Thesis Last Version

1
The revival of astrology in

contemporary society
Cheryl Abraham
Abstract
The research question of this thesis is: “what are the factors that contributed to the
popularity of astrology in contemporary Dutch society?” This will be examined through
literary research and media research of digital sources, such as websites, blogs, or social
media. Digital culture is important because most of the transmission of astrology today is
through technology. In the introduction the relevance and definition of astrology, the
structure of this thesis and the literature review are discussed. The first chapter consists of a
brief overview of selected aspects of the history and development of the historical sources of
what came to be the astrology practiced in the West (mainly Europe, North America, and
Australasia). In the second and third chapter the contemporary context of Dutch society, -
identities, and movements contributing to the popularity of astrology are discussed. The
second chapter includes the relocation of the sacred (from an outside authority to the deeper
layers of the self), individualism and the sacralization of the self, the New Age movement,
reincarnation and karma, the idea of the ‘spiritual but not religious’, digital culture and gender.
The third chapter includes postmodernism, capitalism, science and psychology. The discussion
of the factors will be supplemented by examples from the online astrology community. The
conclusion highlights the most important arguments for each factor.
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Introduction
a. The relevance of astrology
In our contemporary context, astrology has become globally mainstream, especially in the
media and digital culture. On the social media platform TikTok, the tag “#astrologie” (Dutch
and French for astrology), has 2.2 billion views on June 16, 2022.1 On the same date the
English term “#astrology” has 38.1 billion views.2 Under these tags you find countless of short
videos in which references are made to the zodiac signs, planets and their attributes. On
Instagram the tag “#astrology” shows us 10.872.777 posts.3 The tag “#astrologie” shows us
556.590 posts.4 The content is similar as on TikTok, but in which TikTok is mostly focused on
short videos, on Instagram there is more space for a short-written story. This is an
opportunity for astrologers to elaborate further on their astrological theories. These stories
can include the interpretations and explanations of the zodiac signs, planets, house system,
celestial events (such as mercury retrograde), or the cycles of the moon and their effects on
the individual. An example of a popular Dutch astrologer is Josie Boog, who has 29.000
followers on Instagram.5 She describes herself as author, astrologer, modern mystic and
supporter of self-love and acceptance, and her readings are focused on “unlocking your
potential and power”.6 Other global examples are, Glossy_zodiac (4.8 million followers) with a
focus on funny memes of the zodiac signs.7 Spirit Daughter (1.9million followers) in which we
can see elements of psychology, spirituality and healing.8 Sisters Village (1.1 million followers)
offer us descriptions of the zodiac signs, planets and celestial events.9, and Chani Nicholas
(485.000 followers) shows us an example of queer astrology.10 It’s not only these social media
platforms, AT5, NOS and RTL are popular Dutch television, radio and media platforms and in
2020-2021 we see headliners such as: “Astrology popular under youth ‘it gives insight.” 11 , “Since
corona astrology is even more popular among the youth.” 12 And, “Astrology popular among youth:
1
Astrologie, TikTok, https://www.tiktok.com/tag/astrologie (accessed June 16, 2022)
2
Astrology, TikTok, https://www.tiktok.com/tag/astrology (accessed June 16, 2022)
3
Astrology, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/astrology/ (accessed June 16, 2022)
4
Astrologie, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/astrologie/ (accessed June 16, 2022)
5
Josieboog, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/josieboog/ (accessed June 1, 2022)
6
Boog, Let’s uncover the secrets of your birth chart, https://josieboog.com/ (accessed June 18, 2022)
7
Glossy_zodiac, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/glossy_zodiac/ (accessed June 18, 2022)
8
Spiritdaughter, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/spiritdaughter/ (accessed June 18, 2022)
9
Sistersvillage, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/sistersvillage/ (accessed June 18, 2022)
10
Chaninicholas, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/chaninicholas/ (accessed June 16, 2022)
11
RTLnieuws, Astrologie populair onder jongeren: ‘Het geeft inzicht’, December 2, 2020,
https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/editienl/artikel/5028821/horoscoop-astrologie-jongeren-sterren-inzicht
12
NOS nieuws, Sinds corona is astrologie nog populairder onder jongeren, January 7, 2021,
https://nos.nl/artikel/2363374-sinds-corona-is-astrologie-nog-populairder-onder-jongeren
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‘Get a message everyday about how your day will be.”13 The NOS also states that bol.com, a
popular online web shop in the Netherlands, sold 60% more astrology books in 2020 than
2019. Online personalized astrology apps like Co-Star and The Pattern use ‘mystical
algorithms’ and are used by millions of people around the world, especially millennials. 14 Co-
Star has 2 million followers on Instagram.15 Another aspect are newspapers and magazines,
daily forecasts were included in newspapers in the 1930s and didn’t have a place in astrology
ever before.16 Nowadays every newspaper or magazine has an astrology section, on paper
and digitally. The magazine ELLE even offers their own online astrology course for €29,95.17
Astrology is a trend, especially among the younger generation, and is being sold as a product
and practice in many ways – the ‘astro-market’ seem to have turned into a multi-billion-dollar
market around the globe.
b. Defining astrology
In the Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, the historian Patrick Curry defines
astrology as:
“… the practice of relating the heavenly bodies to lives and events on earth, and the tradition
that has thus been generated.”18
Astrology encompasses many approaches to the relationship humans have formed with the
stars. The term comes from astro-logos, which can be translated as ‘the word-,’ ‘logic,’ or
‘reason-of-the-stars.’19 In the table on the next page “astrologers’ definitions of astrology”,
Campion gives nine different possible characterizations of astrology which are drawn from
standard astrological works, with special attention to New Age literature. 20 For example, Dane
Rudhyar understood astrology as a divine science, similar to Helena Blavatsky and Alice
Bailey. He views astrology as a psychological tool, a path to spiritual growth and a means of
healing the soul which could be achieved through counselling. 21 This is indicated by the stars
13
AT5, Astrologie populair onder jongeren: ‘Krijg elke dag bericht over hoe mijn dag gaat zijn. Edited:
March 23, 2021, https://www.at5.nl/artikelen/206698/astrologie-populair-onder-jongeren-krijg-elke-
dag-bericht-over-hoe-mijn-dag-gaat-zijn (accessed May 31, 2022)
14
Allie Jones, Rising signs: Inside Co-Star, the app that’s feeding millennials’ astrological fascinations
with mystical algorithms and an old-school approach to the zodiac, October 4, 2019,
https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/4/20879631/co-star-astrology-app-zodiac-signs
15
https://www.instagram.com/costarastrology/?utm_source=ig_embed&ig_rid=89c8b373-11e4-4898-
846c-6f1250b96059
16
Pınarbaşı, Mass media and astrology as a reflection of the culture industry, p.83
17
ELLE, Astrologie E-course, January 7, 2022, https://www.elle.com/nl/lifestyle/a38692639/elle-
astrologie-cursus-horoscoop/ (accessed June 25, 2022)
18
Curry, Astrology, p.55
19
Partridge, The Occult World, p.593
20
Campion, Astrology and Popular Religion, p.178
21
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in the table and shows us different combinations of the multiple definitions and aspects are
possible.
5
Liz Greene also offers multiple ways to conceive astrology, including ‘as science, art,
philosophy, psychology and poetic metaphor.’22 The terms astrology and astronomy were
interchangeably until the 17th century, for example, according to Campion, Marcus Manilius
first century text “the astronomica” is a work that will be labeled as astrology today.23 Their
complete separation has been largely unknown in non-Western and premodern cultures.
People did make a distinction between a science of the stars that deal with quantities
belonging to astronomy, and qualities of astrology, but they belonged to the same science of
the stars and astrology was not perceived as inferior to astronomy. The distinction between
quantities and qualities was referred to as natural and judicial astrology, which emerges in
classical discourse in the first century B.C.E. and is fundamental to an understanding of
astrology’s variety. Natural astrology evaluates the heavenly bodies, observes seasonal
phenomena and natural influences deriving from the planets, it was universally accepted in
the medieval and Renaissance worlds. Judicial astrology is judging the future which requires
the astrologer’s interpretation on deductions made from horoscopes.24 Natural astrology
evolved into astronomy and astrophysics, which favors science and development and rejects
metaphor and mythology. Judicial astrology is now referred to as simply astrology, based on
the concept that events in the visible world are a reflection of the celestial spheres. In
classical terms: as above so below. 25 Astrology is by nature eclectic and never had one
canonical form. It can be viewed as a living tradition, that acquired techniques and methods
from various eras and people, to suit specific needs.26 Astrology can be further divided in five
main branches:
(1) Genethlialogy or natal astrology describes the lives of individuals on the basis of their
natal charts.
(2) Historical astrology describes the fortunes and misfortunes of dynasties and religions.
(3) Catarchic or electional astrology guides its followers with choosing favorable times for
initiating activities.
(4) Interrogations or horary astrology provides answers to questions addressed to the
astrologer.
(5) Iatromathematics, which applies astrological doctrine to medical practice.27 28
22
Greene, Is Astrology a Divinatory System?, p.28
23
Campion, Astrology in Ancient Greek and Roman Culture, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.013.46
24
25
Dean, Astrology as a Spiritual Belief System, p.31
26
Cooper, Astrology, p.382
27
Saif, Islamic astrology, p.177
28
Beck, A Brief History of Ancient Astrology, p.10
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c. The structure of this thesis
The first chapter is concerned with the history and development of the historical sources of
what came to be the astrology practiced in the West (mainly Europe, North America, and
Australasia) We travel through astrology in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greek and Roman society,
the Arabic and Latin worlds. This includes looking at the recession of astrology’s status in the
seventeenth century and its rebirth in the twentieth century. The purpose is to give a brief
overview in order to highlight the similarities and differences between then and now. It will
contextualize some of the current trends in our own time period, and the recent revival of
older forms of astrology. As Beck states: “A self-styled “brief history” of such a complicated
subject as astrology has to leave out certain sub-topics, even quite significant ones.”29
The term ‘western’ is used to distinguish it from Vedic, Chinese or other forms of astrology.
The historical sources of what came to be the astrology practiced in the West trace back to
Mesopotamia and Egypt. In the Hellenistic period new astrological theories were created, part
synthesis of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian astrology and part new invention through Greek
philosophy and cosmological theories.30 The next transmission was the Graeco-Arabic
translation movement in which almost all non-literary and non-historical secular Greek books
were translated into Arabic. Among this big collection of literature, books on astrology,
astronomy, alchemy and the rest of the occult sciences got translated.31 Muslim intellectuals
and theologians preserved but also developed the astrological knowledge. In the twelfth
century there is a new translation movement in the medieval Latin West, in which Arabic
scientific and philosophical literature got translated into Latin. The earliest texts to be
translated were medical and astrological, of which a high number of astrological texts were
translated in Spain.32 The Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Hellenistic, Arabic and Latin contributions
all influenced and contributed to the astrology practiced today in contemporary society.
The second and third chapter are concerned with the factors that are related to the context in
which astrology could flourish and therefore (in)directly contributed to the popularity of
astrology. The factors in chapter two are: (1) the relocation of the sacred from an outside
authority (such as a religious institute) to the deeper layers of the self, (2) individualism and
the sacralization of the self, (3) the idea of the ‘spiritual but not religious’ (SBNR), (4) Indian
spiritualities, (5) New Age spirituality, (6) digital culture and (7) gender. The relocation of the
sacred in Dutch context contributed to the possibility to experiment with different religious or
29
30
Campion, Astrology in Ancient Greek and Roman Culture,
31
Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture, p.1
32
Saif, The Arabic Influences on Early Modern Occult Philosophy, p.46
7
spiritual beliefs outside of normative religious traditions. Individualism became more
important and together with the sacralization of the ‘self’ contributed to a focus on natal
astrology, which is all about the individual. The New Age culture spurred a movement which
promoted various forms of spiritual beliefs and practices, among them is astrology. Indian
spiritual concepts such as karma and reincarnation have been integrated in contemporary
astrology, and reinforce the beliefs vice versa. The ‘spiritual but not religious’ serve as an
example of a cultural category in which astrology flourishes. More women than men practice
astrology, so we’ll take a look at the gender difference. At last, digital culture is significant
because of its contribution to the accessibility and mass production of information about
astrology. The factors in chapter three are: (1) the postmodern society, (2) science and
psychology, and (3) capitalism. I’ll look at the postmodern society in which reason is less
significant than it was in modernity. Truth becomes less important than individual experiences
and feelings, and a variety of perceptions and interpretations come to the foreground. In our
contemporary society astrology is not supported by science, but can be psychologically
meaningful. This dynamic in terms of truth and usefulness, a variety of opinions and
interpretations, science and psychology is valuable for the understanding of astrology today.
Another factor of postmodernity is capitalism, which contributed to a spiritual market in
which astrology is advertised and sold as a product and practice.
d. Literature review
Nicholas Campion is a historian with expertise in anthropology, he has written extensively on

the history of astrology in “Astrology in Ancient Greek and Roman Culture”, “A History of
Western Astrology: Volume 1: The Ancient and Classical Worlds”, “A History of Western Astrology:
Volume 2: The Medieval and Modern Worlds”, “Astrology and Cosmology in the World’s Religions”
and “The Book of World Horoscopes”, these works are drawn upon to construct the brief self-
styled history of western astrology. His book Astrology and Popular Religion in the Modern
West: Prophecy, Cosmology, and the New Age Movement” is used in support of the third chapter
in which he remarked that astrology had become “an essential part of the language of popular
culture and mass psychology.” 33 The work of Heelas and Woodhead “The Spiritual Revolution:
Why Religion is giving way to Spirituality” shows us that religion is declining while spirituality is
on the rise since. In addition, Steff Aupers and Dick Houtman in “Religions of Modernity:
Relocating the Sacred to the Self and the Digital” add how modernity relocates the sacred to the
deeper layers of the self and the domain of digital technology. For movements that
33
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popularized astrology, such as the New Age and Theosophical Society, I have relied on
Wouter Hanegraaffs book “New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of
Secular Thought.” With the rise of (New Age) spirituality, a new cultural category arose “the
spiritual but not religious” (SBNR), as Boaz Huss argued in “Spirituality: The Emergence of a
New Cultural Category and its Challenge to the Religious and the Secular”. The ethos of the SBNR
will be related to astrology through digital sources from the online astrology community. The
use of digital sources are examples from magazines, internet websites or social media that are
popular in Dutch society and are a representation of how astrology is perceived and
presented in a variety of ways. Another source is Astro Wiki, which is a free online
encyclopedia of astrology. Liz Greene, a psychologist a renowned contemporary astrologer, is
one of the founders and chief editors of this database. To conclude, different theories about
astrology, spirituality, contemporary society, important movements, beliefs and practices,
digital culture and the topic of gender, from disciplines such as psychology, anthropology,
philosophy, and religious studies, are woven together to understand why astrology is
appealing for today’s audience.
Ch.1 The history of western astrology

Like all branches of knowledge, astrology developed as a result of historical and cultural
exchanges. In this section, I look at some of the historical sources of western astrology;
namely, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, the Islamic world, and the medieval Latin West. This is
followed by a discussion of the fall of astrology in Europe in the seventeenth century and is
contrasted with its renaissance in the twentieth century which this thesis focuses on.
Mesopotamia
Our journey starts in Mesopotamia, the geographical area to refer to what roughly coincides
with modern-day Iraq. A framework for the history of Babylonian celestial divination would
begin with late Old Babylonian omen texts (ca. 1800 B.C.), and continues through the Middle
Babylonian and Middle Assyrian periods (ca. 1200 B.C.) with forerunners to the canonical
celestial omen series Enuma Anu Enlil.34 These were systematically recorded omens of celestial
phenomena, such as eclipses and planetary movements. 35 Universal astrology, (i.e. omen-, or
mundane astrology) is concerned with particular phenomena (astrological omens) from which
34
Rochberg, Babylonian Horoscopes, preface: p.9
35
9
predictions were made for the future of the civilization as a whole.36 Omens are recorded as
conditional statements (If X happens, then Y will occur) and were used for the purpose of
prognostication. Another function of Babylonian astrology is the regulation of the calendar
and control of time. Time is measured by the sun and the moon, the day and the year by the
sun and the month by the moon.37 By the middle of the second millennium it had become an
important feature of the learned culture of Mesopotamia. Celestial divination, astronomical
observation, and astronomical computation represent interdependent parts of a complex
tradition of celestial science in ancient Mesopotamia. The Babylonian astrologers developed
ephemerides, which is a table that allowed astrologers to look up the locations of the planets,
and where they would be in the future or past, because the movements are period and
predictable. This took centuries to develop and led to the practice of mathematical
astronomy.38 In the seventh century B.C. an abundance of texts reveal the activities of the
Sargonid court astrologers who sent the kings reports on their observations and predictions
about what that meant on earth.39 The appearance of horoscopes in Babylonia at the end of
the fifth century B.C. marks a point when the time of birth became significant for the future of
an individual.40 This can be seen as the first invention of natal astrology. Birth charts would be
presented verbally, and knowledge would be passed down from generation to generation and
astrologer to astrologer. Therefore, we don’t know how a Babylonian astrologer would have
interpreted some of these birth charts.
Egypt
Egyptian astrology was based on decans, which are specific fixed stars or specific asterisms
and it breaks them up into 36 fixed star clusters. The Egyptians were focused on the rising
36
37
38
Brennan, The History of Western Astrology, An Overview, The Astrology Podcast,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWDq6zJVX34 , 08:30-09:30
The Astrology Podcast covers a variety of topics related to astrology with the purpose to provide an
advanced level of discussion. It is hosted by Chris Brennan, who is a professional astrologer and author
of the book “Hellenistic Astrology: The Study of Fate and Fortune.”
39
Rochberg, Babylonian Horoscopes, preface: p.10
40
Rochberg, ibid., preface: p.10
10
and setting of certain decans or fixed stars, especially at night, to time specific religious
rituals.41 Egyptians were more focused (than Mesopotamians) on the 24-hour cycle of the
‘diurnal rotation’, an apparent daily motion of the heavens from the east to west in which
celestial objects seem to rise and set, a phenomenon that results from the earth’s rotation
from west to east. Decans became a prototype for the contemporary twelve house system,
which is where you divide the diurnal rotation into different sectors, and then you assign it
topics based on where the sign of the zodiac fall relative to the rising sign.42 The traditional
elements of Egyptian astronomy are the decans, the Sun, Moon, planets, and constellations,
together with the Babylonian zodiac. The zodiac was a Babylonian import, not an Egyptian
creation, and was combined with the decans. They lose their old role of telling the night hours
by rising or transits and they become 10 (degree symbol) subdivisions of the zodiacal belt with
three decanal names to each zodiacal sign. 43 An attempt to translate Egyptian books into
Greek was made in Ptolemaic Egypt, and during this time Hermetic literature started to come
from Egypt, showing a rapid development of astrology.44 Known from fragments in Greek, the
Salmeschoiniaka (the Wandering of the Influences) is the earliest Hermetic astrological treatise
that deals with the configurations of the stars.45 According to Astrowiki, the decans as a
threefold 10 degree division of each zodiac sign, is still commonly used in modern astrology. 46
The tag “#decans” on Instagram provides us with 3609 messages.47 On TikTok “#decans” gets
us 1.6 million views.48 From both these social media platforms an example is included on the
next page.
41
Brennan, The History of Western Astrology, An Overview, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=AWDq6zJVX34&t=981s, 16:00-17:11
42
v=AWDq6zJVX34&t=981s, 17:20-20:40
43
Parker, Egyptian astronomy, p.61
44
Bohleke, In Terms of Fate: a survey of the indigenous Egyptian contribution to ancient astrology in
light of Papyrus, p.16
45
Bohleke, ibid., p.17
46
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Decan, Astrodienst Astrowiki,
https://www.astro.com/wiki/astrowiki-en/index.php?title=Decan&oldid=9491, (accessed June 22,
2022)
47
Instagram, #decans, https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/decans/
48
TikTok, #decans, https://www.tiktok.com/search?q=%23decans&t=1655881516523
11
49
50
Hellenistic Age
49
Atlas astrology, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/CdteDIaufEq/ (accessed June 21, 2022)
50
TikTok, #decans, https://www.tiktok.com/search?q=%23decans&t=1655881516523 (accessed June
21, 2022)
12
Alexander the Great, (356 BCE-323 BCE) overthrew the Persian empire, now Mesopotamia
and Egypt are both under the control of Greek-speaking rulers which launches a period called
the Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE).51 Alexander had translated the books he needed from
Persian into Greek and Egyptian, books on philosophy, astrology, medicine, and agriculture,
then destroyed the rest.52 This is important because Greek is then the most spoken language,
meaning the new astrological, and also scientific, philosophical and religious texts are in
Greek. Until the 5th century BCE astrology in the Mesopotamia had been practiced in service
of the king. In contrast, Hellenistic astrology had a democratized nature and anyone could
study or practice astrology. Astrology had an important role in Greek and Roman civilization,
for a complete understanding of religion, politics, and science in the Greek and Roman
cultures, knowledge of astrology’s claims, practices and world view is required. It implies that
all aspects of existence, spiritual, psychological, and physical are linked. Which resonates with
a contemporary view of a holistic approach. From the 4th century BCE onwards, astrological
literature from the first and second centuries BCE were brought into Hellenistic society. The
important philosophical schools of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics all agreed that the universe
is a single, living, integrated whole. Egyptian temple culture influenced Hellenistic astrology,
particularly the concept that the soul could ascend to the stars.53 The dominant form of
Hellenistic astrology, throughout the Roman empire, was genethlialogy.54 From Augustus
forward several Roman emperors were concerned with their and potential rivals horoscopes,
and some astrologers held significant roles at court.55 Yet there wasn’t one version of
astrology and there were disagreements about what it was, such as whether it could make
exact predictions about individual affairs or only general statements. It was either seen as a
natural science justified by physical factors or considered as divination involving
communication with the gods/goddesses.
“Astrology had a radical view of time in which the future already existed, at least in potential,
and the astrologer’s task was to intercede in time, altering the future to human advantage. In
this sense astrology was a form “participation mystique” in which time and space were
conceived of as a single entity and individual and social benefits were to be derived from
engaging with it.” 56
51
Mark, Alexander the Great, World History Encyclopedia. Last modified: November 14, 2013.
https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/ (accessed May 26, 2022)
52
Bladel, The Arabic Hermes, p.35
53
Campion, Astrology in Ancient Greek and Roman Culture,
54
55
56
Campion, , Astrology in Ancient Greek and Roman Culture,
13
Through part synthesis of old traditions and part new innovations a new system of astrology
emerges, Hellenistic astrology represents the introduction of all the basic concepts of western
astrology. The decans from Egypt being overlaid on top of the Babylonian zodiac represent
the whole sign house system of today.
57
>>>
The concept of aspects and the establishment of the fourfold system: planets, signs, houses,
and aspects was introduced at this time. Most of the characteristics associated with the
planets and zodiac signs, the concept of the 12 houses and their meaning, and the aspects are
still much intact today. Hellenistic astrology began to collapse in the early 4th century, facing
challenges from Christianity and the dispersion of classical culture, particularly in Western
Europe.58
The Arabic world
When the Roman Empire fell astrology was preserved in Byzantium and the Islamic
civilization.59 In 750 the Abbasid caliphs took the power and were responsible for a shift in
views at the highest levels of society, and a series of rulers set the stage for what has come to
be known as the golden age of Islam.60 In the Graeco-Arabic translation movement almost all
non-literary and non-historical secular Greek books that were available throughout the
Eastern Byzantine Empire and the Near East were translated into Arabic. Among this big
collection, literature on astrology, astronomy, alchemy and the rest of the occult sciences was
translated. Therefore, the Arabic theories on astrology were highly influenced by Greek
literature on philosophy, (meta)physics, and cosmology.61 The texts that were translated from
Greek were chosen from what was available at the time. Bladel remarks that “Greek literature
57
Brennan, The History of Western Astrology, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWDq6zJVX34
(29:13-29:24)
58
Campion, ibid.
59
Warnock, Traditional Astrology, https://www.renaissanceastrology.com/traditionalastrology.html
(accessed May 26, 2022)
60
Campion, Astrology and Popular Religion in the Modern West, preface: p.17
61
Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture, p.1
14
in the third century was full of new religious and cosmological ideas.”62 It included Platonic
metaphysical speculation, Aristotelian metaphysics and Neoplatonic ideas on emanation
theory. Muslim intellectuals and theologians reflected on these works and developed them to
reconcile them with their religion and worldview. In this process the Greek theories were all
mixed together in Islamic astrology and cosmological ideas.63
Abu Ma’shar Ja’far b. Muhammad al-Balkhi (787-886) was one of the most influential
astrologers in the Islamic and Christian worlds. The methodical justification of astrology given
in his Great Introduction, based upon Aristotelian concepts of causality and motion, is one of
his most important achievements. He argued that the stars indicate earthly events because
they are the causes of the existence of all animals, plants, and minerals. This is the question of
remote causation, for example, we know that the moon affects the tides from a distance. The
motion of celestial bodies changes elements in the natural world, this has an impact on human
beings, their circumstances, and bodies, because these are also made up by the elements. The
value of astrology lies in that one may foresee and prepare for these changes in
circumstances. Abu Ma’shar argues for astrology’s benefits, embeds astrology in natural
philosophy and defends is against skeptics. “At the heart of his arguments is demonstrating
rationally the superiority of astrology on the bases of natural philosophy and medicine: if one
wants to address and fix a problem in the sublunary world, one needs to consider the causes,
as Aristotle, Galen, and Hippocrates have shown.”64
62
Bladel, The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science, p.42
63
This was said in the lectures from a course given by Liana Saif, “Introduction to Medieval
Esotericism”, University of Amsterdam, 2021.
64
Saif, Abu Ma’shar al-Balkhi, p.2
15
65
The medieval Latin West
The medieval Latin West acquired vast libraries of Arabic texts which spurred a translation
movement, hundreds of astrological texts were translated from Arabic to Latin from the 12th
century forward. For example, the works of Abu Ma’shar were translated in the 12th century
and circulated widely in the Latin West during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.66
Campion remarks that for a thousand years several Christians assaulted astrology as a dark,
demonic threat to humanity. However, in the twelfth century scholars in the Latin West
began to question if the practice of astrology, what Isidore called ‘superstitious’, was truly
immoral. They had the idea that astrology potentially was a source of profound wisdom, and
political and personal advantage. The fragments of classical wisdom, that had survived the
decline of secular study in the fifth and sixth centuries, had kept some interest alive regarding
Greek and Latin concepts of the heavens. By the twelfth century the pursuit of such
knowledge had become one Europe’s most prominent intellectual movements. For
philosophers, the Middle Ages from around 1100 to 1400 was a period of intense intellectual
curiosity about our relationship with the cosmos. 67 The evidence implies that the necessity
for astrological writings influenced the whole scholastic process in the 12th century. The most
65
Saif, Islamic Astrology, p.177
66
Saif, ibid., p.2
67
Campion, A History of Western Astrology: Volume 2, p.29
16
crucial implication of astronomy was astrology and this was important for any prince or
prelate who wanted to gain advantage over his enemies. According to the Old Testament the
heavens revealed God’s grandeur, the End of Days and Christ’s second coming would also be
indicated by celestial signs. Watching the heavens (the stars) was therefore an obligation for
devoted Christians, even though the term ‘astrology’ was avoided. For the philosopher
astrology may show the glories of God’s creation and explain the workings of his divine design
through the heavens. Once theological difficulties were overcome, astrology provided the
medieval society with a powerful organizing principle. Campion states: “Of the other practical
needs of the early scholars, improvements in medicine were probably the most pressing and
the available Arabic medical texts frequently assumed that knowledge of the stars was critical
in effective diagnosis and treatment. It was to be astrology’s medical applications that made it
an unavoidable part of medieval Western culture, regardless of the objections of conservative
theologians.”68 In the following few hundred years there was a growing realization that
technical astrology contained inaccuracies and by the 15th century, astrological reform and
astronomical discovery had become prominent initiatives.69 Astrologers recognized a
distinction between the popular street corner variety and its learned counterpart. Both had
deep roots: popular astrology flowed along with many other medieval traditions tied to the
worlds of planting and curing. Learned astrology, inside and outside the universities, drew
upon Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos, Abohali’s Book of Births, translated into Latin in the 12th century
by Plato of Tivoli, or Albumasar’s Introductorium, translated in the same century, as well as
other works such as Guido Bonatti’s compendium of celestial knowledge (Liber
Astronomiae)70 In the Renaissance astrology reaches its highest point, astrologers and mages
like Cornelius Agrippa and Marsilio Ficino used the originally-Arabic Picatrix, a grimoire that
used astrology and astrological magic to create astrological talismans, and brought the
Hermetic Arts of astrology to their greatest heights.71 The Picatrix itself is a medieval Latin
translation of the Arabic Ghāyat al-Hakīm, which was written circa 954-959.72 To create a
talisman or amulet one needs to consider the current state of celestial positions and may also
depend on a horary chart or even the chart of a city or country in choosing the time for the
creation of the talisman. Knowledge of electional astrology was required in choosing a time
when the particular astrological factor is appropriate.73
68
Campion, A History of Western Astrology: Volume 2, p.30
69
Campion, ibid., p.35
70
Dooley, A Companion to Astrology in the Renaissance, p.3
71
Warnock, Renaissance Astrology, https://www.renaissanceastrology.com/ (accessed April 28, 2022)
72
Pingree, “Picatrix”, p.1
73
Warnock, Astrological Talisman,
https://www.renaissanceastrology.com/astrologicaltalisman.html#venustalismans (accessed April 28,
2022)
17
Another important development was the printing press invented in 1440. Prior to that
century all astrological texts were hand copied, which was a time consuming process. This led
to a proliferation of astrology texts over Europe, they massively printed the Latin translations
of the Arabic texts.74 By the seventeenth century astrology starts to go into decline, although
not officially refuted by science it became less credible as it was not empirically verifiable. The
earth was no longer being considered as the center of the universe, and discovery of the laws
of physics such as gravity played an important role in this matter.75 Large parts of astrology
had been built on Ptolemy’s cosmology, which was one of the ways astrology survived during
the middle ages. It survived religious persecution because Ptolemy had tried to
reconceptualize astrology as a causal and natural science. He explained how the planets
(in)directly were influencing life on earth in a natural way, sort of like the weather. Ptolemy’s
cosmology was disproven during the Copernican Revolution in the sixteenth century, the
earth was no longer seen as the center of the universe but was replaced by a heliocentric
model with the Sun at the center of the solar system. Due to this development astrology was
also challenged.76 However, the decline of astrology is not only the result of scientific
developments, astrology wasn’t empirically disproven, but due to cultural, religious and social
issues astrology was negatively affected. Around this time astrology disappears from
universities and is no longer seen as a legitimate source of wisdom.77
From recession to rebirth
“I can only gaze with wonder and awe at the depths and heights of our psychic nature. Its non-
spatial universe conceals an untold abundance of images which have accumulated over millions of
years of living development and become fixed in the organism . . . And these images are not pale
shadows, but tremendously powerful psychic factors . . . Beside this picture I would like to place the
spectacle of the starry heavens at night, for the only equivalent of the universe within is the
universe without.”— C.G. Jung.78
From 1700 to 1900 astrology faced huge challenges and its premises were undermined by
scientific discourse. By the 1900s astrology was being studied anew, thanks to a growing
interest in esoteric sciences promoted by organizations such as the Theosophists and the
74
v=AWDq6zJVX34&t=983s, 1:12:14-1:13:50
75
76
Brennan, ibid., 1:24:10-1:27:10
77
Brennan, ibid., 1:27:10-1:28:20
78
Jung, Collected Works 4, paragraph 764
18
mystical order of the Golden Dawn.79 Joscelyn Godwin identified three types of astrologer in
the 19th century, (1) those who aspired to be recognized as scientists; (2) those with a religious
approach; (3) and those who are drawn to the occult, magic and spiritualism.80 In the 20th
century traditional astrology was largely replaced by modern astrology.81 Modern astrologers
intended to revive astrology by applying science, psychology, and human potential
movements to it, as well as adapting it to a modern audience. Many of the methodologies
utilized in traditional astrology were discarded and in its newest form astrology is
distinguished by its emphasis on character analysis and psychological insight. 82 Psychology – a
science that only came into existence in the 20th century – took over as an interpretative
model of astrology.83 Depth psychology and the psychology of Freud and Jung were popular
in this time and astrologers like Dane Rudhyar or Liz Greene wanted to incorporate their
theories into their astrology. Greene, for example, holds a doctorate in psychology, history,
and is a qualified Jungian analyst. She has been instrumental in shaping modern psychological
astrology, and synthesized the theories of Jung and astrology. 84 An example of this is her
work “Relating: An Astrological Guide to Living With Others on a Small Planet”, in which she uses
astrological concepts in a framework of Jungian psychology to show how people relate to one
another.85 Astrology was an interest of Jung for most of his life.86 In his “Dream Analysis”
(1929) he states that: “Astrology was the first form of psychology, which is an extremely
young science, dating from the end of the nineteenth century only.”87 Other prominent
psychological astrologers and authors who cite Jung as an authority include Stephen Arroyo,
Karen Hamaker-Zondag, Alice O., and Richard Tarnas. These astrologers each have their
unique way of mixing Jung’s thought in relation to astrology.88 This is another feature of
modern astrologers, their syncretic approach, they combine ideas from various metaphysical
schools, but for example, also Indian astrology or a financial market interest. To illustrate this,
79
Warnock, Traditional Astrology, https://www.renaissanceastrology.com/traditionalastrology.html
(accessed April 28, 2022)
80
81
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Traditional Astrology,
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Traditional_Astrology (accessed April 26, 2022)
82
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Modern Astrology
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Modern_Astrology (accessed April 26, 2022)
83
Warnock, ibid.
84
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Liz Greene, https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Liz_Greene
(accessed April 27, 2002)
85
Greene, Relating: An Astrological Guide to Living With Others on a Small Planet, passim
86
Rossi, Jung on Astrology, p.2
87
Rossi, ibid., p.23
88
Rossi, ibid., p.6
19
the astrologer Maren Altman (1.3 million followers on TikTok) talks about cryptocurrency and
relates it to astrology.89
This eclectic approach results in that there is no single unified modern astrology but a range
of practices and techniques. A distinction between modern- and traditional astrology is their
position on the question: does astrology presupposes a fatalistic view (determinism) or do
people have choices even when there are certain celestial influences? Traditional astrology’s
more deterministic statements are opposed by modern astrology’s emphasis on free will.90 By
the 1990s some astrologers were unhappy with modern astrology’s disregard of historical
foundations, lack of structure, and overly optimistic view of human perfectibility. This can be
a reason that traditional astrology is gaining appeal today, as a mixture of different historical
techniques with a clear foundation.91 In Germany some astrologers of the 20th century coined
the term revised astrology (revidierte astrologie) to describe their modification of traditional
astrology. Revised astrology impacted many branches of modern astrology, particularly
89
Marenaltman, TikTok, https://www.tiktok.com/@marenaltman/video/7101007599172308270?
is_copy_url=1&is_from_webapp=v1&refer=embed&referer_url=https%3A%2F%2Fizea.com
%2F&referer_url=https%3A%2F%2Fizea.com%2Fresources%2Fastrology-influencers-tiktok
%2F&referer_video_id=7061801057655000367 (accessed June 25, 2022)
90
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Modern Astrology, Astrodienst Astrowiki,
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Modern_Astrology (accessed May 23, 2022)
91
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Traditional Astrology,
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Traditional_Astrology (accessed April 26, 2022)
20
psychological astrology.92 Another branch is spiritual astrology, which is a term for natal
astrology that uses the horoscope to develop the individual’s awareness of the soul or
enlightenment. Which resonates with the Egyptian concept, that influenced Hellenistic
astrology, in which the soul could ascend to the stars. Some spiritual astrologers operate
within a religious worldview, and combine astrology with other practices and belief systems,
such as theosophy, numerology, tarot or kabbalah.93 At last worth mentioning is a revival of
the most known type of modern astrology, populist astrology or sun-sign astrology. Here we
see generalized statements for each sign of the zodiac based on people’s birthday, mostly
used in magazines (an example of ELLE is in the picture down below94), newspapers, and
hyped in digital culture.95
Ch.2 The sacred landscape of Dutch society.

In this section, I look at some of the recent developments in the beliefs, practices and
identities in contemporary Dutch society, and how this reflects in the online astrology
92
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Revised Astrology,
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Revised_Astrology (accessed April 26, 2022)
93
Astrodienst Astrowiki, https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Spiritual_Astrology (accessed April 26,
2022)
94
Astrotwins, Sagittarius Weekly Horoscope, ELLE, June 26, 2022
https://www.elle.com/horoscopes/daily/a105/sagittarius-daily-horoscope/
95
Astrodienst Astrowiki, https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Populist_Astrology (accessed April 26,
2022)
21
community. There are seven important factors that changed the sacred landscape of the
Netherlands, (1) the relocation of the sacred (from an outside authority, seen in organized
religion, to the deeper layers of the self) which led to (2) a focus on the individual instead of
the community and a consequent sacralization of the self. (3) The New Age movement caused
a spread in beliefs and practices tied to what is referred to as spirituality today, and
popularized concepts such as (4) karma and reincarnation. (5) A new cultural category arose,
the “spiritual but not religious”, and their ideas overlap with the ethos of the online astrology
community. (6) Digital culture is the most important way of transmission for astrologers today
and made astrology mainstream. (7) At last we will take a look at gender, specifically the
contribution of women to the practice of astrology and how queer astrology is creating an
inclusive form of astrology for people who don’t identify with the binary opposition man and
woman.
1. The relocation of the sacred
Aupers and Houtman claim that what we see today is not a disappearance of religion, but a
relocation of the sacred to ‘the self’.96 The sacred gradually loses its transcendent character
while becoming increasingly immanent and living in the deeper layers of the self.97 In a few
generations the religious landscape of the Netherlands has changed drastically and
transformed from a deeply Christian nation to a post-Christian society.98 According to Kalsky,
in the late 19th and early 20th century only 2% of the Dutch population did not belong to a
church. Nowadays 67.8% of the Dutch citizens indicate they have no affiliation with a church
community and the amount of church members is continuously declining.99 Van Otterloo
remarks that it is commonly accepted that spirituality is increasingly permeating western
culture.100 De Hart adds that societies are constantly changing and with that the
interpretation and experience of the spiritual dimensions of life.101 Kalsky explains that the
change in religious landscape is attributed to processes as secularization and
individualization.102 Drawing upon Huss, the decline in people going to the Christian church is
a studied via the sociology of religion for more than a century. According to the secularization
theory, modernity creates a separation between the secular and religious spheres, resulting in
96
Aupers, Religions of Modernity: Relocating the Sacred to the Self and the Digital, passim
97
Huss, Spirituality: The Emergence of a New Cultural Category and its Challenge to the Religious and
the Secular, p.56
98
Kalsky, Flexible Believers in the Netherlands, p.346
99
Kalsky, ibid., p.345
100
Otterloo, Trajectories to the New Age, p.240
101
Hart, Vragen naar de onbekende weg: godsdienstigheid en nieuwe spiritualiteit, p.22
102
22
the loss of religion. Opponents of this theory believe that modernity does not necessarily
mean the weakening of religion, but offers new adaptations and transformations of religion. 103
The research of Heelas and Woodhead in Kendal, England, revealed that a big amount of
people prefers to call themselves spiritual instead of religious.104 According to Huss,
contemporary spirituality challenges both sides of the secularization debate, and is used by
scholars to refute the secularization thesis, because it cannot be easily defined as either
secular or religious.105 Similarly to Aupers and Houtman, Heelas and Woodhead argue that
religiosity doesn’t disappear, it transforms. They accept that conventional forms of religion,
described as ‘life-as religion’, are indeed declining but assert that these are being replaced by
forms of ‘subjective-life spirituality’. Although they distinguish between religion and spirituality,
they see them both as forms of the sacred.106 Yet if one were to be a devote Christian and
place their authority and trust in the church, astrology wouldn’t be so popular as today. The
catechism of the Catholic Church states that astrology, specifically as a form of divination, is
incompatible with modern Catholic beliefs:
“All forms of divination are to be rejected: recourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up the dead
or other practices falsely supposed to “unveil” the future. Consulting horoscopes, astrology,
palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse
to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other
human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor,
respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone.” 107
I argue that the relocation of the sacred to the deeper layers of the self and the decline in
organized religion contribute to a subjective and experiential attitude, meaning people can
freely experiment with various religious or spiritual belief systems without being accountable
to organized religion, rejecting traditional religious establishments. This opened up a new
sphere, the depths of the individual, where astrology could make an entrance. In the next
paragraph I will look at individualism and how the self got sacralized.
2. Individualism and the sacralization of the self
Houtman tries to explain why there is a decline in churchgoing in the Netherlands, while there
is an uprise in (new age) spirituality.108 He concludes that there are no indications that the
103
the Secular, p.55
104
Heelas, The Spiritual Revolution, p.67 (Kindle)
105
Huss, ibid., p.55
106
Heelas, The Spiritual Revolution, passim
107
Campion, Astrology and Cosmology in the World’s Religions, p.170
108
Houtman, Why do Churches become empty, while New Age grows?, p.455
23
decline in the Christian tradition is being caused by a process of rationalizing, but that this is
caused by an increase of moral individualism; meaning “the granting of moral primacy to
individual liberty.”109 A classic formulation of individualism is offered by Emile Durkheim in
“Individualism and the Intellectuals”:
“Complex, modern societies are characterized by such a diversity of circumstances that
collective beliefs and rites no longer function as cohesive elements. Instead, the
individuality of each person has become the ultimate value.” 110
In his book “Sources of Self” Charles Taylor discusses the emergence of modern identity, in
which ‘the self’ take a crucial place.111 Individualization is a hallmark of modernity and has
given rise to expressive individualism since the 1960s. Individuals are encouraged to discover
and recognize their ‘true self’.112 Van der Braak argues that moral individualism has been
around for a long time, but the move to expressive individualism is new.113 Within this context
of expressive individualism, religious truth claims provided by religious institutions seem
irrelevant, one can only connect to the sacred through deep personal insight.114 Astrology can
be seen as a tool in acquiring personal insight, serving as a form of personal spirituality. In the
online astrology community there is a focus on genethlialogy (i.e. natal astrology), which
describes the lives of individuals on the basis of their birth-charts. The search, discovery and
recognition of the ‘true self’ is evident in the online astrology community, you can find it
everywhere ranging from blogs, websites or social media accounts of astrologers. For
example, in the Instagram post by spiritdaughter on the next page she states: “remember who
the fuck you are”. 115
109
Houtman, ibid., p.459
110
Aupers, Religions of Modernity, p.51
111
Taylor, Sources of the Self: the Making of the Modern Identity, passim.
112
Van der Braak The Rise of Expressive Individualism: Zen as Global Spirituality, p.158
113
Van der Braak, ibid., p.161
114
Van der Braak, ibid., p.159
115
Spiritdaughter, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/CdV3bqRrX9N/, May 9, 2022, (accessed
20 June, 2022)
24
Astroccult (71.9k followers) gives advice on how to “…become our true selves…” and “…
discover ourselves on a deeper level…”116
116
Astroccult, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/Cal2TPArXpU/, March 2, 2022 (accessed 25
June, 2022)
25
From the 1970s onwards, there has been a considerable emphasis on spirituality as the
experience and expression of the inner self.117 According to Dowling in “Encyclopedia of
Religious and Spiritual Development”, astrology can provide insight in the process of self-
discovery. 118 Short memes of zodiac signs can influence or validate a person’s self-concept
and increase or decrease (un)certainty about their personal characteristics, likes or dislikes.
119
It encourages reflection, if you agree with the statements or not, which can enable individuals
to understand themselves better and to be more compassionate towards the behavior of
others. We can see this in the following Instagram post of sistersvillage. 120
The self plays an important role in our overall physical and mental health. It affects the way
we feel, how we look at and feel in our bodies, how we express ourselves, interact with
117
Hart, Vragen naar de onbekende weg: godsdienstigheid en nieuwe spiritualiteit, p.25
118
Dowling, Astrology, p.2
119
Glossy_zodiac, Instagram, June 15, 2022, https://www.instagram.com/p/Ce1SLf4M1qG/ (accessed
June 20, 2022)
120
Sistersvillage, Instagram, February 3, 2022, https://www.instagram.com/p/CK2MSiDHlh7/
(accessed June 20, 2022)
26
others, and it influences our decision making. The ideas we have about ourselves shape our
everyday life as a society, our values, norms, desires and fears. According to Alma, self-
consciousness gives us some prediction about how we’re going to react to our
environment.121 For Taylor, the question of who we are is about orientation in space and time.
Insecurity about our identity can lead to a variety of problems. According to Taylor, we need a
story to give direction to our lives, which includes where we’re coming from, how we ended
up at this point, and what our destination is. The question of a destination is important, but
how do we decide this? Here “the self” and the meaning of life come together.122 The meaning
of life might be unknown, and this has always been a subject of great interest for both ancient
and contemporary societies. Making the unknown known is equivalent to the modern
individual's self-motivation through confidence in the search for meaning.123 Astrology
facilitates in these needs because it provides a story to give direction, meaning and continuity
in life. A description of this story is quite easy to access as well, for example, by filling your
birth details in on the website from Café Astrology.124 According to religion psychologist
Annemarie Foppen, the popularity of astrology can be explained by the low entry level.
“People are very much looking for themselves and why things happen in life. Astrology is an
accessible way and can offer something to hold on to.”125
To conclude, individualism is a core value in Dutch society and the self has become the portal
to connect to the sacred. Modern astrology with its focus on the individual can aid in the
quest of self-discovery. In the next paragraph I will look at the New Age movement and how
that influenced the sacred landscape of Dutch society.
3. The New Age movement
Hanegraaff refers to Luhrmann’s characterization of the New Age:
121
Alma, Het verlangen naar zin: de zoektocht naar resonantie in de wereld p.30
122
Alma, ibid., p.32
123
124
Astrology Café, birth chart entry, https://astro.cafeastrology.com/natal.php (accessed June 25,
2022)
125
NPO, waarom is astrologie zo in trek bij jongeren, January 9, 2021,
https://www.nporadio1.nl/nieuws/cultuur-media/9e5744f1-022a-4988-872e-3283cc355a82/
waarom-is-astrologie-zo-in-trek-bij-jongeren (accessed on April 23, 2022)
27
“a broad cultural ideology, a development of the countercultural sixties, which privileges
holistic medicine, 'intuitive sciences' like astrology and tarot, ecological and anti-nuclear
political issues, and alternative therapies, medicines and philosophers. The 'New Age' has
become a widely accepted catchphrase for this matrix of concerns.”126
Aupers and Houtman add that it refers to an incoherent collection of spiritual ideas and
practices varying from holistic health, reincarnation therapy and spiritual ‘healings’ to
channeling, astrology and (neo) paganism.127 They place its origin in the Renaissance, with the
translation of the “Corpus Hermeticum”, which offered a synthesis of older traditions such as
Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism.128 Within the New Age environment there is a wide range of
views and convictions and it is not a unified ideology. Hanegraaff defines the core
characteristic of the New Age as culture criticism, New Agers disagree on many issues, but
share a fundamental mistrust and dissatisfaction of what they see as Western society’s
dominating institutions and norms.129 The widespread mistrust can be used to explain much of
the New Age discourse. Mistrust results into suspicion, especially against those who are
defined as experts by institutional pillars of society.130 The movement is characterized by a
yearning to re-enchant a rationalistic and materialistic Western civilization. 131 The precursor
for re-enchantment is disenchantment and “the disenchantment of the world”, formulated by
the sociologist Max Weber, can be traced back to the Protestant Reformation. Weber defines
disenchantment as:
“The disenchantment of the world (die Entzauberung der Welt) is the process whereby
magic and spiritual mystery is driven from the world, nature is managed rather than
enchanted, the spiritual loses social significance, and institutions and laws do not depend
on religion for their legitimation.”132
Individualism and rationality have led to the erosion of religion as a communal phenomenon
and to the implausibility of its beliefs. Re-enchantment is not a return to being religious but
rather the emergence of new forms of spirituality and new ways of being religious.133 An
aspect to these new ways is that New Agers are focused on holistic approaches, Hanegraaff
126
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture, p.79
127
Aupers, Religion beyond God, p.3
128
Aupers, ibid., p.7
129
Aupers, Religions of Modernity, p.55
130
Aupers, ibid., p.55
131
Aupers, ibid., p.164
132
Partridge, Alternative Spiritualities, New Religions, and the Reenchantment of the West, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195369649.003.0003
133
28
argues that holism is best defined with reference to what it rejects rather than affirms.134 New
Agers reject dualism in its different manifestations, therapeutic (i.e., separation between body
and spirit), religious (i.e. opposing God as creator against created beings), and ecological (i.e.
opposing man and nature).135 Most New Age authors are explicit about what should be left
behind rather than what will happen once this occurred. Presumably, the goal is a state of
mind in which one is fully conscious of the interconnection with the whole universe. Matthew
Fox describes this as “cosmic consciousness”:
The more and more deeply one sinks into our cosmic existence the more fully one realizes
the truth that there does not exist an inside and an outside cosmos but rather one cosmos:
we are in the cosmos and the cosmos is in us. … All things are interrelated because all
things are microcosms of a macrocosm. And it is all in motion, it is all en route, it is all
moving, vibrant, dancing, and full of surprises.136
New Age holism is also opposed to reductionism: the cosmos is a living organism that cannot
be reduced to solely material processes. This living organism was named after the Gaia, the
Greek Goddess of the earth.137
Gaia serves as inspiration for the name of this social

media account on Instagram.138
In my research I found that New Age holistic ideas also find a place within astrological
practice. For instance Jodie Bergeron, who is an intuitive astrologer, holistic counsellor and
meditation teacher. On her website she states that: “Soul Star Astrology identifies the specific
intentions of an individual's Soul, what it is exploring on the spiral of evolutionary consciousness,
and specifically why the current lifetime has been chosen.” 139
134
135
Hanegraaff, ibid., p.515
136
137
138
Gaiaastrology, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/gaiaastrology/ (accessed June 28, 2022)
139
Bergeron, Soul star astrology, https://www.soulstarastrology.com.au/ (accessed June 27, 2022)
29
Moving past holism, another aspect is that New Age is utterly individualized and subjective. In
“Religions of modernity” Aupers and Houtman remark that subjectivity, intuition and feeling are
seen as the best ways to gain knowledge, the intellect is subordinate. The ultimate goal is also
individualistic: ‘to transform our own selves’. There doesn’t appear to be a serious issue with
the fact that intuitive, individual preferences sometimes lead to contradicting decisions. 140
Thomas Luckmann, in “The Invisible Religion”, witnessed the formation of a market for religious
goods, where individual ‘seekers’ could make their own selections at will. Paul Heelas’
describes the New Age as a detraditionalized “self-religion”, wherein external voices of
authority are (relatively) disregarded. Steve Bruce refers to the eclecticism of the movement
and suggests that “the operating principle of the New Age milieu […] is its almost complete
acceptance of alternative views”. Steven Sutcliffe and Marion Bowman, in “Beyond the New
Age”, see it as a field of modern religious experimentation. 141 However, Durkheim reminds us
that all knowledge is rooted in a social context, and that each person’s spirituality or religion is
a social construction.142 New age ideas don’t emerge from the brains of free-floating
independent beings, but are produced by historically situated people. The voices that
contribute to the discussion of how one could or should construct one’s life include those of
one’s parents, teachers, friends, coworkers, historical figures, therapists, counselors, TV and
other media, pop artists and film stars, various experts, self-help books, and a wide range of
other literature.143 How does one make a choice? In most matters, our ability to check the
facts for ourselves is practically nil, we lack resources or the education and experience of
experts. The option that remains is to take a leap of faith and place our trust in a personal
selection of the many authoritative voices.144 The growth of the New Age movement has
coincided with the creation of new media platforms for the diffusion of information and
lifestyles, platforms that promote public opinion and challenge the institutions that serve as
the main sources of authority. Both personal networks and the media function as effective
spreading channels and a lot of individuals will act as though their close friends and the media
are trustworthy sources. In turn, friends and the media react on practices made by others.
Similar to other religious environments, a tiny group of “religious virtuosi” create, propagate,
and disseminate New Age ideas.145
To conclude, we see that the New Age is a very eclectic diverse cultural ideology that stems
from modernism. People influenced by New Age thought often have a holistic worldview,
140
Aupers, Religions of modernity, p.50
141
Aupers, ibid., p.51
142
Aupers, ibid., p.51
143
Aupers, ibid., p.54
144
Aupers, ibid., p.54-55
145
30
which contradicts the (neoliberal) practical focus on self-development and an almost elitist
attitude towards the people who don’t think like them. New Agers value subjectivity, intuition
and feeling, yet their ideas don’t emerge from free floating brains but are constructed in a
social and cultural context. In the next paragraph I will talk about reincarnation and karma,
two concepts which greatly influenced the current experience of spirituality in the modern
world.
4. Reincarnation and karma
Reincarnation and karma are popular concepts originating in oriental thought, religion and
philosophy. Hanegraaff explains karma as the eastern name for the law, which would be cause
and effect in the west, he himself sees it as ‘equalization’. Hanegraaff explains it as: “What you
have sown, what you have done in thought, word and deed has an effect and that effect will in turn
be felt by you.”146 Reincarnation has attracted interest as an answer to the question of life after
death, in particular a certain model that was developed by the theosophical society.147 Key
figures are Helena Blavatsky (1831-1891), the founder of the Theosophical Society (1875),
the “American transcendentalists” (of whom Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) is probably
best known), and American “beatniks” like Jack Kerouac, Alan Watts, and Allen Ginsberg in
the 1950s and 1960s.148 Wojtkowiak observes that in the Netherlands there is a decline in
traditional Christian beliefs about the afterlife (i.e. bodily resurrection). On the other hand,
there is an increase in beliefs about reincarnation, which include uncertainty and an openness
to metaphysical explanations, as well as an understanding of the ‘soul’. She concludes that,
(even an uncertain) spirituality may be comforting for dealing with death and the questions
one may have surrounding death.149 That reincarnation and karma have become popular ideas
shows how the decline of Christianity opened up space for alternatives.150 Beliefs in a soul
that persists after the death “allows for the possibility of remaining in contact with the
deceased.” Spirituality offers a coping resource for dealing with death.151 Karmic astrology is a
branch of astrology based on the concepts of reincarnation and karma. Horoscopes are
supposed to help us recognize the effects of karma from past lives, how those effects our
146
147
Aupers, ibid., p.52
148
Aupers, ibid., p.7
149
Wojtkowiak, Sensing the dead, p.162
150
Bruce, Secular Beats Spiritual: The Westernization of the Easternization of the West, p.17
151
Park, Religion and Spirituality in Adjusting to Bereavement, p.359
31
present life and our future lives.152 Sistersvillage offers us an example on how this manifest in
the online astrology community. 153
According to Hanegraaff, a fact on which everyone seems to agree is that New Agers answer
the question of survival after death in terms of reincarnation. Reincarnation is seen as
progressive spiritual evolution which is considered to start before birth and continues beyond
death.154 Reincarnation seems plausible because it’s a logical implication of a presupposed
worldview New Agers generally have. A worldview in which spiritual evolution is seen as an
‘educational journey’ through successive ‘realities.’155 To conclude, the concepts karma,
reincarnation and astrology reinforce belief in one another through the integration of these
concepts in the astrological tradition and therefore mutual affirmation. In the next paragraph I
will talk about the group of people who identifies as ‘spiritual but not religious’, influenced by
New Age thought.
5. Spiritual but not religious (SBNR)
152
Astrodienst Astrowiki contributors, Karmic Astrology, December 1, 2021,
https://www.astro.com/astrowiki/en/Karmic_Astrology (accessed June 14, 2022)
153
Sistersvillage, Instagram, August 10, 2021, https://www.instagram.com/p/CSaKuW0BjX-/ (accessed
June 15, 2022)
154
155
32
As Charles Taylor describes in “A Secular Age” many people of secularized European countries
have become ‘spiritual pilgrims.’156 The increase in people who identify as SBNR is part of
what Charles Taylor described in 1991 with the massive subjective turn of modern culture.
“‘The turn' is shorthand for a major cultural shift of which we all have sonic experience. It is
a turn away from life lived in terms of external or ‘objective’ roles, duties and obligations,
and a turn towards life lived by reference to one's own subjective experiences (relational as
much as individualistic).”157
According to Kalsky, the Netherlands is a good example of the ‘spiritual pilgrimage’, 28% of
the Dutch believe in ‘something’ in 2008. In favor of a more experiential and subjective
spirituality many of these ‘unaffiliated spirituals’ abandoned organized and normative religious
institutes.158 Yet religion has not vanished but aspects from various religious traditions serve
as a source of spiritual inspiration, resulting in transreligious ways of living.159 Wojtkowiak
adds that in the pluralistic postmodern Western culture the labels spiritual, religious and
secular are complicated and not mutually incompatible. Although the majority of the Dutch
population do not consider themselves religious and are not connected to any religious
institution, this does not imply that people are not spiritual or religious. Surveys provide a
diversified picture of Dutch culture, among those who aren’t connected to a religious
institute, 20% describe themselves as religious and 25% as spiritual.160 The Dutch will no
longer be told what, or how to believe.161 Van der Braak describes this age as the emergence
of a postmodern ‘liquid’ self, inspired by the German sociologist Bauman who spoke of “liquid
modernity.” Van der Braak remarks that “The buffered self with its fixed identity, has become the
liquid self that is the result of an ever-changing process of identification.” 162 The principle of panta
rhei, the fluidity and multiplicity of being become important. Life is seen as an ever-changing
process that takes shape as people encounter things along the road.163 This has changed the
function that religion plays in secularized societies, it’s clear that the individual becomes more
important than any religious authority.164 Astrology doesn’t rely on any religious dogma’s,
doesn’t have one canonical form, is focused on personal experience, open to interpretation
and astrology is changeable to its audience. This fits right in the ethos of the SBNR.
156
Taylor, A Secular Age, passim
157
Heelas, The Spiritual Revolution, p.88 (Kindle)
158
Kalsky, Flexible Believers in the Netherlands, p.346
159
160
Wojtkowiak, Sensing the dead, p.160
161
162
Van der Braak, The Rise of Expressive Individualism, p.159
163
164
33
Scientific research hasn’t led to a commonly accepted definition of spirituality.165 The term
underwent a discursive change in the second half of the twentieth century, particularly in the
last decades. It became widely used and its meaning changed radically, although it is difficult
to categorize spirituality and many claim that it is an ambiguous term, there are some common
features in contemporary understandings and applications.
“(1) Wade Clark Roof observes that themes encompassed in spirituality today include:
a source of values and meaning beyond oneself, a way of understanding, inner
awareness, and personal integration.
(2) According to Fuller, spirituality is viewed as a journey which is intimately linked

with the pursuit of personal growth and development.
(3) Robert Forma observed that spirituality (according to interviews with participants
in what he calls the ‘grassroots spirituality’ movement) points to the intuitive, non-
rational meditative side of ourselves, the side that strives for inner and outer
connection and a sense of wholeness.”166
Spirituality is defined differently in modern and pre-modern times, to a certain degree the
concept is the same in its previous mention of the essence of religion, the metaphysical and
non-physical aspects of existence. Yet spirituality today is also connected to physical, material
and secular aspects of life. It loosens its relationship with organized religion and is according
to Huss often described as the binary opposition of religion. According to Robert Wuthnow,
“the most significant impact of the 1960’s for many people’s understanding of spirituality was a
growing awareness that spirituality and organized religion are different and indeed, might run in
opposite directions”167 The term ‘spiritual, but not religious’ is clear in their opposition, although
spirituality can be considered as a component or type of religion.168 Huss regards spirituality
as a new discursive construct, a new cultural category, rather than a universal constant
domain that exists in all cultures.169 This category can be used to categorize and analyze
human behavior in the past and present.170 As Aupers and Houtman state, contemporary
spirituality is socially constructed, transmitted, and reinforced.171 According to Mercadante, a
characteristic of the SBNR is that they assert “mystical perennialism” – the assumption that
165
De Hart, Vragen naar de onbekende weg: godsdienstigheid en nieuwe spiritualiteit, p.23
166
the Secular, p.49
167
Huss, ibid., p.50
168
Huss, ibid., p.52
169
Huss, ibid., p.53
170
the Secular, p.52
171
Aupers, Beyond the Spiritual Supermarket, p.219
34
the deep spiritual experience of mystics from various religions is a similar experience of the
Ultimate. They have a great interest in “ancient wisdom” which supposedly predates
organized religion.172 Perennialists believe that all religions refer to the same esoteric truth,
that the existence of a divine core is found in the deeper layers of the self. According to
Aupers:
“They can speak about a ”higher self” (derived from Blavatsky’s Theosophy), a “divine spark”
(from ancient Gnosticism), a “Buddha self” (from Buddhism), an “inner child” (from
humanistic psychology) or even delve into Christian vocabularies when they talk about the
inner self as “the soul.”173
We also see examples of this in the astrology community, for example in the post below.174
Park adds that: “For many individuals spirituality underlies their general approach to life and forms
the system of meaning through which they experience and understand the world and operate on a
daily basis, making the universe seem benign, safe, just, coherent, and, ultimately, controllable.” 175
Institutions connected to the domains of religion and science don’t suffice as authorities that
provide meaning or guidance in life. In science astronomers look at physical properties, while
to a contemporary astrologer the most important thing is meaning based on metaphor and
mythology.176 Stephanie Clement is a professional astrologer for 25 years and a board
172
Mercadante, How does it fit? Multiple Religious Belonging, Spiritual but not Religious, and the
Dances of Universal Peace, p.11
173
Aupers, Religion beyond God, p.5
174
Staralignedalchemy, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/CePTK87AXgS/ , June 1, 2022,
(accessed June 24, 2022)
175
Park, Religion and Spirituality in Adjusting to Bereavement, p.358
176
35
member of the American Federation of Astrologers. She writes on her blog “The Mythology
of Astrology”, that astrology has a strong mythological component, the constellations are
figures from ancient mythology – for example, Jupiter is related to Zeus.177 In “Mythic
Astrology Applied”, Ariel Guttman and Ken Johnson explain myths as stories that serve as a
means of understanding. Important is the notion that right-brain thinking techniques like
storytelling, imagery, mythology, and visualization are seeing a peak revival in contemporary
society.178
To conclude, influenced by New Age thought we see that the SBNR has eclectic and
individualistic features, they move away from dominant religious or scientific institutions and
dogma’s, and focus on a personal spirituality. This links up with the common perception of
astrology which is focused on the individual and personal (spiritual) growth. I will now go
further into how astrology’s growth developed in parallel with the development of digital
culture.
6. Digital culture
Pınarbaşı remarks that astrology’s popularity grew since the second half of the 20th century in
parallel with the growing mass media. Astrology is one of the most trending products of
popular culture, popping up in magazines, newspapers, books, TV programs, video broadcasts,
hotlines and social media.179 A digital ecosystem has been created as a result of the
convergence of technologies such as websites, computer programs, digital photography,
video-audio blogs, wikis, file sharing systems, open-source software and social media. With
the development of digital technology, astrology, which appears to be a component of New
Age beliefs and activities under the aegis of new religious movements, had a significant
increase in market share.180 Before the invention of the internet, newspapers were crucial in
the promotion of astrology. For instance, a turning moment for newspapers occurred in 1930
when the Sunday Express published an astrological chart to celebrate the birth of Princess
Margeret that attracted a lot of attention. One month after his initial research, Naylor made
the prediction that contributed to astrology’s present level of popularity. In his daily analysis,
Naylor foresaw an aviation mishap involving a British aircraft, and that exact day, a British
R101 aircraft crashed. Thus, the public becomes very interest in the astrology’s prophetic
177
Clement, The Mythology of Astrology, https://www.llewellyn.com/journal/article/640 (accessed
June 30, 2022)
178
Clement, ibid.
179
180
Pınarbaşı, ibid., p.89
36
component.181 By the middle of the 1980s, The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal
were regularly covering astrology as a part of popular culture because to President Regan and
his wife’s regular meetings with astrologers. These “serious” newspapers produced dozens of
pieces.182 Astrology has also been the subject of innumerable books that contributed to the
popularity of astrology, before the invention of the internet, Helena Blavatsky's “Theosophical
Society” and “Isis Unveiled” (1877), Jesse Stearn's “A Time for Astrology” (1971) and Linda
Goodman's “Sun Signs” (1975). These books were followed by Ruth Montgomery’s “A Gift of
Prophesy” (1988), which sold 260,000 hardcover copies and 2,800,000 paperback copies.183
Astrology has been used as an example of how television, which has long been recognized as
a powerful media medium, may transfer items from popular culture to daily life. With the rise
of television in the West and the expanding influence of the film industry, astrology and New
Age material, which were declared as superstitions by modern science, began drawing
attention. Movies like the Matrix and the Harry Potter series set a new trend with their use of
supernatural and irrational elements.184 In “Alternative Spiritualities, New Religions, and the
Reenchantment of the West”, Partridge argues that religious and metaphysical ideas are
explored in literature, film, and video games. It is an important source of inspiration for occult,
metaphysical, New Age belief systems and more generally alternative spirituality. 185 Another
important development is the invention of the internet, websites have taken on a significant
role in the generation and dissemination of astrological knowledge. Websites are a cheap and
appealing way of transmission since they provide the convenience of publishing without the
need for printing, distribution monopolies, and the approval and permission of governmental
agencies.186 Furthermore, the tools of astrological calculations have changed with the
invention of computers and programs. Which makes it easier for anyone to become an
astrologer, since you don’t need extensive knowledge of astronomy and difficult calculations,
instead you can choose to rely on a certain website or computer program.187 In the 1980s
Astro Flash was the first computer program that was introduced, other programs are
Canopus, Kepler 7.0, Janus 4.3, Astrolog 5.41, Solar Fire, Skyglobe and Winstar. 188 Examining
the relationship between astrology and the media further, Pınarbaşı argues that: “the main
goal of the media is to ensure the acceptance and continuity of the consumption order based on
181
182
183
184
Pınarbaşı, ibid. p.89
185
186
187
188
37
profitability.” For instance, items like Himalayan salt, natural stones, incense etc. have been
integrated into astrology and transformed into requirements in cultures where they had no
place. It appears as though a market for occult healing has emerged.189 Numerous topics are
combined with astrology and occupy their positions in newspaper columns, such as nutrition
diets or fashion based on the zodiac signs. These pages, which highlight current trends and
stylish goods, benefit the capitalist industry, which seeks to increase sales and profits.190 Since
the advent of the mainstream media, astrology has continued to be an item of commerce in its
different manifestations. A market has been produced and perhaps the most important item
on this market that is being traded is the prediction of the future.191
Taking a turn away from the commercial aspects of astrology that come with mass media
distribution, Aupers and Houtman point out religious and spiritual aspects that accompanied
the emergence of digital culture and technology. These ideas don’t place astrology in a
capitalistic frame, but rather, as I argue, make astrology part of a ‘digital spirituality’ for the
masses. In the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1990s, an expression of cyber-spirituality is the
belief that as information accumulated on the internet, cyberspace itself became the
manifestation of the collective higher consciousness. In the 1970s this collective
consciousness was referred to as Gaia, proposed by James Lovelock in the 1960s. The belief
that the planet genuinely is a living creature with a higher awareness was absorbed into the
worldview of spiritual seekers, and in the early 1990s they conceptualized the internet as the
“final stage in the development of Gaia, the living being that is the Earth, for which humans serve
as neurons.”192 It is important to consider the internet’s content in the context of the social and
cultural environment in which technology and science have become natural forces of
existence. The celebration of the sacred through science and technology (and vice versa)
shows how the sacred is accessed in contemporary Western culture.193 Aupers and Houtman
support the claim made by academics, that social behavior, discourse and the religious realm
are intertwined. It becomes clear that religious (or spiritual) iconography may serve as both a
source of inspiration for technological development and can frame experiences of
technology-use. They remark that:
189
190
191
192
193
38
“The sacred and the technological are being co-constituted in each other’s image. This co-
constitution implies a simultaneous secularization of the sacred and a sacralization of
technology.”194
The idea is that technologies such as the internet can bring New Age salvation, by
“hardwiring” Gaia, “reinventing” sacred spaces, or by bringing people ‘back in touch’ with their
true self. Such narratives theoretically base digital technology in a primal, transcendent
dimension of existence.195
To conclude, the development of digital culture resulted in the mass distribution of

astrological knowledge. Capitalism contributed to astrology being sold as a market product
and practice in a variety of ways. Yet spiritual ideas about the internet don’t view digital
culture as merely a means to distribute products, but as an accumulation of knowledge which
reflects the social and cultural context of society. In the next paragraph I will look at gender,
the contribution of women in the field of astrology and how queer astrology is developing
astrology to be more inclusive, adapting it to a modern audience, which can attract more
followers.
7. Gender
According to statistics women represent a very sizeable part of the New Age movement. 196
Religion has declined across Europe and this decline has accelerated greatly since the 1960s.
In most churches in both Europe and America, women outnumber men by a ratio of around
3:2, making them more religious than men on every index of commitment. Today’s average
European churchgoer is an elderly woman. Women seem to be leaving churches at a quicker
pace than men as well during the past decades, and this is true for both those who leave
when they are young and those who leave when they are older. In the “alternative” spiritual
movements that have grown in popularity since the late 1980s, such as New Age, holistic
treatments, and neopaganism, women outweigh males. Women made up 80% of the
individuals interested in spirituality, as clients and practitioners, according to research
Woodhead conducted in England between 2000 and 2002, and there are signs that this
degree of prevalence may not be unusual.197 Jespers shows us that the visitors for psychic
fairs in the Netherlands mainly consist of women from the working class.198 In the 42
194
195
196
Aupers, ibid., p.56
197
Woodhead, Gendering Secularization Theory, p.190
198
Jespers, The Paranormal Market in the Netherlands: New Age and Folk Religion, p.1
39
interviews from van Otterloo to the ‘first generation’ New Agers, two thirds of the
respondents were women.199 The World Values Surveys research by Houtman and Aupers
(2008) reveals a significant relationship between female gender and spiritual affinities. 200 It
seems that much of the growth in (new age) spirituality is due to female participation. In the
field of knowledge and science, “feminine” principles had to be subjected to “masculine”
principles. Thus, experimental knowledge, corresponding to reason, was more important than
spiritual knowledge. According to Sandra Harding systematically examining the effects of
gender identity and behavior on the actual practice of science, such as presenting emotion
and rationality as “typically” feminine or masculine, is an important task.201 As we’ve seen in
the many examples of social media accounts, astrology is closely related to spirituality.
Spirituality was/is referred to as a “feminine” principle as well as emotion and intuition,
something not to be associated with “masculine” logical science, such as reason and unbiased
perception. Much of the growth of astrology’s popularity seems to be due to the interest and
participation of female astrologers.202 Hypothetically speaking, men affirm their masculinity by
behaving masculinely, being interested in emotion, intuition or spirituality confirms (in this
view) femininity. This could contribute to the fact that fewer men than women participate in
practices such as astrology, namely because humans have been habilitated like this for
centuries. If we move beyond the binary opposition of male and female, queer astrology
rethinks masculine and feminine gender construct. According to Smith today’s astrological
movement is led by the queer left. Queer astrology has emerged as an anti-traditionalist,
anticonservative mode of rethinking human biography in community. It is removed from the
heteronormative model of mainstream culture. The queer astrological model of self-
understanding and self-analysis is not constrained by biological paradigms of scientific
“fact”.203 A community-driven astrology is emerging from the social media accounts of its
practitioners and followers, taking on a self-reflexive shape that is starting to turn it into a
critical and sometimes poetical practice. This form of modern astrology has become a
source of vocabulary and thought-shapes, even a kind of supplementary practice for

political activity, especially among queer-identifying people and their supporters.
Examples of this are Chani Nicholas’ website, Instagram, and the Twitter account of
199
van Otterloo, Trajectories to the New Age, p.241
200
Woodhead, Spirituality, Gender, and Expressive Selfhood, p.260
201
Leezenberg, Wetenschapsfilosofie voor Geesteswetenschappen, p.332
202
That there are more female- than male astrologers becomes visible when we take a look at the
owners of the social media accounts which have astrology has their topic, most websites that offer
astrological readings are from women, and the columns in magazines and newspapers are mostly
written by female astrologers. This is not proving that there are no male astrologers, there are, but they
are significantly less than female astrologers.
203
Smith, Queer political Astrology, p.103
40
@poetastrologers. Astrology has been variably defined as a “shorthand” social jargon for
millennials and LGBTQ people; as a worldview and vocabulary that are the enemy of
"straight men"; as a relational system whose core logic is idealized to fit into the “meme”
space; and as a language of "power and magic" for claiming the "predestination" of
selfhoods.204 The next examples are from interviews posted on Refinery29, a creative global
platform and media company focused on young women. The interviewer and writer of the
piece is Erika Smith, who exemplifies that queer and gender non-conforming people who
explore astrology for the first time often come up against gendered concepts that exclude
them. For instance, compatibility guides designed for cis straight couples or articles that
differentiate between female and male zodiac signs. According to Smith this is why modern
astrologers are working to change astrology’s view on gender, in order to make the field more
inclusive. Anna Joy, a professional astrologer and host of the podcast Queer, said: “I started to
feel really alienated and ostracized by the gendered language in both witchcraft and astrology.
Then I thought, there’s no reason I can’t explore and translate this in a way that includes myself
and my queer and trans siblings.” Instead of seeing certain zodiac signs as male or female, Anna
Joy now sees a feminine sign as a receptive sign and masculine signs as an outward-going
energy. Jessica Lanyadoo, author of “Astrology For Real Relationships”, has been practicing
since the 1990s and worked within the queer community of which she is a part. For her to
really understand a chart you have to look at more than their sun sign or gender, which is
more expansive than male and female. She remarks that: “Astrology guides that heavily
emphasize gender came about because of who traditionally had power in astrology, cis straight
white men.”
Ofstarsandmyth also argues against gender in astrology, since astrology was there before the
conceptualization of gender.205
204
Smith, Queer political Astrology, p.104
205
Ofstarsandmyth, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/CNtLGs-n0ta/, April 16, 2021 (accessed
June 28, 2022)
41
Chani Nicholas had been practicing astrology since the 1990s, her first book “You Were Born
For This: Astrology For Radical Self-Acceptance” came out in 2020. She remarks: “I come to
astrology as a queer person. My queerness informs my astrological knowledge. I know from my
lived experience how damaging is/heteronormativity is, I want us to expand every aspect of our
society beyond the gender binary. Since astrology is my field, I use it to question narrow
perceptions of gender, race, class, ability, etc.”206 This exemplifies how queer astrology is used to
question normative constructions in society.
To conclude, women outnumber men in their contribution to the popularity of astrology. This
has historical reasons, for example in the way we viewed gender and what kind of qualities
we ascribe to them. Queer astrology serves as an example of how astrology is developed and
adapted to make it more inclusive to a modern audience. In the next chapter I will look at the
postmodern society.
206
Smith, Traditional Astrology Is Very Gendered. These Astrologers Are Rethinking That, Last updated:
January 1, 2020, https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/queer-astrology-gender-identity (accessed June
10, 2022)
42
Ch. 3 Postmodern society
I will now look at the context of the postmodern capitalist Dutch society and how in that
context of postmodernity astrology and other forms of spirituality can be and have been
commodified. I will go into the meaning of the postmodern, relations to scientific revolutions
and sociological accounts of the liquidity of postmodernism. I will put this all together to show
how current Dutch society is susceptible to a commercialized spiritual experience. In the
second part of this section, I discuss the topics of science and psychology in relation to the
meaning of astrology.
1. Postmodernism and capitalism
In “The postmodern assault on science” Kuntz argues that the scientific worldview and scientific
realities are attacked by postmodernist thought. This can be traced back to Friedrich
Nietzsche, who said in “The Will to Power”:
“In so far as the word ‘knowledge’ has any meaning, the world knowable; but it is
interpretable otherwise, it has no meaning behind it, but countless meanings.”
Drawing on Nietzsche, but also Paul Feyerabend (Against Method) and Thomas Kuhn (The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions), Kuntz explores the question: “if science is not a gradual
process of accumulation of knowledge, but rather subject to sudden “revolutions” that overwhelm
outdated theories, how can one trust scientific knowledge?” Shawn Lawrence Otto discussed in
his book, “Fool Me Twice: Fighting the Assault on Science in America” that ‘relativism' and its
attacks on the validity and authority of science gained a strong moral influence, first in post-
Second World War America and then in Europe. According to postmodern philosophy, there
is no universal truth, hence each social or political group should be entitled to the reality that
best fits them. Risk assessment provides examples of how postmodernist thinking corrupts
the role of science in the public sphere. Scientific authorities are challenged by
postmodernism on the scientific method and its applicability, in addition to questions about
the competence and integrity of their specialists.207 Aupers and Houtman add that the ability
of science to legislate truth has gradually diminished.208 According to them, the
disenchantment of the world through the decline in religion, and the emphasis on reason and
rationality in modernity, has evolved in a re-enchantment of the world in postmodernity.
Zygmunt Bauman comments that “postmodernity (…) brings ‘re-enchantment’ of the world after
207
Kuntz, The postmodern assault on science, DOI: 10.1038/embor.2012.130
208
Aupers, Religion beyond God: Relocating the Sacred, p.2
43
the protracted and earnest, though in the end inconclusive, modern struggle to dis-enchant it.” The
increased popularity of New Age, Paganism, Wicca, and in our case, astrology, is an indication
of this re-enchantment of the world.209 Postmodernism is also related to the development of
late, post-industrial, global capitalism. David Harvey’s argument in “The Condition of
Postmodernity” is that: “there is a relation between the rise of postmodernist culture forms, the
emergence of more flexible modes of capital accumulation, and a new round of ‘time–space
compression’ in the organization of capitalism.” 210
The philosopher Fredric Jameson characterized postmodernism as the cultural logic of late
capitalism.211 Huss remarks that the practical approach of spirituality, as a way of growth and
improving one’s life, with an emphasis on practices such as meditation and healing rather than
on doctrines, is part of the postmodern decline of belief in grand narratives. Self-spirituality is
a product of the late capitalist cultural transition, away from the collective norms and values
in the 1950s and 1960s, toward a more competitive individualism as the central value. The
New Age business is a consequence of spirituality’s integration with capitalism’s economic
structure. The postmodern commercialization of culture includes the development of the
contemporary spiritual market and the commodity of New Age beliefs and cultural items.
Contemporary spirituality is included in the postmodern cultural productions that are ruled by
the market.212 Sophia Rose examines mysticism historically as a concept invented in Western
academia and theoretically in its function as an arm of capitalism. The concern here is the
latter in which mysticism and spirituality are used to sell products, practices and
experiences.213 Astrology is one of the items being sold in this spiritual marketplace, this was
already referred to in the section “digital culture” of this thesis. To add another example, the
Cosmopolitan offers an overview for Christmas gifts related to astrology: (1) an online
astrology course; (2) a mindful and millionaire cart deck; (3) a Coucou Club amethyst face
roller; (4) bed sheets with the astrology theme; (5) a zodiac beauty blender for make-up; (6) a
moonstone hairclip; (7) an amethyst drink bottle, (8) the star lights oracle cards; (9) Astro
dices; (10) a poster of a personal birth-chart; (11) a black velvet bag with stars embroidery;
(12) a 2022 astrology diary; (13) a sleeping mask with astrology theme; and, (14) ‘sun and
stars’ nightwear.214 Many of these items are used as beauty or fashion products, not strictly
209
Aupers, Religion beyond God: Relocating the Sacred, p.3
210
Kuntz, The postmodern assault on science, DOI: 10.1038/embor.2012.130
211
Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, p.53
212
Huss, ibid., p.54
213
Rose, Buying Buddha, selling Rumi: Orientalism and the mystical marketplace, p.8
214
Spoor, Dit zijn de beste kerstcadeaus voor astrologie fans, 2021,
https://www.cosmopolitan.com/nl/lifestyle/g34874720/kerstcadeau-astrologie/ (accessed April 29,
2022)
44
astrological, which shows us how people express themselves and their interest for astrology
through material objects.
So, we see that within a context of postmodern capitalist society, which the Dutch society is,
commodification and commercialization of spirituality and astrology is apparent. I will now
discuss the relation of science and psychology to the meaning of astrology for its practitioners
and followers.
2. Science and psychology
“Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and the
more steadily we reflect on them: the starry heavens above and the moral law within.” – Immanuel
Kant.215
Dean et al. argue that empirical studies have consistently shown that: “(1) Astrology does not
deliver any useful factual truth; (2) the as above so below links claimed by astrologers does not
exist; (3) birth charts are meaningful but so are wrong charts; and (4) outcomes of chart
readings are entirely explained by motivated reasoning and hidden persuaders.”216
Psychological factors can contribute to the ‘realness’ of an astrological reading, such as the
Barnum effect which occurs when individuals believe that personality descriptions apply
specifically to them, the confirmations bias which is the tendency to interpret information in a
way that confirms one’s prior beliefs or values, and cold reading, a method that is used to give
the impression to know something while knowing very little about the person. Many scientists
believed that people would move away from astrological beliefs with scientific proof.
However, the study of our contemporary culture shows us this is not the case. Astrology’s
appeal does not necessarily come from its empirical truth. For astrology to be meaningful it
does not need to be true, so there is more to astrology than being true or false.217 It offers
people what science does not: “a psychologically meaningful link between the individual and the
cosmos.”218 Traditionally, in a birth chart reading the astrologer would talk and the client
listens. Today, at least in the West, the astrologer and client explore the chart together in a
discussion. This discussion style started in the 1960s in the person-centered astrology
promoted by Dane Rudhyar (1895-1985), a disciple of Alice Bailey (1880-1949), in response
to the inability of traditional astrology in the U.S. to meet spiritual needs.219 Astrologers are
increasingly using the birth chart as a tool to stimulate therapy, healing and self-reflection
215
Campion, A History of Medieval Astrology: Volume 2, preface: p.9
216
217
Dean, ibid., p.30
218
Dean, ibid., p.31
219
Dean, Astrology as a Spiritual Belief System, p.31-32
45
through conversation. This strategy cannot fail since every chart will always include more
components than are required to describe something. The psychologist Carl Jung states in his
letter to B.V. Raman on September 6, 1947:
“In cases of difficult psychological diagnosis, I usually get a horoscope in order to have a
further point of view from an entirely different angle. I must say that I very often found that
the astrological data elucidated certain points which I otherwise would have been unable to
understand.”220
The trick is to select a component that matches the client’s situation and then exploit that to
encourage conversation regardless of what other factors imply.221 According to Anne Anastasi
and Suzana Urbina in “Psychological Testing”:
“Most projective techniques represent an effective means “for breaking the ice” during the
initial contacts between clinician [i.e., therapist] and client. The task is usually intrinsically
interesting and often entertaining. It tends to divert the individual’s attention away from
herself or himself and this reduces embarrassment and defensiveness.”222
According to the following Instagram post from lookupthestarsastro this is what your birth
chart can tell you. 223
It seems that people are less concerned with accuracy than emotional, recreational or spiritual
benefits. The value of astrology then lies in the expansion it can bring to your awareness and
understanding of self and others, through new perspectives, which are the result from
exploration of the birth-chart. The skill of the therapist is important, and a second opinion is
220
Rossi, Jung on astrology, p.26
221
Dean, ibid., p.32
222
Dean, ibid., p.33
223
Lookupthestarsastro, Instagram, https://www.instagram.com/p/Ce1RNBPrSig/ (accessed June 25,
2022)
46
likely to differ significantly. As a modern astrologer puts it: “Any good I’ve done as a consultant,
and I have done some good, had less to do with my being a good astrologer than with my being a
good person.”224 According to Campion it’s the astrologer who has the positive effects on
people’s spiritual/mental wellbeing. He says that:
“[The process] is analogous to the reading of a tarot spread or an I Ching hexagram [i.e., it
encourages new viewpoints and thus] judgments which are relevant to the client at the
time. I came to this conclusion after considering many astrologers’ ability to make the right
reading from the wrong horoscope. [So] it is not the astrology but the astrologer which
works. All that is required for the interpretation to be correct is that the time is believed to
be correct.”225
Whether the chart is off by minutes, hours, days, months or years doesn’t matter. The client
continues to believe that the incorrect chart’s interpretation is correct.226 Campion remarks
that astrology has become “an essential part of the language of popular culture and mass
psychology.”227 The philosopher Adorno is a critical theorist whose focus is on the study and
dismantling of ideologies. He described (modern) astrology as a mental health column written
for more self-awareness and paternal support but with an authoritarian cloak. It would
attempt to satisfy the desire that some unknown agency must know more about themselves.
While many of the messages that (natal) astrology conveys are directly social or psychological
in nature.228 Astrology probably has the largest following among the various occultist school,
because it is cloaked in pseudo-rationality which makes it easier to embrace than, for
example, spiritualism.229 This is both a fair criticism and a somewhat unfairly analysis, since
Adorno discusses a certain generalized form of modern astrology. On the other side, consider
the philosopher Feyerabend defenses of astrology. It is taken from the 1976 dialogue, written
the year “Objections to Astrology”230 was published:
“I have no special love for astrology and much that is written in this area bores me to tears.
But astrology is an excellent example of the way scientists deal with phenomena outside
their area of competence. They don’t study them, they simply curse them, insinuating that
their curses are based on strong and straightforward arguments.” 231
Kidd suggests that because the writers are oblivious to the fact that the history, theory, and
practice of astrology are outside of their domain of competence’, Feyerabend was attacking
224
225
Campion, The Book of World Horoscopes, p.10 and 13
226
Dean, ibid., p.35
227
228
Adorno, Stars down to Earth and Other Essays on the Irrational in Culture, p.52
229
Adorno, ibid., p.53
230
Bok, Objections to Astrology, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3023371
231
Kidd, Why did Feyerabend Defend Astrology, p.473
47
the authors’ epistemic arrogance.232 People who behave in an epistemically cruel manner
might acquire power that they do not deserve and inspire others to hold similar views.
Feyerabend continues to express his concern, he defends astrology on the basis of
incompetent attacks and states that “nothing is more important than to prevent people from
being intimidated by ignorant bullies.”233 Yet the question of truth in astrology is an extensive
topic in itself and not essential for the research question of this study – which is why
astrology became popular in contemporary society.234 In conclusion, it seems that it doesn’t
matter for the popularity of astrology if it’s scientifically verified, as long as it has a
psychological function and offers a meaningful link between the individual and the cosmos.
The ambiguous nature of astrology might even add to the popularity, the variety of
interpretations and emphasis on subjectivity and personal experience fit right in the
individualistic postmodern society. This can attract a multitude of practitioners who have
different views on astrology.
Conclusions
The aim of this study was to create an overview of the factors that contributed to the
increasing popularity of Western astrology in Dutch society. The brief self-styled history
exemplifies how astrology changes to suit the needs of its audience and how astrological
knowledge developed to what it represents today. Now astrology is transforming to serve the
audience in the changing religious and spiritual landscape of Dutch society. The decline of
Christianity in the Netherlands resulted in the freedom to experiment with different religious
or spiritual belief systems, such as astrology, rejecting traditional religious establishments and
certain dogmas. With the relocation of the sacred from religious institutions to the deeper
layers of the self, in which the self is seen as a portal to the divine and getting to know
yourself is the ultimate goal. Individualism has become a core characteristic of modern-day
society and natal astrology is all about the individual and individual progress. The New age
movement, as a culture criticism, is characterized by a dissatisfaction of what they see as
Western society’s dominating institutions and norms. There is a yearning to re-enchant a
rationalistic and materialistic Western civilization. They emphasize spirituality, holism,
subjectivity and individual experience. The SBNR is a new cultural category that is highly
232
Kidd, ibid., p.473
233
Kidd, ibid., p.474
234
To read more on the topic of truth, Garry Phillipson wrote his Ph.D. supervised by Nicholas Campion
and Patrick Curry, “Astrology and Truth: A Context in Contemporary Epistemology.” Another interesting
read is Eva Beko in “Is astrology necessarily a pseudoscience?” which she submitted to the Central
European University Department of Philosophy.
48
influenced by the ideas of the New Age movement, with an additional explicit move away
from religion towards spirituality. The term itself places religion and spirituality in a binary
opposition and spirituality is now permeating many facets of Western culture.
In the spiritual milieu we find concepts such as reincarnation and karma, popularized in the
New Age by the Theosophical Society and the order of the Golden Dawn. These concepts are
popular in dealing with the impermanence of life and were incorporated in the astrological
system in the 1970s, which therefore reinforce beliefs in astrology and vice versa. Parallel to
the development of digital culture is the mass distribution of astrological knowledge, which
made astrology easily accessible for everyone that’s interested. The distribution costs of
knowledge on the internet are extremely low, if not free, although private consultations are
excluded from this. Looking at gender we saw that women are more religious than men, and
leave the church in bigger numbers. Women are more active in the spiritual environment and
are carrying much of the New Age – or spiritual – growth in spiritual or holistic activities. This
also counts for astrology, more women than men are practicing and spreading astrology.
Queer astrology is developing and shaping astrology to a modern audience, making it a more
inclusive field and attracting new followers.
In the postmodern context scientific truths are questioned and an emphasis on the multitude
of interpretations has come to the foreground. For the popularity of astrology, it doesn’t
matter if it is scientifically verified, as long as it psychologically works and offers a meaningful
link between the individual and the cosmos. The ambiguous nature of astrology might even
add to the popularity, the variety of interpretations and emphasis on subjectivity and personal
experience fit right in the individualistic postmodern society. This can attract a multitude of
practitioners who have different views on astrology. Science and truth are seen as less
valuable than personal or psychological progress, such as self-discovery, self-consciousness,
and self-development. Astrology is a valuable psychological tool in these processes. Astrology
is distributed and sold as a product and spiritual practice in our capitalistic consumer society,
accessories, gemstones, fashion, nutrition, lifestyle products, and what not is connected to
astrology as a marketing strategy. This makes it seem that people can buy spiritual knowledge
through material objects, in order to get to know your ‘true self’, heal yourself and progress in
life. All these factors contributed to the popularization of astrology in contemporary Dutch
society.
For future research, to start with the following quote from Davie “We should be concerned to
know how beliefs arise and how they gain support.”235 An ongoing task for scholars is to critically
deconstruct and analyze how constructs of ‘selves’ are brought into existence, transmitted
235
Davie, The Sociology of Religion, p.6
49
and reinforced. Research is necessary to understand the ongoing transformations, and the
implications it has for our societies in the near future. The emphasis on the self in Dutch
society sparks an interest to analyze the role of astrology in the construction of (spiritual)
identities. An interesting question in the field of psychology could be, “what are the positive
or negative consequences of modern astrology to the construction of the self and self-
development?” Is there a future for astrology in the domain of psychology or is this merely a
modern trend? Another interesting field of research is queer astrology and the question
if/how astrology can prove useful in an identity crisis on the gender spectrum. Smith also
poses that astrology is used as a political language in “Queer Political Astrology”, and the
political role of astrology is something that can be further explored.236
This thesis provided the opportunity to explore astrology from different perspectives. For me
personally, the place of astrology in contemporary Dutch society fits in the list of other
spiritual practices aimed at self-knowledge and self-improvement, such as tarot, palmistry,
meditation, or yoga. It was interesting to learn about the growing emphasis on ‘the self’ and
getting to know your ‘true self’, subjectivity, the yearning for re-enchantment and the
dissatisfaction with dominating institutions in society, because it’s been a very evident part of
my immediate environment. An important lesson I learned is that there are many varieties of
astrology, and it is ever-changing in its content and applicability. I practiced natal astrology by
exploring birth-charts together with those interested and it provided immensely useful
psychological insights. On the other hand, by exploring my own birth-chart, it also created
certain beliefs about myself – and belief is a powerful mechanism. If I believe that I’m
influenced to be or act a certain way, I might never change. Therefore, I hope modern
astrologers on social media proceed with care in their content.
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1

The revival of astrology in

Nicholas Campion is a historian with expertise in anthropology, he has written extensively on

Ch.1 The history of western astrology

The Arabic world

The medieval Latin West

From recession to rebirth

Ch.2 The sacred landscape of Dutch society.

1. The relocation of the sacred

2. Individualism and the sacralization of the self

3. The New Age movement

Hanegraaff refers to Luhrmann’s characterization of the New Age:

Gaia serves as inspiration for the name of this social

4. Reincarnation and karma

5. Spiritual but not religious (SBNR)

(2) According to Fuller, spirituality is viewed as a journey which is intimately linked

To conclude, the development of digital culture resulted in the mass distribution of

source of vocabulary and thought-shapes, even a kind of supplementary practice for

1. Postmodernism and capitalism

2. Science and psychology

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