring the transmitters milliamp output signal to see if it responds to the application of pressure. If the transmitter fails to respond properly, tag it with a label explaining what it does (or what it fails to do). When you know you have a working transmitter, you are cleared to install it. Transmitters attach to 2-inch pipes using special brackets and U-bolts. These brackets and U-bolts are located along with the transmitters in the instrument storage area. You will also need to install liquid-tight exible conduit between the transmitter and the nearest junction box to route signal wires through. Conduit and ttings are located in a drawer in the back of the lab near the instrument storage area. This ensures your installation will have a professional appearance with no exposed signal wiring. Choose a controller to act as a display indicator for the measured pressure. Your instructor may choose the controller for your team, to ensure you learn more than one type of controller during the course of a quarter. Finally, your pressure-measurement system needs to have a loop number, so all instruments may be properly labeled. This loop number needs to be unique, so that another team does not label their instruments and cables the same as yours. One way to make your loop number unique is to use the equivalent resistor color-code value for your teams color in the loop number. For example, if you are the Red team, your loop number could be 2. Common mistakes: Neglecting to consult the manufacturers documentation for eld instruments (e.g. how to wire them, how to calibrate them). Mounting the eld instrument(s) in awkward positions, making it dicult to reach connection terminals or to remove covers when installed. Improper pipe/tube tting installation (e.g. trying to thread tube ttings into pipe ttings and visaversa). Failing to tug on each and every wire where it terminates to ensure a mechanically sound connection. Students working on portions of the system in isolation, not sharing with their teammates what they did and how. It is important that the whole team learns all aspects of their system! Building a functioning system should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours) if all components are readily available and the team is working eciently!

90

Lab Exercise documenting the system Each student must sketch their own loop diagram for their teams system, following proper ISA conventions. Sample loop diagrams are shown in the next question in this worksheet. These loop diagrams must be comprehensive and detailed, showing every wire connection, every cable, every terminal block, range points, etc. The principle to keep in mind here is to make the loop diagram so complete and unambiguous that anyone can follow it to see what connects to what, even someone unfamiliar with industrial instrumentation. In industry, loops are often constructed by contract personnel with limited understanding of how the system is supposed to function. The loop diagrams they follow must be so complete that they will be able to connect everything properly without necessarily understanding how it is supposed to work. Every instrument and every signal cable in your loop needs to be properly labeled with an ISA-standard tag number. An easy way to do this is to wrap a short piece of masking tape around each cable (and placed on each instrument) then writing on that masking tape with a permanent marker. Although no industry standard exists for labeling signal cables, a good recommendation is to label each two-wire cable with the tag number of the eld instrument it goes to. Thus, every length of two-wire cable in a pressure transmitter circuit should be labeled PT-x (where x is the loop number), every ow control valve should be labeled FV-x, etc. Remember that the entire loop is dened by the process variable it measures: if the PV is temperature then the transmitter with be a TT, the control valve will be a TV, the controller with be a TC, etc. When your entire team is nished drafting your individual loop diagrams, call the instructor to do an inspection of the loop. Here, the instructor will have students take turns going through the entire loop, with the other students checking their diagrams for errors and omissions along the way. After successfully passing the inspection, each team member needs to place their loop diagram in the diagram holder located in the middle of the lab behind the main control panel. When it comes time to troubleshoot another teams system, this is where you will go to nd a loop diagram for that system! Common mistakes: Forgetting to label all signal wires (see example loop diagrams). Forgetting to label all eld instruments with their own tag names (e.g. PT-83). Forgetting to note all wire colors. Forgetting to put your name on the loop diagram! Basing your diagram o of a team-mates diagram, rather than closely inspecting the system for yourself. Not placing loop sheet instruments in the correct orientation (eld instruments on the left, control room instruments on the right).

Creating and inspecting accurate loop diagrams should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours) if the team is working eciently!

91

Lab Exercise instrument calibration Each team must calibrate the transmitter (trim both the sensor and the output) to ensure it interprets pressure accurately and outputs an accurate current. Then, each team member must congure the transmitter for a unique range (set the LRV and URV parameters) and scale the indicator (or indicating controller) to register in the proper engineering units (e.g. a pressure transmitter ranged for 30 to 70 PSI should actually register 30 to 70 PSI back at the control room display). The accuracy of this ranging will be checked by the instructor by applying random air pressures to the transmitter while each student veries the indicator display. As in all cases where an instrument must be calibrated, you will need to check the instruments response against one or more standards. In this case, the ideal standard to use for setting the input pressure to the transmitter is a precision test gauge (either mechanical or electronic), and the ideal standard to use for measuring the transmitters electronic output signal is a multimeter congured to measure DC milliamps:

Typical calibration setup for an electronic pressure transmitter Pressure regulator Compressed air supply
In Out

(Alternative: use a hand air pump to generate low pressures rather than a precision regulator)

Multimeter
(Output standard)

(Input standard)

Precision test gauge

V V
OFF

A A

+ DC power supply

COM

Loop resistance
(necessary for HART communications)

The dierence between calibrating a transmitter and ranging a transmitter is confusing to many students. With legacy-style analog transmitters, calibrating and ranging are one and the same. With modern digital instruments, calibration and ranging are separate tasks. To calibrate a digital instrument means to subject it to a known (standard) stimulus and adjust the trim settings to ensure the instruments microprocessor accurately recognizes that stimulus condition. To range a digital instrument means to dene the values of measurement for its 0% and 100% scale points. For more information on this distinction, refer to the Instrument Calibration chapter of Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation.

92

Document the accuracy of your transmitters sensor trim before and after adjustment in this table, at ve dierent points throughout its sensing range. The Applied pressure is the amount of air pressure you apply to the transmitters pressure port using an air pressure regulator (as sensed by a calibration-quality gauge), and the Indicated pressure is what the HART communicator registers for the process variable: Applied pressure Indicated pressure (As-Found) Indicated pressure (As-left)

When nished calibrating your teams transmitter, be sure to place a calibration tag on it showing the range and the date it was calibrated. The rst page of this lab exercise has cut-out calibration tags you may tape to the transmitter for this purpose. Each student, however, must individually re-range the transmitter and the receiving instrument (indicator, controller, and/or recorder). Re-ranging a digital instrument is a brief procedure using either a HART communicator or a computer-based tool such as Emerson AMS (if the instrument is connected to a host system with that software). Each students ranging is conrmed by the instructor by applying random pressures to the transmitter and verifying that the indicating controller reads the same (to within 1% of span). This is also a good opportunity for students to demonstrate the use of the transmitters valve manifold, showing how to block in the transmitter so it does not see process pressure. Common mistakes: Failing to closely inspect pressure regulators before connecting them to an air source (e.g. connecting the air supply to the out port) Improper pipe/tube tting installation (e.g. trying to thread tube ttings into pipe ttings and visaversa). Choosing a calibration (trim) range that is substantially less than the nal range of measurement when installed. As a general rule, you should trim the sensor of the transmitter to cover the broadest range of measurement possible with your calibration equipment. Choosing a poor-accuracy calibration standard (e.g. trying to calibrate your $1500 precision Rosemount pressure transmitter to 0.1 PSI using a $30 pressure gauge that only reads to the nearest 5 PSI!). Neglecting to place a calibration tag on the transmitter after trimming it. Trimming and individually ranging your transmitter should take no more than one full lab session (3 hours) if the team is working eciently!

93

Lab Exercise deadweight tester usage Deadweight testers are used to generate known amounts of uid pressure, to be used as standards for calibrating pressure-measuring instruments. Part of this lab exercise is for each student to properly demonstrate the use of a deadweight tester to check the calibration of a pressure gauge. Several deadweight testers are located in the lab, using oil as the working uid. Information on how to use a deadweight tester may be found in the Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook, as well as in manufacturers literature for the deadweight testers themselves. You are expected to read this documentation before using a deadweight tester. When you are ready to demonstrate, the instructor will observe you safely applying pressure to the gauge under test, showing and explaining how the deadweight tester functions. You will be expected to answer some basic questions about how and why the deadweight tester works. Common mistakes: Not understanding the operation of the device prior to trying to demonstrate it! Failing to bleed air out of the lines when setting up the tester. Not recognizing when the piston is bottomed or topped out. Not spinning the weights (gently!) to eliminate static friction on the piston. Removing weights from the piston while pressure still remains in the system.

94

Lab Exercise troubleshooting The most important aspect of this lab exercise is troubleshooting, where you demonstrate your ability to logically isolate a problem in the system. All troubleshooting is done on an individual basis (no team credit!), and must be done on a system you did not help build, so that you must rely on loop diagrams to nd your way around the system instead of from your own memory of building it. Each student is given 5 minutes to identify both the general location and nature of the fault, logically justifying all diagnostic steps taken. All troubleshooting activities will take place under direct instructor supervision to ensure students are working independently and eciently. Failure to correctly identify both the general location and nature of the fault within the allotted time, and/or failing to demonstrate rational diagnostic procedure to the supervising instructor will disqualify the eort, in which case the student must re-try with a dierent fault. Multiple re-tries are permitted with no reduction in grade. A standard multimeter is the only test equipment allowed during the time limit. No diagnostic circuit breaks are allowed except by instructor permission, and then only after correctly explaining what trouble this could cause in a real system. The instructor will review each troubleshooting eort after completion, highlighting good and bad points for the purpose of learning. Troubleshooting is a skill born of practice and failure, so do not be disappointed in yourself if you must make multiple attempts to pass! One of the important life-lessons embedded in this activity is how to deal with failure, because it will eventually happen to you on the job! There is no dishonor in failing to properly diagnose a fault after doing your level best. The only dishonor is in taking shortcuts or in giving up. Common mistakes: Neglecting to take measurements with your multimeter. Neglecting to check other measurements in the system (e.g. pressure gauge readings). Incorrectly interpreting the loop diagram (e.g. thinking youre at the wrong place in the system when taking measurements). Incorrect multimeter usage (e.g. AC rather than DC, wrong range, wrong test lead placement). This is especially true when a student comes to lab unprepared and must borrow someone elses meter that is dierent from theirs! Remember that the purpose of the troubleshooting exercise is to foster and assess your ability to intelligently diagnose a complex system. Finding the fault by luck, or by trialand-error inspection, is not a successful demonstration of skill. The only thing that counts as competence is your demonstrated ability to logically analyze and isolate the problem, correctly explaining all your steps! Troubleshooting takes a lot of lab time, usually at least two 3-hour lab sessions for everyone in a full class to successfully pass. Be sure your team budgets for this amount of time as you plan your work, and also be sure to take advantage of your freedom to observe others as they troubleshoot, to better learn this art.

95

Lab questions (reviewed between instructor and student team in a private session) Selection and Initial Testing Explain how a tube tting seals against uid leaks Explain how a tapered-thread pipe tting seals against uid leaks Identify the high and low pressure ports on your pressure transmitter, and explain their signicance Explain how to use a P gauge or transmitter to measure positive pressure versus measuring a vacuum Identify and explain maximum working pressure of your pressure transmitter, especially how it diers from the maximum calibrated range of the transmitter

Commissioning and Documentation Demonstrate how to isolate potentially hazardous energy in your system (lock-out, tag-out) and also how to safely verify the energy has been isolated prior to commencing work on the system Identify and explain range turndown on your transmitter (also called rangedown) Identify and explain the purpose of damping on your transmitter Explain the operating principle of the pressure transmitter (as detailed as possible) Identify and explain zero and span adjustments on your transmitter Identify the purpose of a ll uid inside the pressure transmitter capsule Explain the applicability of dierent transmitter ll uids to particular process types (pure oxygen, food, pharmaceutical, etc.) Mental math (no calculator allowed!) Calculate the correct loop current value (mA) given a pressure transmitter calibration range and an applied pressure Calculate the pressure applied to a transmitter given a calibration range and the measured loop current value Calculate the percentage of span error for a transmitter given a calibration range and an As-Found calibration table Calculate the allowable pressure error for a transmitter given an allowable percentage of span error and a calibration range Convert between dierent pressure units, without relying on the use of a reference for conversion factors (i.e. you must commit the major conversion factors to memory) Diagnostics Explain what will happen (and why) if the 250 ohm resistor fails open in the transmitter circuit Explain what will happen (and why) if the 250 ohm resistor fails shorted in the transmitter circuit Explain what will happen (and why) if the transmitter cable fails open Explain what will happen (and why) if the transmitter cable fails shorted Explain what will happen (and why) if loop power supply voltage is too low Explain proper three-valve manifold operating procedures (for both placing in and taking out of service) Explain how to distinguish an open cable fault from a shorted cable fault using only a voltmeter (no current or resistance measurement, but assuming you are able to break the circuit to perform the test) le i00112

96

Loop diagram template

Question 92

Loop Diagram:

Revised by:

Date:

97

Tag #

Description

Manufacturer

Model

Input range

Output range

Notes

Loop diagram requirements Perhaps the most important rule to follow when drafting a loop diagram is your diagram should be complete and detailed enough that even someone who is not an instrument technician could understand where every wire and tube should connect in the system! Instrument bubbles Proper symbols and designations used for all instruments. All instrument bubbles properly labeled (letter codes and loop numbers). All instrument bubbles marked with the proper lines (solid line, dashed line, single line, double lines, no lines). Optional: Calibration ranges and action arrows written next to each bubble.

Text descriptions Each instrument documented below (tag number, description, etc.). Calibration (input and output ranges) given for each instrument, as applicable. Connection points All terminals and tube junctions properly labeled. All terminal blocks properly labeled. All junction (eld) boxes shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled. All control panels shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled. All wire colors shown next to each terminal. All terminals on instruments labeled as they appear on the instrument (so that anyone reading the diagram will know which instrument terminal each wire goes to).

Cables and tubes Single-pair cables or pneumatic tubes going to individual instruments should be labeled with the eld instrument tag number (e.g. TT-8 or TY-12) Multi-pair cables or pneumatic tube bundles going between junction boxes and/or panels need to have unique numbers (e.g. Cable 10) as well as numbers for each pair (e.g. Pair 1, Pair 2, etc.). Energy sources All power source intensities labeled (e.g. 24 VDC, 120 VAC, 20 PSI) All shuto points labeled (e.g. Breaker #5, Valve #7)

98

Sample Loop Diagram (using a single-loop controller)

Loop Diagram: Furnace temperature control Process area

Revised by: Mason Neilan Field panel JB-12

Date: April 1, 2007 Control room panel CP-1


0-1500oF Red Cable TT-205 Blk TY Red Blk Blk

TE 205

0-1500oF Yel

TB-15
Red Cable TT-205 Blk Blk Red

TB-11
Wht/Blu

1 2

TT 205

3 4

Wht/Blu

Cable 3, Pr 1
Blu Blu

1 2

Red

7 22 TIC 21 205 19 18 H N
Blk Wht

Red

TB-15 TY 205b
Red Red Cable TY-205b Blk Blk

TB-11
Wht/Org

205a

/P

5 6

Wht/Org

Cable 3, Pr 2
Org Org

3 4

Red Cable TY-205b Blk

Tube TV-205

99
TV 205

AS 20 PSI Valve #15 Column #8

ES 120 VAC Breaker #4 Panel L2

Tag # TE-205 TT-205 TY-205a TIC-205 TY-205b TV-205

Description Thermocouple
Temperature transmitter

Manufacturer Omega Rosemount Vishay Siemens Fisher Fisher

Model 444 PAC 353 546 Easy-E

Input range 0-1500o F 1-5 V 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI

Output range Type K 4-20 mA 250 0-1500o F 3-15 PSI 0-100%

Notes Ungrounded tip Upscale burnout Reverse-acting control Fail-closed

Resistor Controller I/P transducer Control valve

Sample Loop Diagram (using DCS controller)

Loop Diagram: Blue team pressure loop Field process area


0-50 PSI

Revised by: Duncan D.V. Field panel JB-25 TB-52 TB-80


Red Red

Date: DCS cabinet

April 1, 2009

H L

Red

Red

PT 6

Cable PT-6
Blk Blk

1 2

Cable 4, Pr 1
Blk Blk

11 12

Red

Red

Cable PT-6 Blk Blk

11 12

Card 4 Channel 6 Analog input

Tube PV-6

0-50 PSI

PIC 6

100

PV 6
I

/P

TB-52
Red Red

TB-80
Red Red

PY 6 AS 20 PSI Tag # PT-6 PIC-6 PY-6 PV-6 Description Pressure transmitter Controller I/P transducer Control valve

Cable PV-6
Blk Blk

15 16

Cable 4, Pr 8
Blk Blk

29 30

Red

Red

Cable PV-6 Blk Blk

11 12

Card 6 Channel 6 Analog output

Manufacturer Rosemount Emerson Fisher Fisher

Model 3051CD DeltaV 846 Vee-ball

Input range Output range 0-50 PSI 4-20 mA 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI 4-20 mA 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI 0-100%

Notes
HART-enabled input Direct-acting control

Fail-open

Sample Loop Diagram (using pneumatic controller)

le i00654

Loop Diagram: Sludge tank level control Process area

Revised by: I. Leaky Bulkhead panel B-104

Date:

April 1, 2008

Control panel CP-11

H L
(vent)

LT 24 In

Tube LT-24a
Out

Tube LT-24b 14

C A.S. 21 PSI LV 24 Tube LV-24 Tube LV-24 Tube LV-24 LIC 24 D A.S. 21 PSI
Supply

101

Tag # LT-24 LIC-24 LV-24

Description Level transmitter Controller Control valve

Manufacturer Foxboro Foxboro Fisher

Model 13A 130


Easy-E / 667

Input range 25-150 "H2O 3-15 PSI 3-15 PSI

Output range 3-15 PSI 3-15 PSI 0-100%

Notes

Fail closed

Question 93 Connect an ice-cube relay to a DC voltage source and a switch such that the relay will energize when the switch is closed. All electrical connections must be made using a terminal strip (no twisted wires, crimp splices, wire nuts, spring clips, or alligator clips permitted). This exercise tests your ability to properly interpret the pinout of an electromechanical relay, properly wire a switch to control a relays coil, and use a terminal strip to organize all electrical connections.

Relay socket Relay Terminal strip Switch

The following components and materials will be available to you during the exam: assorted ice cube relays with DC-rated coils and matching sockets ; assorted switches ; terminal strips ; lengths of hook-up wire ; battery clips (holders). You will be expected to supply your own screwdrivers and multimeter for assembling and testing the circuit at your desk. The instructor will supply the battery(ies) to power your circuit when you are ready to see if it works. Until that time, your circuit will remain unpowered.

Study reference: the Control Relays section of Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation. le i03772

102

Answers Answer 1 Answer 2 Answer 3 Answer 4 Answer 5 Answer 6 Answer 7 Answer 8 Answer 9 Answer 10 71.5 PSIA = 56.8 PSIG 5.03 bar (gauge) = 148.5 Hg 101 kPa = 29.35 PSIA 800 torr = 0.774 PSIG 41 Hg = 557.4 W.C. 2.2 feet Hg = 89.4 kPa 11 PSI vacuum = 191.3 torr 350 W.C.G = 756.9 W.C.A 66 cm W.C. = 1.911 Hg 910 PSIG = 62.9 atm 35 W.C. = 32.5 HgA 125 PSIA = 760.5 kPa

103

Answer 11 Removing the gauge from service: Close the block valve. Open the bleed valve. If the process uid is dangerous (toxic, ammable, etc.), be very careful when bleeding it to the atmosphere! Place lock-out tags on both valve handles to notify operators and technicians of the instruments removal and pending return. Remove the gauge from the piping or tubing. It is very important to place tags on the valve handles as notiers of your service to the gauge. Even if these tags do not serve a safety purpose (i.e. it is visually obvious that the block valve should not be opened when there is no instrument connected to it), they still notify anyone looking for the missing gauge that you are servicing it and will have it returned by a certain time/date. Placing the gauge back into service: Re-attach the gauge to the piping or tubing. Remove the lock-out tags on both valve handles. Close the bleed valve. Open the block valve.

An added touch of professionalism when opening the block valve is to not leave it open all the way so that the handle cannot turn any further counterclockwise. Instead, open it all the way (counterclockwise) until you feel the handle stop, then turn it back clockwise (in the closing direction) about 1/4 turn. This helps to prevent the valve from seizing in the fully open position, by backing the valve stem o the reverse seat. Valves left to sit in the fully open position have a tendency to become frozen in that position. The worse thing about a frozen valve is that you cannot determine what position it is in by feel! Answer 12 Removing the gauge from service: Close the block valve closest to the process. Open the bleed valve. Monitor the instruments pressure indication, to make sure it is changing to register atmospheric pressure. This tells you that the bleeding is successful. Close the block valve closest to the instrument. Close the bleed valve. Place lock-out tags on all three valve handles to notify operators and technicians of the instruments removal and pending return. Remove the gauge from the piping or tubing. Assuming the process uid is especially dangerous, there may be some sort of recommended decontamination process for the instrument prior to you connecting it to calibration equipment in the shop. As always, be aware of any special safety considerations on any process you are working around. Placing the gauge back into service: Remove the lock-out tags on all valve handles. Open the bleed valve (to relieve any pressure that may have built up between the two closed block valves from a leak in the rst block valve). Re-attach the gauge to the piping or tubing. Open the block valve closest to the instrument. Close the bleed valve. Open the block valve closest to the process.

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Answer 13 Partial answer: Normal valve positions: Both block valves open. Both equalizing valves closed. Vent valve closed. Removing dierential pressure transmitter from service: Close one block valve. Open both equalizing valves (which one rst does not matter). Close the other block valve. Open the vent valve. Tag all valves, notifying of transmitters planned return time/date. Disconnect the transmitter from the manifold.

Answer 14 This valve sequence potentially subjects the transmitter to a dierential pressure equal to the full gauge pressure on the low side process connection, which may be more than it is designed to handle. Modern DP cell transmitters are quite rugged, so there may be no damage even if the transmitters calibrated P range is grossly exceeded. I speak from experience here, having subjected a Rosemount 1151 electronic DP cell to a dierential pressure several orders of magnitude greater than what it was ranged for and seeing that it survived with no ill eect!

105

Answer 15 Remote, chemical seals provide a means for pressure transmitters to measure the pressure of extremely corrosive process uids. The only portions of the instrument in contact with the process uid are the seal elements themselves: their housings and diaphragms. The capillary tubing connecting the seals to the transmitter contain only clean oil, as does the transmitter itself. Now youre probably wondering, Whats the point of using a remote diaphragm to contact the process uid? If the uid were too corrosive for the transmitter, wouldnt it be too corrosive for the remote seal diaphragm as well? And if a remote seal can be made to withstand the corrosive eects of the uid, then why not a regular transmitter? For one, pressure transmitters (especially the motion-balance kind) are limited in the kinds materials their pressure elements may be constructed of. The pressure element (bellows, diaphragm, bourdon tube) must be made of a material with good elastic properties, and that usually means a fairly narrow range of metals. The seal diaphragms, on the other hand, are designed to be slack. That is, they are not supposed to provide any spring resistance to motion, but be limp and transfer all the process pressure to the transmitters sensing element. Because they need not function as spring elements, their elastic properties are not as critical as for the transmitters sensing element, and this allows a wider range of materials with dierent corrosion resistances. In some cases, the remote diaphragm may be non-metallic, and thus have corrosion resistance properties very dierent from that of a metal. Even if the seal diaphragms are metallic, like the transmitters sensing element, there is still good reason to use chemical seals in some applications. With a normal pressure transmitter mounted remotely from the process vessel, some kind of tubing will be necessary to transfer uid pressure to it from the vessel. The range of available materials for instrument tubing is far more limited than the range of materials for seal diaphragms or even transmitter sensing elements. It may be that even the best instrument tubing cannot tolerate the corrosive eects of the process uid, but a seal diaphragm made of some exotic metal alloy can. Using remote seals and capillary tubes lled with nice, clean oil neatly solves the problem, containing the process uid within the seals and not allowing it to enter the tubing. Another, entirely dierent, reason for using remote seals is in food processing, where no pockets are allowed in the uid system due to the need for regular disinfection and decontamination. Standard P transmitter capsule assemblies and impulse tubing would create cavities for bacteria to collect and grow in nutrient-rich uid. Remote seals present a at surface to the process uid, transmitting the pressure to the ll uid where bacteria cannot enter. A similar reason for using remote seals is to avoid plugging. With standard impulse tubes connecting a process vessel or pipe to a transmitter, there exists the possibility of sediment or debris plugging the tubes. However, ush-mounted remote seals provide no place for sediment or debris to collect.

106

Answer 16 Increased temperature causes the ll liquid in the capillary tube to expand, thus creating a pressure at the transmitters sensing element independent of the process uid pressure being measured. If the seal-equipped transmitter is dierential in nature, and the temperatures of both seal units and capillary tubes are equal, then any temperature-induced pressures will cancel out at the transmitter, and there will be no problem. However, if the temperature of one seal or capillary is greater than the other, there will be a dierential pressure induced by temperature that the transmitter will detect and interpret as process uid dierential pressure. Remote seal/capillary systems must be completely gas-free (nothing but liquid inside) in order to work. If even a small air or other gas bubble works its way in to the ll uid between the remote seal diaphragm and the instrument sensing element, the ll uid will be compressible, meaning that the seal diaphragm will displace a greater volume of ll uid than the instruments sensing element. Thus, the instrument may not see the entire amount of process pressure change applied to the seal diaphragm, and its measurement accuracy will be compromised. In summary, leaks in a remote seal system have very detrimental eects on instrument accuracy. If ever such a system develops a leak, the whole instrument must be replaced. Even if you could patch the leak, you would have to pack the seal unit, capillary tubing, and transmitter pressure housing with new ll liquid under a strong vacuum to pull any dissolved gas bubbles out of the liquid. Needless to say, the facilities required for such an operation are typically not available in a plant instrument shop, thus rendering the instrument unrepairable by you. Answer 17 Snubber: sometimes called a pulsation dampener, a snubber acts as a low-pass lter for reducing pressure pulsations sent to a pressure instrument. Relief valve: a special type of valve designed to open under high-pressure conditions, venting that high pressure to atmosphere. Siphon (pigtail): a short loop of tubing connecting a pressure instrument to a process where the working uid is hot and condensible (e.g. steam). Rupture disk: basically, a disk of metal designed to blow out in the event of an overpressure, relieving that excess pressure to atmosphere. Answer 18 Which port is the high pressure port: Port A What will happen if xed resistor R1 fails open: Voltmeter will drive fully downscale (peg negative) Identify a component fault that would drive the voltmeter full upscale (peg positive): (1) Strain gauge #1 fails open (2) Strain gauge #2 fails shorted (3) R1 fails shorted (4) R2 fails open Answer 19 Answer 20 Answer 21 Answer 22

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Answer 23 Answer 24 Answer 25 Answer 26 A bit of explanation might be in order for the two diaphragms. The larger diaphragm is called the sensing diaphragm, while the smaller diaphragm is called the sealing diaphragm. The purpose of the sealing diaphragm is to prevent air pressure at input B from leaking out into the vented chamber just to the left of the wedge-shaped pilot plug. This sealing diaphragm is made small enough that its contribution to force on the stem is negligible. Only the sensing diaphragm is large enough to have any consequence upon the pilot valves action. This is an equivalent electronic circuit:

+V

Vout Vin1 Vin2

Answer 27 Input pressure applied (W.C.) 0 -30 -16.67 66.67 30 -80 Answer 28 Percent of span (%) 50 35 41.67 83.33 65 10 Output signal (PSI) 9 7.2 8 13 10.8 4.2

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Answer 29 This instrument has a zero shift error, but not a span shift or linearity error. Ideal transfer function:

20 16 12 8 4 0

Output (mA)

25

50

75

100

Input (PSI)
Actual transfer function: (zero error)

ideal
20 16 12 8 4 0

actual

Output (mA)

25

50

75

100

Input (PSI)

109

A span error would look something like this (wrong slope):

20 16 12 8 4 0

ideal

Output (mA)

actual
0 25 50 75 100

Input (PSI)
A linearity error would look something like this (not a straight line):

20 16 12 8 4 0

ideal

Output (mA)

actual

25

50

75

100

Input (PSI)
A zero error is usually correctable by simply adjusting the zero screw on an analog instrument, without making any other adjustments. Span errors, by contrast, usually require multiple adjustments of the zero and span screws while alternately applying 0% and 100% input range values to check for correspondence at both ends of the linear function. Answer 30 bar 0.59 0.2827 0.4982 1.185 0.7672 3.556 6.068 5.91 PSI 8.557 4.1 7.225 17.19 11.13 51.57 88 85.71 inches W.C. 236.9 113.5 200 475.8 308 1428 2436 2373 inches mercury 17.42 8.348 14.71 35 22.65 105 179.2 174.5

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Answer 31 The most sensitive portion of this mechanisms range is where the derivative of the transfer function reaches its maximum (absolute) value. Most sensitive where Where, P = Pressure at nozzle x = Clearance between bae and nozzle The answer refers to the calculus principle of the derivative. In plain English, the most sensitive range of the bae/nozzle mechanism is where the graph is steepest: dP is at its greatest (absolute) value dx

20 18 16 14 12 Pressure at 10 nozzle (PSI) 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Clearance, mils (thousandths of an inch)


This is where the gain of the system is greatest. Answer 32 The pressure gauge downstream of the orice will indicate a lower pressure than the gauge upstream of the orice. Moving the apper closer to the nozzle increases the downstream pressure, while moving the apper away from the nozzle decreases the downstream pressure. Follow-up question: sketch a schematic diagram for an electrical circuit analogous to this pneumatic circuit formed by the pressure source, orice, nozzle, and apper. Answer 33 For an increasing positive pressure, the pneumatic relays output will increase as well. It is a direct-acting relay. For a more positive input voltage, the electronic circuits output voltage will increase (become more positive) as well. We would call this a non-inverting amplier circuit.

Area of maximum sensitivity

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Answer 34 For an increasing positive pressure, the pneumatic relays output will increase as well. It is a directacting relay. For a more positive input voltage, the electronic circuits output voltage will increase (become more positive) as well. We would call this a non-inverting amplier circuit. Due to the fact that the lower seat in the pilot mechanism can move, it is possible for both valves inside this pneumatic relay to be closed simultaneously. In this condition, the relay will consume no air from the supply. We call this a non-bleed design of relay. Likewise, it is possible for both transistors to be o at the same time in the electronic amplier circuit shown, because they are enhancement-type (E-type) MOSFETs, and require the proper polarity and magnitude of control voltage applied to their gates before they can turn on. The upper transistor will not turn on unless Vin exceeds ground potential by a certain amount, and the lower transistor will not turn on unless Vin becomes suciently negative. Shown here are the relay and amplier circuit in a condition with a strong positive input signal:

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure (full supply) ON

Vin (> Gnd)

Vout = +V OFF

-V

Input pressure

112

. . . and here shown in a condition of a strong negative signal:

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure = 0 PSI OFF

Vin (< Gnd)

Vout = 0 ON

vent

-V

Input (vacuum)
Between these extreme input conditions, both devices will be in a state where both valves (transistors) are closed, and the output signals hold somewhere between full signal level and zero (some output capacitance may be required on the transistor circuit to achieve this ability to hold an output voltage mimicking the volume capacity of the relays chamber):

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure = ??? OFF

Vin (= Gnd)

Vout = ??? OFF

-V

This characteristic vastly reduces wasted energy, but at a price: a disadvantage of a non-bleed style of relay is that this both valves closed condition creates a dead band where the output will be unresponsive to the input. 113

Many push-pull transistor amplier circuits exhibit a dead-band in their operation, and this leads to crossover distortion in reproducing an AC waveform. Crossover distortion in class B push-pull audio ampliers is a very common type of distortion, showing itself most at low sound levels. Answer 35 If the chamber air pressure is too high, the excess pressure will exert more force on the underside of the diaphragm to push it up, thus moving the plug up and closing o the passageway, reducing the air supply ow:

Excess pressure

Excess pressure

Low pressure (regulated) air out

High pressure air in

As the outlet air continues to ow out of the regulator, the chamber pressure will eventually drop back down to setpoint, and the passageway will open again. If the chamber air pressure is too low, the reduced force on the underside of the diaphragm cannot resist the spring force from above, and the plug moves down. This opens up the passageway, allowing more of the supply air to enter the chamber and increase the pressure:

Low pressure (regulated) air out

insufficient pressure

insufficient pressure

High pressure air in

In short, the opposing forces of spring pressure (and atmospheric air pressure) above the diaphragm, versus the chamber pressure below the diaphragm, act to move the plug up or down as needed to maintain the chamber pressure approximately equal to the equivalent pressure of atmospheric air + spring force on the diaphragm. The threaded rod with an attached turn handle adjusts the compression of the spring above the diaphragm, and changes the pressure regulation setpoint. Screwing the threaded rod in the downward direction will increase the spring force on the top of the diaphragm and likewise increase the equilibrium point between the three forces, increasing the output air pressure regulation setpoint as a consequence. Screwing the threaded rod in the upward direction will decrease the spring force on the diaphragms top, decreasing the equilibrium point between the three forces and decreasing the pressure setpoint.

114

Answer 36

As process pressure increases, the force pressing right on the diaphragm increases as well. This makes the diaphragm move closer to the nozzle, making it more restrictive to air ow:

Vessel wall

Pressure indicating gauge


diaphragm

Process pressure increases

Vent
nozzle

Output pressure increases

orifice

Vessel wall

Compressed air supply

As air ow through the nozzle reduces, the backpressure built up by supply air through coming through the orice increases. This increased backpressure forces the diaphragm to the left, against the process pressure, until the diaphragm begins to back away from the nozzle and a new point of balance (equilibrium) is reached: 115

Vessel wall

Pressure indicating gauge


backpressure

Process pressure
backpressure

Vent

Output pressure

orifice

Vessel wall

Compressed air supply


Because both pressures (process uid, and air backpressure) act against the same amount of surface area on the diaphragm, the point of force balance between them will be when the two pressures are equal to each other. Thus, the output air pressure (sensed by some remote pressure-measuring instrument) mirrors, or repeats, the process pressure. Applications for a pressure repeater are found in the biopharmaceutical and food processing industries. If a pressure gauge were connected directly to the process vessel, the impulse tube connecting the gauge to the vessel would inevitably retain some of the process uid. In biopharmaceutical and food processes, bacteria will grow in stagnant process uid, meaning that such lengths of tubing will act as reservoirs of harmful bacteria which may contaminate subsequent batches within the vessel. The ush-mounted diaphragm of a pressure repeater is easily cleaned by clean-in-place (CIP) protocols used to clean the process vessel. There are no crevices or small chambers for uid to lie stagnant on the process side of a pressure repeater, therefore pressure repeaters eliminate the problem of bacterial contamination. Answer 37 If the variable resistance increases in value, the output voltage (Vout ) will increase as well. If the plug moves down, the output pressure will increase.

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Answer 38 For the rst pilot mechanism: Moving the control rod up will decrease the output pressure of the pneumatic pilot mechanism. Increasing the upper rheostats resistance and decreasing the lower rheostats resistance will decrease Vout . For the second pilot mechanism: Moving the control rod up will increase the output pressure of the pneumatic pilot mechanism. Decreasing the upper rheostats resistance and increasing the lower rheostats resistance will increase Vout . Answer 39 Answer 40 Answer 41 Answer 42 Answer 43 First example: Vout = 6.8 volts ; Pout = 6.8 PSI ; force-balance. Answer 44 The system with the 0.75 square inch bellows unit will respond to the 1.2 pound force by generating a 1 nozzle pressure of 1.6 PSI. The bae will hardly move at all: perhaps only 1000 of an inch! With a larger bellows in place, the system becomes less sensitive. The nozzle pressure indicated by the gauge will be less for the same amount of hand force (only 0.8 PSI instead of 1.6 PSI). Another way to say this is that the gain of this pneumatic system is less with a larger bellows. Once again, the bae will hardly move at all. This is an example of a negative feedback system, which always seeks equilibrium. The challenge question clearly illustrates the self-balancing nature of this system, where output pressure is purely a function of applied force and not of supply pressure. So long as the compressed air supply pressure is greater than the pressure needed to balance the applied force, the nozzle (gauge) pressure will remain unchanged. Answer 45 (1) Force-balance (2) Motion-balance (3) Force-balance Answer 46 Answer 47 Answer 48 Answer 49

117

Answer 50 Partial answer: Applied dierential pressure = 0.969 PSID = 0.0668 bar (dierential)

118

Answer 51 The particular pneumatic amplifying relay shown is the one typically used in Foxboro pneumatic instruments. It is not the only type of amplifying relay design, but a very common one.

From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal


input

Restriction

Nozzle

Applied force
output supply (vent)

leaf spring ball

Pneumatic amplifying relay

stem valve diaphragm

Pivot

If the lever is pushed toward the nozzle by an external force, the following will happen: Pressure upstream of the nozzle will increase, as the nozzle becomes more restricted by the apper. This pressure, going to the relay through the input port, will push up on the relay diaphragm. The relay diaphragm lifts up, pushing the stem valve closer to its seat, and lifting the ball o of its seat. As the ball lifts o its seat, more supply air is allowed to go into the area between the ball and stem. As the stem closes on its seat, the passage from this middle area to the vent port becomes more restrictive. As a result of the previous two factors, the output air pressure to the bellows will increase dramatically. The bellows will expand, pushing to the right on the lever. As the apper will move to the right until a condition of equilibrium is reached with the force from the thumb.

The operation of the pneumatic relay might require a bit more explanation for full understanding. The input pressure sent to the relay from the nozzle tube pushes against the full area of the diaphragm, creating an upward force. Since the area above the diaphragm is vented (at atmospheric pressure), there can be no substantial pressure buildup on the top side of the diaphragm, and thus no downward force generated by the diaphragm to counter the input pressures upward force:

Input pressure

This force acts to lift the ball valve o its seat and also close the cone-shaped stem valve, adding more pressure to the output chamber by opening the passage for supply air to enter and closing the passage for air to vent, respectively: 119

Input pressure

Output pressure

(opens)

(closes)

The only force opposing the diaphragms upward motion is a small leaf spring pressing down against the ball. This spring is not very strong, meaning that small changes in input pressure result in large changes in output pressure. In other words, the pneumatic amplifying relay has a very large gain. Pneumatic relays such as this serve the same purpose as operational ampliers in electronic circuits: ampliers with extremely high gains, used within negative feedback loops to achieve some lesser amount of amplication that is very nearly linear. In this particular example, the nal result (apper, nozzle, lever, relay, and bellows) is a force-balance system that aggressively responds to any external force applied to the lever, such as the force exerted by someones thumb. In a real pneumatic instrument, this external force would represent some signal or process variable, and the balancing pressure at the bellows would be the instruments pneumatic output signal. The presence or absence of the pneumatic amplifying relay does not alter the pressure/force relationship of this mechanism. The relay merely increases sensitivity to small changes in force, and increases the speed of response. Answer to challenge question: although narrowing the restriction would decrease nozzle air ow, this would have no eect on the pressure/force relationship of this mechanism. It is still a force-balance system where bellows force must equal applied force to reach a state of equilibrium, and this bellows force is strictly a function of nozzle pressure (F = P A) not nozzle ow rate. It should be noted that the actual gain of the pneumatic amplier ( Pout ) is irrelevant, so long as it is Pin arbitrarily large. This is analogous to the open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplier being largely irrelevant to the overall voltage gain of a negative-feedback circuit. In other words, the presence of this amplifying relay does not alter the input force / output pressure relationship of this pneumatic mechanism. In order to alter the pressure/force relationship of this mechanism, one would have to alter the feedback components: either change the eective area of the bellows, or the moment arm through which it acts to counteract the applied force. Answer 52 Clogged nozzle: output pressure saturates high Clogged restriction: output pressure saturates low Clogged tube at supply port of amplifying relay: output pressure saturates low Broken leaf spring inside amplifying relay: output pressure may saturate high or possibly oscillate Major hole or tear in diaphragm inside amplifying relay: System responds very little to applied force

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Answer 53 The input pressure range is the greater of the two (6-30 PSI), and the output is the lesser of the two (3-15 PSI). Follow-up question: explain how the following op-amp circuit is similar to the pneumatic system shown in the question.

2R Input +

Output

Answer 54 The output pressure will not rise as much, with the same force applied to a point closer to the pivot. Answer 55 The normal condition for a process switch is the condition of least stimulus. For example: A pressure switch will be in its normal state when there is minimum pressure applied A level switch will be in its normal state when there is no level detected by the switch A temperature switch will be in its normal state when it is cold A ow switch will be in its normal state when there is no ow detected by the switch Answer 56 The lamps illumination signies a condition where the compressed air pressure is somewhere between 85 and 115 PSI. The lamp will turn o if the pressure drops below 85 PSI or if the pressure rises above 115 PSI. Answer 57

L1 10 PSI

L2 Low oil pressure warning lamp

As the diagram shows, this needs to be a normally-closed switch.

121

Answer 58

Com

NC

NO Pressure switch

To process connection
Answer 59

impulse tube

L1 On/off 80 PSI 105 PSI M OL

L2

M OL 480 VAC 3 motor

122

Answer 60

Relay

Range wheel motion

Zero screw force

Answer 61 Answer 62 Answer 63 Partial answer: Input pressure applied ( W.C.) Percent of span (%) 0 25 50 75 100 Output signal ideal (PSI) 3 6 12 Output signal low (PSI) 5.94 8.94 11.94 Output signal high (PSI) 3.06 9.06 15.06

150

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Answer 64 Partial answer: Input pressure applied ( W.C.) 50 L 37.5 H Percent of span (%) 0 25 50 75 100 Output signal ideal (mA) Output signal low (mA) Output signal high (mA)

12 15.984 20.016

Answer 65 Ill let you gure this one out on your own! Answer 66 Ill let you gure this one out on your own! Answer 67 Answer 68 Move the range wheel up in order to re-calibrate from 0-125 W.C. to 0-180 W.C. Turn the zero screw for less tension against the range bar (less force pulling the bottom of the range bar to the right) in order to re-calibrate from 0-125 W.C. to 15-140 W.C. Answer 69 Move the magnetic shunt further out in order to re-calibrate from 3-15 PSI to 4-20 PSI. Turn the zero screw so the spring doesnt push down as hard on the right-hand side of the beam in order to re-calibrate from 3-15 PSI to 2-14 PSI. Answer 70 Partial answer: Applied dierential pressure = +12.26 PSID Transmitter output signal = 18.29 mA Answer 71

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Answer 72 Partial answer: A exure is a thin strip of springy material, usually spring steel, designed to act as a frictionless fulcrum and/or a pivoting link. Unlike bearings, exures are usually not able to handle a lot of angular motion. Hall Eect sensors are used to detect magnetic elds. They generate a DC voltage proportional to the magnitude and polarity of an applied magnetic eld and the magnitude and direction of a perpendicular DC current: VHall = K IB x

I x

I V

125

The operation of the Hall Eect sensor may not be clear to all readers. It is oriented such that the magnetic eld is parallel to the Hall Voltage axis and not perpendicular to it, when the beam is exactly level. When the beam tips up or down, however, the magnetic ux lines passing from the North tip of the beams magnet to the South tip of the stationary magnet to the left of the Hall Eect sensor will angle, passing through the Hall Eect sensor with a denite direction, either up or down, depending on which way the beam tips:

N
N S

S beam

(no voltage)

beam

beam N S

Thus, any output voltage from the Hall Eect sensor indicates an out-of-balance condition between the diaphragm and force motor. Answer 73 Try researching the product manual for a pressure switch to see how it is constructed. Answer 74 Port A is the high pressure port on this transmitter, and port B is the low pressure port. Remember: an increasing pressure applied to the high port causes an increasing signal out of the transmitter. Conversely, an increasing pressure applied to the low port causes a decreasing signal out of the transmitter.

126

Answer 75 PSL = Pressure Switch, Low PSH = Pressure Switch, High PSHH = Pressure Switch, High-High Both warning lamps should be o when the steam pressure is between 80 and 200 PSI. The boiler will automatically shut down when the shutdown solenoid de-energizes, and this will happen if the steam pressure exceeds 220 PSI. The dierence between a normally open process switch and a normally closed process switch is vitally important for technicians to understand. The normal condition referred to in each label does not mean the condition that is typical for the process. Rather, it refers to a condition where the switch is subjected to minimum stimulus. In other words, the normal condition for each switch is: Temperature switch = cold Pressure switch = low or no pressure Level switch = empty vessel Flow switch = low or no ow

Answer 76 This is a pressure control system for an air compressor. It uses two pressure switches, a high (PSH) and a low (PSL), sending on-o electrical signals to a logic control circuit (possibly a PLC). The logic then turns the compressor motor on and o. A rupture disk is provided at the receiver tank for high pressure relief, and a hand-operated ball valve provides blowdown control. The PSHH bubble is a high-high pressure switch, activated only when the receiver tank pressure is above normal operating pressure. It sends an on-o electrical signal to a high pressure alarm (PAH) indicator. Answer 77 Ill let you research the answer to this question. Answer 78 A stop prevents the pressure element from being excessively strained by overpressure. Ultimately, it helps to prevent rupture of the element in the case of accidental overpressure. When a pressure element exes so far that it comes to rest against a stop, the stop begins to provide the opposition force to the force generated by the applied pressure, so the element does not have to strain further. Ideally, the stop(s) in an instrument will be set up to limit the elements travel enough so that its elastic limit is never exceeded. However, the presence of a stop does not guarantee that the instrument will remain within calibration specications after exposure to an overpressure! Stops are important even in force-balance transmitters where the pressure element (hypothetically) never moves. Under certain overpressure conditions, the element will generate more force than the balance mechanism is able to counter, and so the pressure element will most denitely strain. A stop in a force-balance instrument helps ensure that even if the element strains, it will not strain too much.

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Answer 79 The input pressure range is the lesser of the two (3-15 PSI), and the output is the greater of the two (6-30 PSI). Follow-up question: explain how the following op-amp circuit is similar to the pneumatic system shown in the question.

R Input +

2R

Output

Answer 80 Answer 81 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 82 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 83 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 84 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 85 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 86 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 87 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 88 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 89 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 90 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 91

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Answer 92 Your loop diagram will be validated when the instructor inspects the loop with you and the rest of your team. Answer 93

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