Superconductivity is a phenomenon of having null electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic

fux, occurring in materials, when cooled below critical temperature. A superconductor is a material,
which conducts electricity with no resistance. Magnetic field cannot exist within superconductors.
The phenomena of superconductivity has made a revolution in the world of medicine with the
advantage of MRI machines, which is meant for a reduction in exploratory surgery. Power-utility
sector, electronics sector, military, transportations, etc., are the beneficiaries of discovery of
superconductors. 16.2 History It was in 1911 that a Dutch physicist, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
experimented with mercury wire – he began cooling it. (at sub-Antarctic temperatures of -269
degrees centigrade). He won the Noble Prize in 1913 for his efforts. In other words, the electrical
resistivity of mercury disappeared completely at that temperature and thus, a superconductive
material was obtained. The superconductive state of the material, however, vanished in the
presence of a strong magnetic field and changes in pressure. • In the 1960s, practical
superconductivity devices were developed and utilised. J.E. Kunzler, E. Buehler and J.H. Wernrick
discovered a compound consisting of three parts of niobium and one part of tin at 4.2 Kelvin. • In
1972, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer won the Nobel Prize for their theory of superconductivity, also
called as BCS theory. • In 1962, Josephson made a theoretical prediction, that the super current
could flow between two pieces of super conductor, coupled by a weak link. This phenomenon is
called as the “Josephson Efect”. In 1973, he won the Nobel Prize for Josephson. • In 1987, Georg
Bednorz and Muller got Nobel Prize for their efforts in discovery of super conductivity of ceramic
materials. • In 2003, Abrikosov, Gizburg and A.J. Legget won the Nobel Prize for their efforts in
development of the theory of superconductivity and superfluids. 16.3 Classification: There are Two
Parameters for the Study of Superconductivity 16.3.1 By Their Critical Temperature 16.3.1.1 Low
Temperature Super Conductors These are the superconductors whose critical temperature is below
30 Kelvin. Example: Liquid helium. 16.3.1.2 High Temperature Super Conductors These are the
superconductors whose critical temperature is above 30 Kelvin. Example: H2S (Hydrogen sulphide)
near 203 Kelvin, the highest temperature super conductor known till date. 16.3.2 By Their Magnetic
Properties 16.3.2.1 Type-I Superconductor The superconductors having one critical field, Hc. They
change suddenly when they reach from one state to another. Example: Silicon carbide doped with
boron, aluminium, mercury, lead. 16.3.2.2 Type-II Superconductor The superconductors having two
critical fields, i.e., HC1 and HC2. Under the lower critical field (HC1), it behaves as superconductor
and above the higher critical field (HC2), it behaves as a non-superconductor and in between HC1
and HC2, it behaves like in mixed state. Example: Niobium, Vanadium and Technetium, etc. Note: •
Critical temperature: It is the temperature of a material, at and above which vapour of the element
cannot be liquefied. • Critical field: At a given temperature, the magnetic field under which a
material remains superconducting is called as critical field. 16.4 Properties • Its resistance is zero,
because it has been demonstrated by existing currents in superconducting lead rings, without any
measurable reduction. Superconductors have exhibited a constant decay of over billion years. In
superconductors, the electrons are not being resolved by the electronic fluid, so there would be no
collisions in between electrons, hence it could not dissipate energy. So, it has zero resistance. • The
characteristics of superconductivity result when the temperature is lower than critical temperature
(Tc). • Superconductivity is expressed by superconductors at the time of application of an external
magnetic field, which is bigger than the critical magnetic field. • Meissner effect is the main
characteristic of superconductivity. It is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor
during the transition to the superconducting state. 16.5 Applications • In medical sector:
Superconducting magnets are used in MRI (Magnet Resonance Imaging). This is used in radiology to
image the anatomy and physiological process of the body and mind. It is used in passive, non-
invasive measurement, mapping and evaluation of extremely weak bio-magnetic fields, which
originate from various organs. Superconductors are used in SQUID (Superconducting Quantum
Interference Devices) as detectors. • In industrial sectors: They are used in magnetic separation,
where weak magnets are removed, in pigment industries. Superconductors are used for magnetic
shielding, transducers and sensors. • In electric power: Superconductors are used in power cables
due to their zero resistivity capacity. These are used in generators, motors, transformers, fault
current limiters and magnetic energy storage. • In Physics: Super conductors are highly useful in
research of plasma material and its fusion. These are used to prepare thermometers in micro-
calorimeter photon detector. It is used in magnets and particle accelerators. • In transportation:
Superconductors are used to make marine propulsion in motors. They are used in magnetically
levitated trains (MLTs). These are faster than any other trains because they float 4 inches above their
track on magnetic cushion. • In electronics: Superconductors are used in sensors. It helps in building
of SQUIDs, the most sensitive magnetometer known. These are hugely helpful in quantum
computing and high-speed computing. Superconductors allow for the design and constructions of a
new breed of ICs with tremendous capabilities. 16.6 Superconductivity in India In recognition of
importance of promoting research and development in superconductivity and applications in
country, an apex body with Prime Minister and a Programme Management Board (PMB) was
constituted in 1987. In February 1991, the National Superconductivity Science and Technology Board
(NSB) was formed, replacing the PMB. In Phase-I (1988–91), 65 projects were started in IIT, CSIR and
DAE. Then, in phase-II (October 1992–1995), six more projects were started. It works on areas such
as critical current density, SQUIDs sensors, high-gradient magnetic separators, superconducting
power generator and workability of yttrium-bismuth thallium based compounds. Scientists of
National Physical Laboratory, in Delhi, has developed a new SQUID at liquid nitrogen temperature
(77K). This is known to be on the high temperature side so far as superconductors are concerned. In
India, conventional magnetic separators are being used in Kedarmukh Project, ziroconium processing
at Indian Race Earths and processing of the blue dust at National Mineral Development Corporation.
A superconducting high-gradient magnetic operator system has been developed at BHEL.
Monophasic compounds with critical transition temperatures of 110K, 90K, 80K (Kelvin) have been
developed by the Department of Nuclear Physics, Madras University. The department fabricated
superconducting wires, tapes and high-temperature superconductivity materials. Engineers of BHEL
have built India’s first superconducting generator and synchronised it with Andhra Pradesh Power
Grid, which has a capacity of generating 200 kilovolt-amperes.

Agrahari, Ravi P. Science and Technology for Civil Services Preliminary and Main Examinations | 5th
Edition (pp. 1076-1082). McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. Kindle Edition.