Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146

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Marine Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

Provenance of Upper Miocene sediments in the Yinggehai and

Qiongdongnan basins, northwestern South China Sea: Evidence from
REE, heavy minerals and zircon U–Pb ages
Licheng Cao a,b, Tao Jiang a,⁎, Zhenfeng Wang c, Yingzhao Zhang c, Hui Sun a
a
Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
c
Zhanjiang Branch of China National Offshore Oil Corporation, Zhanjiang 524057, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins in the northwestern South China Sea preserve a large volume of Ceno-
Received 31 August 2014 zoic sediments. However, their sources are still barely understood. In this paper, we combine rare earth element
Received in revised form 18 January 2015 (REE) geochemistry, heavy mineral analysis and detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology for samples from potential
Accepted 19 January 2015
source areas and basin boreholes to explore the Late Miocene source-to-sink system. Our reconstructed model
Available online 20 January 2015
reveals that the Upper Miocene sediments were supplied from nonunique sources. Hainan Island mainly con-
Keywords:
trolled the supply to the outer shelf, resulting in the relatively high REE concentration, zircon–tourmaline–rutile
Yinggehai Basin (ZTR) index and the Yanshanian zircon U–Pb ages. By contrast, sediments from the northern Yinggehai Basin
Qiongdongnan Basin show a lower REE concentration and the assemblage of garnet, magnetite, epidote, amphibole and staurolite, sug-
South China Sea gesting the influence of metamorphic rocks along the Red River Fault Zone. Despite the geological data shortage
Upper Miocene in Central Vietnam, it may still be distinguished from the other provenances in the Central Depression of the
Provenance Yinggehai Basin where is characterized by little metamorphic minerals and the relatively low ZTR index. It is
noteworthy that sediments in the Central Depression of the Qiongdongnan Basin are distinct from those offshore
Hainan Island in terms of each provenance proxy. We interpret that these sediments probably were transported
from the southeastern Yinggehai Basin through the submarine canyon. The relative sea level fall during the Late
Miocene and the structural inversion in the northern Yinggehai Basin could together facilitate this long-distance
sediment transport. The local mafic volcanism is also found in the Qiongdongnan Basin, as indicated by the Eu
enrichment and the mineral group of augite and olivine.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction area of 160 × 103 km2 and a discharge of 120 km3/yr respectively
(Milliman and Farnsworth, 2011). Accordingly, it has been previously
The intensive petroleum exploration in the northwestern South held that the Red River dominated the Neogene sediment supply to
China Sea (SCS) has led to a number of oil and gas discoveries (e.g. the the basins (Clift and Sun, 2006). Recent detrital zircon U–Pb geochro-
DF1 and YC13 wells; Hao et al., 2000; Xie et al., 2008b) in the Yinggehai nology on Upper Miocene–Quaternary sediments by Wang et al.
and Qiongdongnan basins (the YGHB and the QDNB). Moreover, the (2014) also favored this viewpoint that the Yangtze Craton along the
basins preserve an important sedimentary record of Cenozoic Tibetan upstream Red River was always the major source to the YGHB. But
Plateau uplift, tectonic activity of adjacent plates and East Asian mon- this conclusion may be questionable at the whole basin scale, as sample
soon evolution (e.g. Clift and Sun, 2006; van Hoang et al., 2010b). locations are just confined to the Dongfang area of the central YGHB.
Hence, their sedimentary filling, structural evolution and hydrocarbon There is already growing evidence that the YGHB and the QDNB were
accumulation have received great scientific attentions. As an important not solely sourced from the Red River. Another possible provenance is
component of basin research, provenance analysis has been widely ap- Hainan Island, which can be exemplified by progradational slope
plied in e.g. paleogeographic reconstruction and reservoir evaluation clinoforms along its margin (Xie et al., 2008a). U–Pb ages peaking at
(e.g. Nie et al., 2012; Vincent et al., 2013). The Red River is one of the 90–110 Ma of detrital zircons from the joint area of the two basins also
largest rivers along the northwestern SCS (Fig. 1), with a drainage suggest that Hainan Island was an important source throughout the Oli-
gocene–Miocene time (Yan et al., 2011). Meanwhile, a contribution from
⁎ Corresponding author at: 388 Lumo Rd., China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Central Vietnam is usually disregarded because of the scarcity of pub-
430074, China. lished research in this source area. Clift et al. (2004) speculated that Cen-
E-mail address: taojiang@cug.edu.cn (T. Jiang). tral Vietnam mainly feeds the Mekong River drainage basin, thus

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2015.01.007
0025-3227/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146 137

Fig. 1. (a) Location of the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins relative to SE Asia and the South China Sea. (b) Map displaying the topography and sample locations. Topography data are
after Ryan et al. (2009). Major rivers in potential source areas are also shown: RR, Red River; NSR, Nam San River; CR, Ca River; SR, Son River; TBR, Thu Bon River; CHR, Changhua River; LSR,
Lingshui River; WQR, Wanquan River. Crosses, circles and stars represent the analyzed samples of rare earth element (REE), heavy mineral and detrital zircon U–Pb age, respectively. The
locations of LK, LS4 and LS33 are also marked for a comparison of REE data (Clift et al., 2008; Shao et al., 2010; Chen, 2012).

delivering little sediment to the YGHB. However, recent offshore seismic Yingdong Slope, the Yingxi Slope, the Lingao Low-uplift and the Central
profiling revealed eastward progradation from the Vietnamese margin to Depression (Fig. 2). The maximum thickness of the Cenozoic sedimen-
the western QDNB since the Miocene (Yao et al., 2008; van Hoang et al., tary fill reaches up to approximately 17 km (Gong et al., 1997). The
2010b), suggesting a potential provenance from Central Vietnam. high geothermal gradient and strong overpressure facilitate a complex
Large-scale submarine fans are widely distributed in the Upper petroleum system (Hao et al., 2000).
Miocene strata of the YGHB and the QDNB (Zhang et al., 2013b). Their The QDNB is surrounded by Hainan Island, the Shenhu Uplift and the
sedimentary provenance is still not well understood. Wang et al. Xisha Islands (or Paracel Islands) with its orientation perpendicular to
(2011) interpreted them as a part of the Red River depositional system, the trend of the YGHB (Fig. 1). The tectonic framework of the QDNB
whereas Sun et al. (2014) suggested that the coeval gravity flow system shows obvious differences between its western and eastern parts
in the central YGHB was probably fed by the Ca River in Central (Zhang et al., 2013a), and can be subdivided into the Northern Depres-
Vietnam. A provenance study is thus presented in this paper, based on sion, the Central Depression and the Southern Uplift (Fig. 2).
analyses on river sands from Hainan Island and Upper Miocene The structure and stratigraphy of the YGHB and the QDNB have been
sediments from the YGHB and the QDNB. A combination of rare earth el- studied for decades. Several mechanisms e.g. the strike-slip of the Red
ement (REE) geochemistry, heavy mineral analysis and detrital zircon River Fault Zone (RRFZ), the Indochina block extrusion and the SCS sea-
U–Pb geochronology is employed to constrain the provenance informa- floor opening are used to explain their complex evolution (e.g. Zhu et al.,
tion. Major controlling factors like regional tectonic activity and eustatic 2009; Wang et al., 2013b; Zhang et al., 2013a; Zhu and Lei, 2013). The
sea level change are also briefly discussed in order to establish a basic basins feature the typical passive continental margin with a two-
model for the Late Miocene source-to-sink system. phase evolution: a rift phase from the Paleocene to the Oligocene and
a post-rift phase from the Miocene to the recent (Fig. 3; Chen et al.,
2. Geological setting 1993). During the early-stage Neogene post-rifting, the basins
underwent a thermal subsidence with attenuated fault activities. The
2.1. Geological background of the YGHB and the QDNB stress pattern of the northern YGHB changed from transtensional to
transpressional after the Middle Miocene, and this resulted in the exten-
The YGHB is situated between Hainan Island and Vietnam with a sive inversion in the Hanoi Basin and the northern part of the YGHB
long axis oriented NNW–SSE (Fig. 1). The basin can be parted into the (Rangin et al., 1995; Clift and Sun, 2006). During the Late Miocene, the
138 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146

Fig. 2. Tectonic units of the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins and the simplified geological map (modified from Commission for the Geological Map of the World, 1975) of potential
source areas showing the lithological distribution along river courses. Only rivers that directly flow into the northwestern South China Sea are displayed. Major fault zones are modified
from Lepvrier et al. (2008).

relative sea level fall (Fig. 3) led to the retreat and partial drowning of southeastern YGHB and the western QDNB were mainly characterized
carbonate platforms along the southeast Vietnamese margin and by progradational slope clinoforms favored by high rates of sediment
around the Xisha Islands (Fyhn et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2014). The supply, whereas the eastern QDNB showed an aggradational pattern

Fig. 3. Neogene stratigraphic table of the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins with relative sea level curve (after Gong et al., 1997), sedimentation rate (after van Hoang et al., 2010b) and
regional tectonic events (after Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Yan et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2009).
 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146 139

(Xie et al., 2008a; Li et al., 2013). After the Miocene the YGHB and the (Zeng and Zeng, 1989; Milliman and Farnsworth, 2011). With regard to
QDNB were merged and synchronously experienced a rapid subsidence the parent rocks of Hainan Island, intermediate–acidic intrusions occu-
(Clift and Sun, 2006). py the majority of the island, and the outcropping lithologies in north-
ern Hainan Island are entirely basaltic with ages ranging from the
2.2. Provenance hypotheses Miocene to the Holocene (Fig. 2; Ho et al., 2000). Abundant geological
survey data from Hainan Island show that heavy minerals are dominat-
The geographic location of the two basins suggests possible prove- ed by zircon, tourmaline, ilmenite, pyrite, magnetite, titanite and mon-
nances to include the Red River, Hainan Island and Central Vietnam azite (Xie, 2009). Based on apatite fission track data and (U–Th–Sm)/
(Fig. 1b). These potential source areas are detailedly illustrated in the He ages, Shi et al. (2011) and Yan et al. (2011) suggested that most
following subsections. rapid cooling episodes in Hainan Island concentrate on the Late Eo-
cene–Oligocene time. In view of the approximately W–E-trending
symmetry of lithological distribution (Fig. 2), we tentatively regard
2.2.1. Red River Provenance (RRP)
Hainan Island as a whole provenance delivering similar sediments
The modern Red River extends along the Ailao Shan-Red River Shear
to the YGHB and the QNDB.
Zone. The upstream bedrocks are mainly the Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks, while schists and gneisses are widely distributed along the down-
stream RRFZ (Fig. 2; Leloup et al., 1995; Lan et al., 2000; Leloup et al., 2.2.3. Central Vietnam Provenance (CVP)
2001). A number of studies based on geochemistry, clay mineralogy In this study Central Vietnam refers to the central segment of Truong
and isotopic dating have been carried out in the Red River drainage Son Belt, which is bounded by the Song Ma Fault Zone to the north and
basin (e.g. Borges and Huh, 2007; Liu et al., 2007; Clift et al., 2008; van the Tam Ky-Phuoc Son Fault Zone to the south (Fig. 2). Several rivers
Hoang et al., 2009, 2010a). However, there is still no consensus on its originated from the Truong Son Mountain Range, such as the Ca River,
sediment supply, which is further complicated by the Cenozoic capture the Ma River and the Nam San River (Fig. 1). Most of Central Vietnam
event of the upstream Red River (e.g. Clark et al., 2004; Clift et al., is composed of the Paleozoic–Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (e.g. lime-
2006a). Because of the lithological complexity along river courses, sev- stones, sandstones, mudstones and clastic rocks) and sporadically-
eral U–Pb age populations ranging from 30 Ma to 2500 Ma are identified distributed granites, rhyolites and ultramafic–mafic rocks (Fig. 2; Hoa
from detrital zircons at the Red River mouth (Clift et al., 2006b). et al., 2008). Recent geochronological studies on metamorphic and
Although detrital heavy minerals are scarcely studied in the region, a granitic rocks generally revealed that two separate tectonic events oc-
large proportion of high-grade metamorphic minerals would presum- curred respectively during the Ordovician–Silurian and the Permian–
ably characterize the RRP (Xie, 2009). Triassic (e.g. Carter et al., 2001; Usuki et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2012). How-
ever, geochemical and mineralogical signatures of the CVP are scarcely
2.2.2. Hainan Island Provenance (HIP) studied. Since mylonites, schists, and gneisses are largely distributed
The terrain of Hainan Island tilts from the central mountains to the within a narrow area along the NW–SE-trending fault zones (Fig. 2;
peripheral plains, resulting in a spokewise fluvial system (Fig. 1b). The Lepvrier et al., 1997), Xie (2009) speculated that this provenance
three major rivers are the Nandu River, the Changhua River and the would have a smaller amount of high-grade metamorphic minerals
Wanquan River, and the two latter discharge directly into the YGHB compared to the RRP.
and the QDNB. The steep hillside and frequent rainstorms together
lead to a thousandfold rise of runoff during rainy seasons (Zeng and 2.2.4. Other potential provenances
Zeng, 1989). For this reason Hainan Island may supply substantial sedi- Apart from the Red River, the Pearl River in South China also pours
ments to the surrounding basins, although its suspended and dissolved into the northern SCS. Provenance studies in the modern SCS suggest
sediment concentrations are distinctly lower compared to the Red River that ocean circulations like longshore currents and monsoon currents

Table 1
Geographic location and stratigraphic position of analyzed samples in this study.

Sample Geographic location Interval of Upper Material Analytical depth (m)/Sample number References
name Miocene strata (m) source
REE Heavy mineral Zircon U–Pb
geochemistry analysis dating

LG20 Lingao Low-uplift 1800–2382 Cuttings 1840–2355/14 This study

HK17 Yingdong Slope 1114–1495 Cuttings 1115–1487/17 1124–1484/17
HK30 1520–1605 Cuttings 1537–1603/7 1530–1590/4
LT1 2036–2251 Cuttings 2060–2235/5 2065–2245/16
LT26 2502–2751 Cuttings 2508–2750/6
LT33 3064–3606 Cores 3487/1 3483–3491/15
LT34 1955–2201 Cuttings 1962–2193/9
LH1 Central Depression of the YGHB 2074–2719 Cuttings 2636–2642/1 2400–2712/6
DF13 2718–3146 Cores 3041/1 2981–3049/26 3041/1
LD22 Joint area of the YGHB and the QDNB 3619–4126 Cuttings 3640–4124/21 3626–4095/17
YC13 3393–3535 Cuttings 3408–3464/2
YC35 Central Depression of the QDNB 4100–4817 Cuttings 4510–4785/5
LS22 3336–3568 Cuttings 3474–3477/1 3342–3522/6 3475/1
YL2 3123–3499 Cuttings 3276–3297/1 3279–3330/2 3276/1
CC4 Shenhu Uplift −800 Cuttings 670–780/3
CC12 −1042 Cuttings 987–1041/3
WQH-17S Wanquan River mouth Modern River sands Modern/1
LSH-17S Lingshui River mouth Modern River sands Modern/1
LK Red River mouth Unknown Unknown 1108/1 Clift et al. (2008)
LS4 Central Depression of the QDNB 2373–2837 Cuttings Unknown/1 Shao et al. (2010)
LS33 Southern Uplift 2634–3156 Cuttings 2795–3140/6 Chen (2012)
140 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146

Table 2
Summary of rare earth element (ppm) contents of Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins, along with fractionation ratios.

Sample name HK17 HK30 LT1 LH1 DF13 LT33 LD22 LS2 YL2 LS4 LS33 LK

La 32.2 17.1 33.3 19.0 24.2 65.4 34.6 15.9 12.1 34.6 39.9 11.3
Ce 71.5 37.0 72.5 41.4 54.0 95.2 77.0 36.0 26.8 70.8 79.6 21.0
Pr 7.7 4.0 7.8 3.7 4.5 15.0 8.2 3.1 2.2 7.7 8.8 2.2
Nd 30.2 15.3 30.2 14.0 16.9 56.9 31.3 12.0 8.1 29.0 32.2 9.0
Sm 5.8 2.9 5.5 2.4 2.8 10.2 5.9 2.0 1.2 5.8 6.1 1.4
Eu 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.7 0.4 1.1 4.3 0.4 0.3 12.3 1.2 0.4
Gd 5.7 2.9 5.4 2.1 2.3 8.1 7.6 1.6 1.1 13.7 8.4 1.1
Tb 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.3 1.1 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.8 0.1
Dy 4.2 2.2 3.9 1.8 1.7 6.2 4.1 1.5 1.0 4.2 4.3 0.9
Ho 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.9 0.2
Er 2.3 1.2 2.1 1.1 0.9 3.8 2.3 1.0 0.7 2.4 2.5 0.7
Tm 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1
Yb 2.1 1.1 1.9 1.2 0.8 4.1 2.2 1.1 0.7 2.3 2.4 0.6
Lu 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1
∑REE 165.4 85.9 165.8 88.4 109.3 269.6 179.9 75.3 54.7 185.1 187.8 48.9
∑LREE/∑HREE 9.0 9.1 9.9 11.2 15.9 9.4 8.8 11.6 12.6 6.4 8.4 11.9
δCe 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.0
δEu 0.8 1.3 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.4 2.0 0.6 0.7 4.2 0.5 0.9
References This study Shao et al. (2010) Chen (2012) Clift et al. (2008)

may transport sediments to the QDNB at long distance (Liu et al., 2010a, data are available to this study. We further sampled Upper Miocene sed-
2010c, 2013). However, sediments from the Pearl River are most likely to iments from basin boreholes and modern sands from the Wanquan and
be trapped in the nearby Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB). The structural the Lingshui river mouths. The sample locations are displayed in Fig. 1b
highs (e.g. the Shenhu Uplift; Fig. 1) between the QDNB and the PRMB and detailed sampling information is given in Table 1. The age models
would to some extent barrier the sediment transport by such currents derived from the biostratigraphy of all these wells are the classified ma-
(Chen et al., 2014). Thus, the Pearl River is unlikely to contribute much terials owned by CNOOC. Since exogenic processes (e.g. hydrodynamics
to the Late Miocene infill of the YGHB and the QDNB. and diagenesis) can exert significant effects on geochemical and
Besides terrigenous supplies, volcanism can also play a certain mineralogical fingerprints (Koiter et al., 2013), river sands from
role in providing and modifying sediments. Neogene magmatism Hainan Island were not intended for the REE and heavy mineral
was strong along the continental margins of the SCS, which is exem- analyses (see Table 1).
plified by widely-scattered basalts in the coastal areas of South China The separation and identification of heavy minerals from borehole
and Indochina (Fig. 3; Yan et al., 2006). Furthermore, eustatic sea samples were conducted by CNOOC, and the REE data of four samples
level changes and tectonic activities may expose local areas inside (HK17, HK30, LT1 and LD22) were also acquired from there. Other five
the basins to erosion, making them possible source areas (e.g. the bulk samples (LH1, DF13, LT33, LS22 and YL2) for REE analysis were
Lingao Low-uplift; Clift and Sun, 2006). powdered to less than 200 mesh, and then digested with 5% acetic
acid and 10% hydrogen peroxide to remove carbonates and organic
3. Materials and methods matters respectively. Afterwards, 1 g dry samples were analyzed with
Agilent 7500a ICP-MS at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Process-
China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) has conducted es and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan. The
extensive oil and gas drillings in the YGHB and the QDNB, and analyzed detailed digestion procedures are described by Liu et al. (2008). As for
a certain amount of geochemical and mineralogical compositions. These the heavy mineral and REE data, there are multiple analytical depths

Fig. 4. Chondrite (Sun and McDonough, 1989) normalized rare earth element patterns of Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins. For comparison, data for
the parent rocks of Hainan Island (Shao et al., 2010) and the sediments of LK, LS4 and LS33 (Clift et al., 2008; Shao et al., 2010; Chen, 2012) are also plotted.
 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146 141

Table 3
Average relative abundances of detrital heavy minerals of Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins, expressed as frequency %.

Sample name LG20 HK17 HK30 LT1 LT26 LT33 LT34 LH1 DF13 LD22 YC13 YC35 LS22 YL2 CC4 CC12

Zircon 8.9 12.4 26.9 13.2 22.7 12.3 42.8 12.8 5.2 16.0 54.7 10.8 8.6 5.5 4.3 0.2
Tourmaline 5.5 7.9 9.4 7.6 10.6 16.2 10.1 2.8 4.2 16.3 3.4 11.4 9.8 7.6 5.1 0.2
Garnet 16.6 5.0 7.6 13.7 2.9 0.1 1.9 2.9 0.6 1.6 1.3 1.1 11.0 17.6 2.9 0.2
Epidote 0.4 3.2 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.0 28.4 0.4
Magnetite 26.7 18.7 5.4 7.7 1.1 0.2 1.3 1.1 0.5 0.0 3.1 10.0 9.1 15.3 6.1 6.5
Hematite and limonite 16.4 13.4 4.8 17.0 27.5 1.8 25.7 58.3 7.8 35.5 16.0 49.6 7.3 6.2 9.9 60.0
Leucoxene 18.6 29.2 35.4 33.4 30.9 58.8 14.7 19.4 75.0 19.3 14.9 14.8 49.3 43.1 9.5 1.7
Anatase 2.5 2.9 4.7 3.4 1.1 3.0 2.4 1.1 3.5 5.2 3.8 1.0 2.5 1.3 3.4 0.2
Rutile 1.9 2.3 2.0 2.5 2.8 4.2 0.5 1.5 2.8 3.2 1.5 0.9 1.4 1.0 2.4 0.0
Amphibole 0.4 2.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.8 3.3
Titanite 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1
Staurolite 0.7 0.5 1.1 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.2 0.0 0.0
Monazite 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0
Augite 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.0 3.3 17.8
Olivine 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 9.1
Other minerals 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.3 3.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 3.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 1.9 0.4

in certain wells (Table 1). Their arithmetic mean values were tentatively 4. Results
used to represent the provenance information of the whole Upper
Miocene strata. 4.1. REE
Detrital zircons from two river samples (WQH-17S and LSH-17S) and
three borehole samples (DF13, YL2 and LS22) were measured with U–Pb The REE contents of borehole samples along with key ratios are
isotopic dating. Zircon grains were selected randomly and imaged using given in Table 2 and plotted as Chondrite normalized patterns in
cathodoluminescence (CL) prior to analysis. The U–Pb dating was con- Fig. 4. Our analyses show similar REE distributions with a ubiquitous
ducted by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy light REE enrichment (∑ LREE/∑ HREE = 6.4–15.9). There is a
(LA-ICP-MS) at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and common slight to moderate Eu depletion, except from the obvious Eu
Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan. The detailed positive anomaly in LS4 (δEu = 2.1) and LD22 (δEu = 1.8).
operating condition and data-acquisition method are summarized in Liu The total REE concentrations (∑ REE) of basin sediments exhibit
et al. (2010b). The ratios of 207Pb/206Pb, 206Pb/238U, 207Pb/235U and a substantial variation ranging from 48.9 ppm to 269.6 ppm, which
208
Pb/232Th were calculated by ICPMSDataCal (Liu et al., 2009). The can be roughly categorized into two groups. 1) Upper lines in Fig. 4,
206
Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages were used for grains younger and including LT1, LT33 and HK17, have a relatively high REE concentra-
older than 1000 Ma respectively, and the accepted ages were selected tion (average ∑ REE = 197.2 ppm). Moreover, they are generally
from a 90% concordant subset. Approximately 80–110 grains were confined to the distribution range of the parent rocks of Hainan
dated from every sample, basically meeting the recommended number Island. 2) Sediments from the Central Depressions of the YGHB
of Dodson et al. (1988) and Andersen (2005). The visualization of our (LH1 and DF13) and the QDNB (LS22 and YL2) are characterized by
age results and other published data were achieved by using kernel den- a lower ∑ REE ranging from 54.7 ppm to 109.3 ppm, compatible
sity estimation plots (Vermeesch, 2012). with the LK sample from the Red River mouth. It is worth noting

Fig. 5. Heavy mineral assemblages and zircon–tourmaline–rutile (ZTR) index of Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins.
142 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146

that LS33, located at the southern QDNB, has a similarly high concen- have remarkably similar heavy mineral characteristics as group 1 in
tration as group 1. spite of the smaller amount of epidote, amphibole and staurolite.
5) Heavy minerals from the Shenhu Uplift (CC4 and CC12), containing
4.2. Heavy minerals augite and olivine, show great diversity in comparison with the QDNB
samples.
The detrital heavy mineral percentages of 16 borehole samples are
given in Table 3. The results show that the major types of heavy min-
erals are basically identical. In general, heavy minerals of which average 4.3. Zircon U–Pb ages
relative percentages exceed 5% are zircon, tourmaline, garnet, hematite,
limonite, leucoxene and magnetite. The heavy mineral assemblages and The LA-ICP-MS U–Pb age results of five samples are given in Appen-
zircon–tourmaline–rutile (ZTR) index (Hubert, 1962) are displayed in dix A. CL images generally show clear oscillatory zoning (Fig. 6) and the
Fig. 5. According to sample locations, these samples are divided into average Th/U ratio of 381 concordant zircons is 0.66, both of which in-
five groups as follows. dicate a magmatic origin. The zircon crystallization ages are compared
1) In the northern YGHB, sediments from the Lingao Low-uplift as probability density distribution in Fig. 7. The age spectra of samples
(LG20) and the northern segment of the Yingdong Slope (LT1, HK30 from the Wanquan and the Lingshui river mouths (WQH-17S and
and HK17) are characterized by the relatively high contents of garnet LSH-17S) share a certain degree of similarity. Their main age popula-
and magnetite and the assemblage of epidote, amphibole and staurolite. tions include 79–175 Ma and 228–342 Ma, associated with the
2) Sediments from the southern segment of the Yingdong Slope (LT26, Yanshanian and the Hercynian–Indosinian magmatic activities respec-
LT33 and LT34) and the joint area of the YGHB and the QDNB (YC13 tively. By contrast, the zircon U–Pb ages of borehole samples show
and LD22) tend to have high ZTR index (32.7–59.5), albeit with different wider distribution ranges (Fig. 7c, d, e). We identify several comparable
percentages of zircon and tourmaline. 3) In the Central Depression of peaks from 100 Ma to 1000 Ma in these three samples. Apart from a
the YGHB, the core sample DF13 displays an extreme abundance of few Late Paleogene grains (30–35 Ma) in YL2, major clusters consist
leucoxene (59.7%), and the contents of zircon, tourmaline and garnet of 100–200 Ma, 200–300 Ma, 400–500 Ma and 700–1000 Ma, and the
are accordingly low. Similar assemblage is also found in LH1 although two younger clusters have the same ranges as the counterparts of the
the dominant minerals become hematite and limonite (58.3%). 4) Sedi- river samples. Populations dated more than 1000 Ma are also sporadi-
ments from the Central Depression of the QDNB (YC35, LS22 and YL2) cally found.

Fig. 6. Cathodoluminescence images with analytical spots (32 μm in diameter) and associated ages in representative zircon grains from each sample.
 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146 143

Fig. 8. Kernel density estimation plots and pie charts for U–Pb ages of (a, b, c) potential
source areas and (d) Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan
basins. The sample types from different source areas are marked and U–Pb ages (≤10%
discordant) are preferentially adopted from detrital zircons. Only relative percentages of
U–Pb age groups exceed 5% are shown in the pie charts. Data for Red River sands are
Fig. 7. Kernel density estimation plots for detrital zircon U–Pb ages of (a, b) river sands from Clift et al. (2006b), van Hoang et al. (2009). Data for igneous rocks and metamorphic
from eastern Hainan Island and (c, d, e) Upper Miocene sediments from the Yinggehai rocks in Central Vietnam are from Carter et al. (2001), Usuki et al. (2009), Liu et al. (2012),
and Qiongdongnan basins. Only ages ≤10% discordant are used. N—number of grains. Nakano et al. (2013), Tran et al. (2014) and data for sedimentary rocks are from Burrett
et al. (2014). S—number of samples, N—number of grains.

5. Discussion
the RRP from the CVP in terms of REE characteristics. The assemblage
5.1. Identification of source areas of epidote, amphibole and staurolite in the Lingao Low-uplift (LG20)
and the northern segment of the Yingdong Slope (e.g. HK30 and LT1)
The combination of REE geochemistry, heavy mineral analysis and suggests the influence of metamorphic rocks from the source area,
zircon U–Pb dating for the Upper Miocene sediments provides an which is most likely to represent the northwesterly RRP. However,
overall understanding of the source areas. A refinement of their distinct this heavy mineral assemblage is not obviously found in the central
contributions is summarized below. YGHB. Samples from DF13 and LH1 have a unique sediment compo-
sition with low ZTR index and little garnet and magnetite, which is
5.1.1. Hainan Island also different from the mineralogical signature of the HIP. Thus, it
By the Late Miocene time, a typical continental shelf-slope system is possible that the CVP partly contributed to the Late Miocene
had gradually developed along the Hainan Island margin (Jiang, infill of the Central Depression of the YGHB. Coeval siliciclastic
2005). Littoral to neritic deposits offshore Hainan Island were domi- progradation from Central Vietnam is also evidenced by the forma-
nantly derived from a local provenance. This is best exemplified by tion of mass transport deposits in the southwestern QDNB (Wang
the relatively high ∑REE and the abundances of zircon, tourmaline, he- et al., 2013a) and the karstification of carbonate platforms along
matite, limonite and leucoxene. The comparison of U–Pb age spectra of the southeast Vietnamese margin (Fyhn et al., 2013). Fyhn et al.
the potential source areas (Fig. 8a, b, c) documents a large number of Ju- (2009) suggested that this widespread onshore denudation was
rassic–Cretaceous zircons (53%) exclusively existing in the HIP. These probably linked with the intensified magmatism in southeastern
Yanshanian peaks also make up 8% to 23% in samples from the Central Indochina since ca. 8 Ma (Lee et al., 1998; Carter et al., 2000).
Depressions of the YGHB and the QDNB (Fig. 8d), indicating a certain Interpreting a potential provenance from Central Vietnam to the
amount of sediments supplied from Hainan Island. This geochronologi- YGHB is in contradiction with the U–Pb age results of DF13 which
cal signature of the HIP is also found in the other strata of the joint area show a comparable age distribution to the RRP (Fig. 8a, d). But we
of the two basins (Yan et al., 2011). The influence of the HIP even argue that the Cambrian–Devonian and Carboniferous–Triassic peaks
seemed to reach the southern QDNB during the Late Miocene (Fig. 9), of the CVP could be overlapped by the counterparts of the RRP
as indicated by the similarly high ∑REE in LS33. (Fig. 8a, c). In addition, zircon grains in DF13 only take up a limited
percentage of total heavy minerals (5.2%; Table 3). It seems premature
5.1.2. Red River and Central Vietnam to conclude that the upstream Red River was the major source
In the northern YGHB, the contribution from the HIP was diluted to DF13 judging solely by the relative percentages of different zircon
by other provenances, resulting in the low ∑ REE at the Red River U–Pb age clusters (Wang et al., 2014). Therefore, it is possible that the
mouth (LK; Clift et al., 2008) and in the northwestern Central De- Upper Miocene sediments in the central YGHB were derived from
pression (LH1 and DF13). But it seems unlikely to further distinguish mixed sources of the RRP and the CVP (Fig. 9). However, a quantitative
144 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146

Fig. 9. Schematic source-to-sink model for the Late Miocene Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins. Fluvial sediments could be transported towards the depocenters from a great distance
because of the large-scale regression at that time (Gong et al., 1997). The structural inversion in the Lingao Low-uplift might affect sediment dispersal routes from the Red River (Clift and
Sun, 2006). The yellow, red and green arrows stand for potential provenances from Hainan Island, the Red River and Central Vietnam, respectively. Note that sediments in the southeastern
Yinggehai Basin could be transported into the Central Depression of the Qiongdongnan Basin through the Central Canyon (colorized arrows). The S-shaped canyon in the Qiongdongnan
Basin is simplified from Su et al. (2014) and the positions of LS22 and YL2 relative to the Central Canyon are based on the unpublished seismic data.

description of these two source areas still requires more discriminable to represent the fingerprint of the HIP. Meanwhile, the relatively low
fingerprints of the CVP. ∑ REE, the occurrence of garnet and magnetite and multiple zircon
U–Pb age peaks from 400 Ma to 1000 Ma (Fig. 8d) together explicitly
5.2. Provenance modification inside the basins display that the Central Depression of the QDNB was not solely sourced
from the HIP. Instead of distinguishing the specific impacts of the RRP
The northern boundary of the QDNB shows a distinctive heavy miner- and the CVP in this area, we suggest these sediments to be derived
al assemblage (augite, olivine and epidote) in CC4 and CC12, clearly indi- from the mixed sources in the YGHB. According to the relative positions
cating the Shenhu Uplift was not a major source to the QDNB. We suggest of LS22 and YL2 suggested by the unpublished seismic data, the Central
that these sediments were probably sourced from the adjacent submarine Canyon and large-scale channels could be possible sediment dispersal
volcanism rather than terrigenous supplies for two reasons (Fig. 9). 1) The routes (Lin et al., 2001; Yao et al., 2008; Su et al., 2014).
Pliocene–Quaternary instead of the Miocene basaltic extrusions are wide- Previous studies on the morphology and sedimentary features of the
ly exposed in northern Hainan Island and Leizhou Peninsula (Fig. 3; Tu Central Canyon indicated that the large-scale gravity flow incision is the
et al., 1991; Ho et al., 2000). 2) The Miocene sediments from the PRMB primary formation mechanism (e.g. Gong et al., 2011; Li et al., 2013; Su
have the relatively high CaO content and low Al2O3 content, which may et al., 2014). But the provenance of its sediment infill is still not explic-
indicate a provenance from the Paleozoic carbonate rocks in South itly revealed due to few descriptions on its head area and limited inter-
China (Shao et al., 2013). Northern Hainan Island and South China thus pretations of seismic data. Some explanations linked the major erosive
seem less likely as the source areas for the Shenhu Uplift. succession in the axial direction with the increased sediment supply
Likewise, the Central Depression of the QDNB might be affected by a from the RRP since the Pliocene (Clift and Sun, 2006; van Hoang et al.,
local mafic volcanism, leading to the abnormal Eu enrichment in LS4 2010b). However, our results tend to show that the canyon had already
(Fig. 4; Shao et al., 2010). Comparable volcanism is also documented initiated at least during the Late Miocene, earlier than the generally be-
by the seismic and borehole data from the Vietnamese margin (Fyhn lieved ca. 5.5 Ma.
et al., 2009, 2013). But this explanation does not suit the case of LD22 One important factor facilitating this long-distance sediment trans-
in consideration of no sedimentary record of volcanic activity in the port could be the large-scale relative sea level fall in the SCS at that
YGHB. The multi-stage diapirism in the Central Depression of the time (Fig. 3; Gong et al., 1997), which would reduce the sediment ac-
YGHB is actually featured by mud volcanoes and episodic fluid expul- commodation space in the YGHB. Along with the regional inverted
sion (e.g. Xie et al., 1999; Lei et al., 2011). Furthermore, the heavy structure in the Lingao Low-uplift, this regression also caused a general
minerals in LD22 do not contain any mafic provenance indicating as- depocenter migration from southeast to northwest in the YGHB (Clift
semblage (e.g. augite and olivine). The origin of the Eu positive anomaly and Sun, 2006; Xie et al., 2008a; Zhu et al., 2009). Thus, sediments of
in LD22 thus needs further investigation. mixed sources probably overspilled into the western QDNB through
the submarine canyon (Fig. 9). But the sediments transported by this
5.3. Sediment transport between the YGHB and the QDNB means were most likely to be topographically confined to the Central
Canyon in the Central Depression. The majority of the QDNB probably
In the Central Depression of the QDNB, the moderate ZTR index still received the contribution from the HIP, as suggested by the similar-
(14.1–23.0) and young U–Pb age peaks at ca. 145 Ma (Fig. 7d, e) tend ly high ∑REE in LS33.
 L. Cao et al. / Marine Geology 361 (2015) 136–146 145

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YGHB. The relatively low ∑REE and the group of garnet, magnetite, ep- zircons in Zimbabwean sediments. J. Geol. Soc. 145, 977–983.
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Ho, K.-S., Chen, J.-C., Juang, W.-S., 2000. Geochronology and geochemistry of late Cenozoic
Central Depression of the QDNB. basalts from the Leiqiong area, southern China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 18, 307–324.
Hoa, T.T., Anh, T.T., Phuong, N.T., Dung, P.T., Anh, T.V., Izokh, A.E., Borisenko, A.S., Lan,
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Acknowledgments of the Truong Son belt, eastern margin of Indochina. Compt. Rendus Geosci.
340, 112–126.
Hubert, J.F., 1962. A zircon–tourmaline–rutile maturity index and the interdependence of
This study is a contribution to the National Natural Science Founda- the composition of heavy mineral assemblages with the gross composition and
tion of China (No. 41476032, 91028009 and 40806019) and the Special texture of sandstones. J. Sediment. Res. 32, 440–450.
Foundation for State Major Basic Research Program of China (No. Jiang, T., 2005. Formation of lowstand fans and their hydrocarbon accumulation since
Middle Miocene in the Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins. China University of
2011ZX05025-0020-020-03). We are grateful of Zhanjiang Branch of Geosciences, Wuhan (in Chinese with English abstract).
China National Offshore Oil Corporation for providing geological data. Koiter, A.J., Owens, P.N., Petticrew, E.L., Lobb, D.A., 2013. The behavioural characteristics of
We also thank Michele Rebesco, Michael B.W. Fyhn and an anonymous sediment properties and their implications for sediment fingerprinting as an
approach for identifying sediment sources in river basins. Earth Sci. Rev. 125, 24–42.
referee for their constructive comments.
Lan, C.-Y., Chung, S.-L., Shen, J.J.-S., Lo, C.-H., Wang, P.-L., Hoa, T.T., Thanh, H.H., Mertzman,
S.A., 2000. Geochemical and Sr–Nd isotopic characteristics of granitic rocks from
northern Vietnam. J. Asian Earth Sci. 18, 267–280.
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