ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT

(A) Review & Practice of complex arithmetic/algebra:

(1) Before ‘complex arithmetic’, do the following exercises about real arithmetic (with-
out a calculator)!
(i) (Arithmetic apparently involving surds/radicals of natural numbers): Show
that the following expression
√ √
q q
3 3
20 − 392 + 20 + 392
√
stands for a unique real number; in-particular, show that 392 is not a perfect
square but less than 20 in magnitude and that the above expression in-fact
finally evaluates to a natural number. Which one is it? Show that it is 4.
Could you show this without knowing the answer beforehand i.e., not setting
the expression = 4, cubing it and and manipulating it to simplify it and such?
In any-case, an easy approach is to use Cardano’s formula. Try without and
with it, to see the difference in labor!
(ii) (Arithmetic apparently involving surds/radicals of irrational numbers): Show
as in the above part that the following expression which involves radicals of
irrational numbers,
s s
10 10
3
2− √ + 3 2+ √
27 27
is a natural number, infact equal to 2.

(Remark: Of-course, not every expression involving radicals, even if it involves only
square-roots and cube-roots (and no roots of higher order), can be solved using
Cardano’s formula. However, it’s remarkable that a apparently purely arithmetic
exercise motivates proceeding forth to considering an expression with a ‘variable’,
the first distinction between what’s regarded as arithmetic versus algebra in school;
to be specific here, the expression of-course is a cubic polynomial).

(2) Write the following complex numbers in standard Cartesian i.e., a + ib-form:

(i) ( 21 + 7i )(3/2 − i),

14+13i
(ii) 2−i
,
x+iy
(iii) x−iy
,

(iv) (2 − i)2 .

1
2 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT

(3) Polar coordinates of non-zero complex numbers: Define the polar coordinates of
z ∈ C written in standard/Cartesian form as z = x + iy as the ordered pair (r, θ),
where r, θ are defined as follows:
(
−1 x


p cos r
, if y ≥ 0
r := r(x, y) := x2 + y 2 , and θ := −1 x

.
− cos r
, if y < 0

where the r occurring in the denominators

p inside the braces is of-course the same
old function of x, y namely, r(x, y) = x2 + y 2 . Verify that r is a positive real
number and the real number θ lies in the semi-open interval (−θ, θ] and that
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. Also verify that the converse is true, namely: given any
pair of realpnumbers r, θ with x := r cos θ and y = r sin θ such that (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
then, r = x2 + y 2 and θ equals cos−1 (x/r) or − cos−1 (x/r), according as y ≥ 0
or y < 0.
(Remark: The polar coordinates of the origin is left undefined).

Polar form of non-zero complex numbers: We define (for the purposes of this as-
signment atleast) the exponential of purely imaginary numbers iθ for any θ ∈ R
by

exp iθ = eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.

Next, the polar form of z ∈ C written in standard/Cartesian form as z = x + iy, is

defined as reiθ , where r, θ are the real-valued functions of the pair of real variables
x, y defined in the previous exercise.
Note our terminology: we call the ordered pair or real numbers (r, θ) = (r(x, y), θ(x, y))
as the polar coordinates of the complex number z = x + iy, whereas reiθ is called
the polar form of the complex number z.

(4) Evaluate the following powers of complex√ numbers i.e., express them in standard
6 10
Cartesian form: (i) (1 − i) , (ii) (−1 + 3i) .
√
(5) Express the complex number z0 = 3 − 3i in polar form and compute all the com-
plex cube roots of z0 , which are by definition, the roots of the equation z 3 = z0 .

(6) Prove the following form of Cauchy – Schwarz (CS) inequality: for any n ∈ N, any
pair of tuples (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ), (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ) ∈ Cn we have:

Xn n
2  X n
 X 
zj wj  ≤ |zj |2 |wj |2 .
 

j=1 j=1 j=1

In the case when n = 2 or 3 and the zj ’s and wj ’s are all real, interpret the CS-
inequality geometrically.
 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT 3

(7) (Simultaneous C-linear equations over C): Solve the following system of linear
equations
(1 − i)z1 + z2 = 3 + 2i
z1 + (2 − i)z2 = 2 + i

(8) (Simultaneous R-linear equations over the complex numbers): Find the values of
z1 , z2 that solve the system of equations given by
z1 + z 2 = 3 + 2i
iz 1 + z2 = 3.

(9) (Quadratic equations over C): Prove that the usual formula for the solutions of a
quadratic equation
Az 2 + Bz + C = 0
holds even when A, B, C are complex numbers with A 6= 0. Write down explicitly
the roots of the equation z 2 − 2iz + 3 + i = 0 and show that the roots are distinct
complex numbers which are not conjugates of each other. When are the roots of
a polynomial p(z) = cn z n + . . . + c1 z + c0 guaranteed to have the property that
if ζ is a root, then its conjugate ζ is a root as well? Indeed, give a necessary and
sufficient conditions (on the coefficients of p) to have the property that for every
root ζ, its complex-conjugate ζ is a root as well. (Answer: the necessary and
sufficient condition is that the all the coefficients have to be real).

(10) (Square-roots): Show that every non-zero complex number has two distinct square
roots, while 0 ∈ C has zero as its only square-root. Write down the square roots
of i. More generally, for any z ∈ C, the square roots are given explicitly in-
terms of its real and imaginary parts x = <(z), y = =(z) as: ±(u + iv) where
u = u(x, y), v = v(x, y) are given by
qp qp
2 2
x +y +x x2 + y 2 − y
u= √ , v= √ .
2 2
where all square-root signs here denote real square roots, i.e., denote the unique
square-root of the non-negative real numbers involved under the square-root signs.
Remark: Note that even to prove (even if one were given the above expressions,
rather than determine it), that ±(u(x, y) + iv(x, y)) are square roots of x + iy, one
needs the theorem from real analysis about the existence of square roots of real
numbers.
Noting as above that for each z ∈ C∗ , one can then choose one amongst the two
square roots ±(u + iv) of z = x + iy and call it f (z) giving a function on C∗ which
is a (compositional-) inverse of the ‘squaring’ function z → z 2 . As is apparent,
there are infinitely many choices for f .
Hard Question: Is it possible to choose f such that f is continuous throughout C∗ ?
4 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT

(B) Basic geometry via complex numbers:

(11) Describe geometrically, the subsets of the complex plane expressed as follows:
(i) The set of all complex numbers z satisfying |z − z1 | = |z − z2 |, where z1 , z2
are a pair of fixed, distinct complex numbers,

(ii) {z ∈ C : z = 1/z},

(iii) {z ∈ C : |z| = <(z) + 1},

(iv) {z ∈ C : |=(z)| < 2π},

(v) {z ∈ C : |z − 4i + 3| = 5},

(vi) {z ∈ C : |z + 2i| ≤ 1}.

(12) Describe what the following equation represents:

|z − 3| + |z + 3| = 10

and rewrite the equation in (x, y)-coordinates.

(13) Use complex numbers to solve the following problem in plane geometry: Let ABCD
be an arbitrary (convex) quadrilateral in the (complex) plane. On each of its sides,
draw a square with side-length equal to that side of the quadrilateral. Let the
squares thus obtained be labelled as we traverse the circumference of the quadri-
lateral in the anticlockwise direction as S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 . Let L1 , L2 be the lines joining
the centroids of opposite squares; for example L1 joins the center of S1 and S3 .
Prove that L1 , L2 are orthogonal/perpendicular to each other and are of equal
length.

(C) Fundamental structures of C (‘Axiomatics’):

(14) As we know C has a pair of binary operations on it namely, addition and multiplica-
tion satisfying certain basic axioms, out of which every algebraic property/theorem
of complex numbers can in principle (even if the chains of logic involved in the
derivation are quite long) be derived; these axioms are essentially associativity,
existence of an additive and multiplicative identity, existence of additive inverse
for all z ∈ C, existence of multiplicative inverse for every z ∈ C∗ := C \ {0} and
the distributivity of multiplication over addition. All of these are enjoyed by real
numbers as well, which also has an order structure in it. Prove that it is impos-
sible to linearly/totally order the complex numbers by an order relation which is
compatible with its algebraic structure (unlike the reals). To make this assertion
precise, we have the following definitions:
Let X be any (abstract) set. A relation R ⊂ X × X, which we shall denote  is
called a preorder if it satisfies the following axioms:
(i) Reflexivity: x  x holds for all x ∈ X,
 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT 5

(ii) Transitivity: if x  y and y  z for some x, y, z ∈ X, then x  z also holds.

The relation  is called a partial order if it also satisfies:
(iii) Anti-symmetry axiom: if x  y and y  x then x = y.
A partial order is called a total/linear order if every pair of elements are compara-
ble i.e., given any pair x1 , x2 ∈ X, we must have either: x1  x2 or x2  x1 . The
strict-ordering associated to a given preorder  on X is the relation defined (and
denoted) by x1 ≺ x2 if x1  x2 but x1 6= x2 .

Examples/Exercises:
(a) Pick any set S and define A  B if A ⊂ B; then (verify that) this gives a
partial order on the power set of S which is not a total order.
(b) For z, w ∈ C define z  w if |z| ≤ |w|; this gives a pre-order which is not a
partial order.
(c) For z, w ∈ C define a total order relation by comparing their real and imagi-
nary parts as follows. Declare z  w if <(z1 ) ≺ <(z2 ) or if <(z1 ) = <(z2 ) and
=(z1 )  =(z2 ). This is called the lexicographic/dictionary order and it gives
a total order on C but it is not compatible with the algebraic operations of
C.
(d) For z, w ∈ C define z  w if <(z1 )  <(z2 ) and =(z1 )  =(z2 ) (this is es-
sentially what is known as the ‘product order’ on R2 ). Then this is a partial
order which is not a total order, which is compatible with addition but not
with multiplication.

Finally, prove that there does not exist a total ordering on C which is compatible
with the field operations in the following sense. Whenever z1  z2 and 0  z3 , we
have: z3 z1  z3 z2 . If we also have another pair of complex numbers w1 , w2 satis-
fying w1  w2 , then we have z1 + w1  z2 + w2 . Prove then, that it is impossible
to put an order relation  on C satisfying the above conditions.
Remark: The example in (b) above namely, z  w if |z|  |w| is compatible with
multiplication in this sense (but not with addition). However, more importantly as
already noted above, it does not give even a partial order, let alone a total ordering.

(15) Show that d(z, w) = |z − w| defines a distance function which makes C into  a com-
plete metric space. Next, verify the reverse triangle inequality |w − z| ≥ |w| − |z|
for all z, w ∈ C with equality iff either z and w are positive multiples of each other.
Conclude that the absolute value function z → |z| is continuous on C.

(16) Show that C defined as the set of all expressions of the form a + ib where a, b are
real numbers, with addition and multiplication defined by

(a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 ) = (a1 + a2 ) + i(b1 + b2 )

(a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + i(a1 b2 + a2 b1 )

is ‘isomorphic’ to
n 
a −b
o
M := : a, b ∈ R
b a
6 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT

where by ‘isomorphic’, we mean the existence of a bijective mapping F : C → M

satisfying: F (z + w) = F (z) + F (w) and F (zw) = F (z)F (w) wherein the op-
erations on the right-hand-side of this pair of equations are matrix-addition and
matrix-multiplication respectively; such a map F is called a field isomorphism.

(17) Show that F[t], the polynomial ring in the single variable t with coefficients from a
field F is a PID (principal ideal domain), thereby the rings R[x] and C[z] are PIDs.
Show that the element x2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x] and thereby is a prime element
in R[x] and therefore the quotient ring R[x]/hx2 + 1i is an integral domain. Show
that the ideal hx2 + 1i is a maximal ideal in R[x] and thereby the quotient ring
R[x]/hx2 + 1i is actually field and finally show that this field is isomorphic to the
field of complex numbers.

(18) Prove that the conjugation mapping is the only field automorphism of C which
maps R into itself and is different from the identity map. (Hint: First prove that
a field automorphism f of C with f (R) ⊂ R must fix R pointwise (i.e., f (x) = x
for each x ∈ R) by showing that any such f must be order preserving).

(D) ‘Real’ applications of complex algebra and calculus:

(19) Application of complex algebra to deriving trigonometric identities:

(i) Prove that for any complex number 6= 1, we have for each n ∈ N the following
equality of a polynomial and a rational function:
z n+1 − 1
1 + z + z2 + . . . + zn =
z−1
Use this to derive the following trigonometric identities valid for all real numbers
θ which are not an integer multiples of 2π:


1 sin (2n + 1)θ/2
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ + . . . + cos nθ = +
2 2 sin θ/2
and
sin(n 2θ ) sin (n + 1) 2θ


sin θ + sin 2θ + . . . + sin nθ = .
sin 2θ
(ii) Derive a ‘real’-identity for cos4 θ in terms of multiples of θ i.e., an expression of
cos4 θ which is expressed as a (finite) linear combination of functions of the form
cos nθ where n ∈ Z and which is valid at-once for all real values of θ.

(Remark: These identities arise in the theory of Fourier series).

(20) (Application to finding indefinite integrals of functions of a real variable – later in

the course, applications of complex calculus to challenging definite integrals of
functions of a real variable will be discussed): Compute
Z
e3x cos 2xdx
 ZEROTH ASSIGNMENT 7

i.e., determine (upto additive constants) an antiderivative of e3x cos 2x. It’s pos-
sible to do this by integrating by parts twice; to do this with much fewer com-
putations, use the relation that exists between the integrand to a complex-valued
function of a real variable (i.e., view the integrand as the real-part of a complex-
valued function of a real variable).

(E) (Back to Historical roots of complex numbers):

(21) Is Bombelli’s guess that

√
q
3
2 + −121
must be of the form 2 + ni, for some real number n completely correct? Is it true
that for an arbitrary complex number a + ib, there is atleast one cube-root of it,
which has the same real part (namely a)? (Answer: Very√easy to see ‘No’. It’s
accidental that for Bombelli’s case that a cube root of 2 + −121, not only turns
out to have the same real part, but also to have both its real and imaginary parts
to be positive integers!).

(22) Show that Cardano’s formula applied to finding the roots of the cubic equation
x3 − 6x − 4 = 0
involves imaginary numbers (i.e., taking square roots of −ve real numbers), but
all the 3 roots turn out to be real (and ‘distinctly’ so!).
(Remark:
√ √ to derive from Cardano’s formula that the 3 roots must be −2,
it’s easy
1 − 3 and 1 + 3).