Artigo 9

Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 6 (2022) 100133
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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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A Review on the Modeling of the Clinching Process Chain - Part I:

Design Phase
Britta Schramm a, *, Sven Martin b, Christian Steinfelder c, Christian R. Bielak d,
Alexander Brosius c, Gerson Meschut d, Thomas Tröster b, Thomas Wallmersperger e,
Julia Mergheim f
a
Applied Mechanics, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, Paderborn 33098, Germany
b
Chair for Automotive Lightweight Design, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße, Paderborn 33098, Germany
c
Chair of Forming and Machining Processes, TU Dresden, George-Bähr-Straße 3c, Dresden 01069, Germany
d
Laboratory for Material and Joining Technology, Paderborn University, Warburger Straße 100, Paderborn 33098, Germany
e
Institute of Solid Mechanics, TU Dresden, George-Bähr-Straße 3c, Dresden 01069, Germany
f
Institute of Applied Mechanics, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Egerlandstraße 5, Erlangen 91058, Germany
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In many areas of product manufacturing, constructions are often mechanically joined of different materials to
Mechanical joining realize assemblies of various complexity with numerous point-shaped connections. Thereby, clinching is a
Clinching frequently used joining technology. For the prognosis of the joinability and the life cycle of a connection, nu
Multi-material design
merical modeling of the complete joining process chain is essential, considering (i) the design phase, (ii) the
Joint topology optimization
joining process itself, and (iii) the resulting properties of the connection in the operational phase. This holistic
Load path analysis
Finite elements modeling approach enables the comprehension of the complex cause-and-effect relationships in mechanical
joining of different materials (e.g. aluminum, steel and fiber-reinforced composites). Furthermore, the in
teractions between the production process and the subsequent operational loadings and environmental in
fluences require a transferable design method for load-adapted, mechanically joined assemblies. This paper is the
first part (part I) of a series of reviews summarizing the current state of research on modeling and simulation of
clinching. In this context, the present paper deals with the joining process chain and its challenges as well as
methods for the modeling and the optimization of clinch joints in the design phase. The simulation of the
clinching process is subject of part II. The influences of the operational phase, e.g. corrosion phenomena and
fatigue crack growth, are considered in part III of our review series.
Introduction contributes to a better safety and a higher environmental sustainability

(Schleinkofer et al., 2018; Taub and Luo, 2015).
The use of mechanical joining technologies offers the possibility of The joining technologies mentioned in DIN 8593-3 (2003) and DIN
joining various material-geometry combinations for a wide range of 8593-5 (2003) gain particular importance for multi-material design
applications, e.g. vehicle assemblies, machine and plant constructions as (Barnes and Pashby, 2000). These technologies allow joining of different
well as medical and household applications (Davies, 2012; Mallick, sheet metal materials with and without additional auxiliary joining
2020). For lightweight structures, mechanical joining is a promising key parts. The demand of single-stage processes increases in order to reduce
technology for reducing energy consumption as well as harmful emis complexity and to avoid positioning inaccuracies between a pre-hole
sions. This is especially important against the background of economical and the joining tools (Mori and Abe, 2018). A frequently used joining
series production with more varied products and even shorter model technology that enables joining of different materials without any
cycles. Thereby, an intelligent mix of materials (e.g. aluminum, steel and additional auxiliary joining parts is clinching.
fiber-reinforced composites) enables an optimal lightweight construc In the clinching process two or more overlapping parts are joined by
tion (Anderson et al., 2018; Angelo and Ravisankar, 2019) and also cold forming using a punch and a die, see Fig. 1a). The joining parts are
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: schramm@fam.upb.de (B. Schramm).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2022.100133
Received 21 July 2022; Received in revised form 14 October 2022; Accepted 23 October 2022
Available online 2 November 2022
2666-3309/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B. Schramm et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 6 (2022) 100133
first partially penetrated and then compressed so that an inseparable Schramm et al., 2022). This subdivision is also outlined in Fig. 2.
connection is created by cold forming. This generally results in a form-fit Previous review papers mostly refer to only one aspect of the simu
and friction-fit mechanically joined connection (Abe et al., 2012), which lation of this process chain, for example, the application of finite
defines the properties of the entire clinched assembly. A clinch joint is element analysis in clinching processes (Eshtayeh and Hrairi, 2016; Qin
characterized by geometrical values, see Fig. 1b). Tactile measurable et al., 2021) and in clinched joints (He, 2010) or the optimization of
parameters are the bottom thickness of the joining element and its clinching tools (Lee et al., 2017). Other review papers (Eshtayeh et al.,
diameter. The decisive sizes, which are measured destructively based on 2016; He, 2017) focus on clinching of particular materials. For example,
microsections, are the interlock and the neck thickness of the joint. Galińska and Galiński (2020) report on the mechanical joining of
Thereby, the interlock is the key parameter influencing the properties of fiber-reinforced polymer composites to metals. To our best knowledge,
the joint under normal load, whereas the neck thickness is crucial for the our paper series is the first review that covers the simulation of the entire
shear load resistance (Wang et al., 2018). process chain.
Certain limitations of the clinching process have led to the devel The present review paper is structured as follows: In Section 2, the
opment of further variants. Chen et al. (2021) point out that the flat joining process chain and its challenges are presented. Research ques
clinching process has more benefits than the conventional clinching tions are derived which are addressed in all three parts of our review
process. A geometric protrusion on the lower surface, which is charac series. The positioning of joints and the resulting loads play a decisive
teristic for the conventional process, can be completely avoided by flat role in the design of joints. Therefore, Section 3 reviews the state of the
clinching. This is accompanied by lower manufacturing costs and time, art of the design phase for an optimal arrangement of clinch joints and
lower tool costs and lower wear as well as no need for coaxial alignment focuses on analytical and numerical methods in order to determine and
of upper and lower dies (Neugebauer et al., 2020). A further develop optimize the number and distribution of multiple joints in an assembly.
ment is the flat-clinch-bonding process which combines flat clinching In the summary in Section 4, the state of the art and research of the
and adhesive bonding in order to guarantee the assembly handling design phase is shortly recapitulated and open questions are pointed out.
strength (Gerstmann and Awiszus, 2021). For a large discrepancy in
mechanical properties and thickness, hole clinching is suggested (Peng The joining process chain and its challenges
et al., 2020). Friction clinching is another concept of clinching that
differs from the conventional process. The sheet is heated by a rotating Fig. 3 gives an overview about the process chain for the
tool, which leads to an increase in the formability of the material manufacturing of a joined assembly in the automotive sector. Numerical
(Lambiase et al., 2017). Babalo et al. (2020) present another new joining modeling of this complete joining process chain essentially considers
technique which is called high-speed mechanical clinching and results in three phases: (i) the design phase, (ii) the joining process itself and (iii)
an improved joint strength. Further variants of the clinching process and the subsequent operational phase. A consistent consideration of all these
their comparison are also considered by Eshtayeh and Hrairi (2016) as phases is required for a process-reliable production and for the fulfill
well as by Peng et al. (2020). ment of function over the entire lifetime.
For the analysis of the properties of the clinched connection ’trial and Complex components are manufactured from individual sheets
error’ methods and experience-based approaches are commonly used which are combined by many clinch joints. Thereby, the joined con
(Meschut and et al., 2022). These approaches, however, can only react nections have the characteristic function to transfer different loads (e.g.
to a very limited extent to external process influences and are currently static, cyclic, impact) from one part to the other. These different loads
rigidly configured for the respective material-geometry combination. lead to various stress situations in the proximity of the clinch joint
Hence, they have to be laboriously adapted to new material-geometry defining its overall requirements’ specification. In this context, re
combinations each time. This procedure is very costly and quirements may include, for example, the application of a specific ma
time-consuming. Therefore, the production of a functional clinched as terial with a certain sheet thickness (Peng et al., 2021). This
sembly requires a systematic, method-based approach considering the material-geometry combination, however, might require other process
entire joining process chain starting with the initial design phase of a variables and different tooling (punch and die geometries) in order to
product with clinch joints, followed by the clinching process until the obtain feasible joints (He, 2017). Within the operational phase, the
end of the operational phase. clinch joints have to be able to achieve the desired lifetime. Hereby, it
To contribute to the design and optimization of clinching processes has to be considered that different materials, sheet thicknesses as well as
as well as of clinched assemblies, our publication series presents a re tool geometries have an impact on the strength and the load-bearing
view of the state of the art focusing on the simulation chain of the capacity of the assembly (Wang et al., 2014). The latter can also be
clinching process chain. The research is subdivided into the following affected by corrosion (LeBozec et al., 2012) and crack growth within the
three parts: the design phase (part I, present paper), the joining phase structure (Su et al., 2015). To achieve a load-bearing assembly, each
(part II, Schramm et al., 2022) and the operational phase (part III, single clinch joint has to be realized in such a way that its resulting
Fig. 1. a) Clinching process, b) quality relevant parameters of clinch joints (Bielak et al., 2021a). ”Reprinted from Journal of Advanced Joining Processes, 3, Ch.R.
Bielak et al., Numerical analysis of the robustness of clinching process considering the pre-forming of the parts, 100038, Copyright (2021), with permission
from Elsevier.”
2
Fig. 2. Detailed description of the simulation chain of the clinching process.
Fig. 3. Simulation chain of a clinched assembly with the aim of adapting the resulting properties of a clinch joint to the specification of requirements .
properties meet or exceed the aforementioned requirements. The Depending on (i) the type of connection, (ii) the joint characteristics,
resulting properties are, for example, (i) a certain neck thickness and and (iii) the type of loading, e.g. shear, normal load or mixed mode,
interlock, (ii) defined positions of the clinch joint within the assembly, different failure modes occur when clinched constructions are tested
and (iii) the strength of the clinch joint for various loadings. destructively. The failure modes can basically be categorized into a neck
In order to determine the strength behavior of a clinch joint, fracture mode, a button-out mode (Lee et al., 2017) or a mixed failure
experimental tests are carried out (Chen et al., 2019; He et al., 2014). mode (DIN EN ISO 12996, 2013), see Fig. 4. Decisive for the cause of
3
Fig. 4. Typical failure modes of clinch joints (according to DIN EN ISO 12996 (2013); DIN ISO 16237 (2015); DVS/EFB (2021))
failure are especially (i) the prevailing stress situation, (ii) the complex et al., 2015).
material behavior considering friction, plasticity and damage mecha During the operational phase, corrosive issues (Montemor, 2016)
nisms as well as often (iii) wrongly executed or overstressed joints. and their influences on mechanical properties of joined materials
The interaction between the requirements and the resulting prop (LeBozec et al., 2012) as well as the initiation (Su et al., 2015) and
erties leads to an iterative optimization of the position and distribution propagation (Zhang et al., 2020) of fatigue cracks can lead to failure of
of the clinch joints, taking into account their manufacturability. This joined assemblies. Especially for connections of different materials with
joinability depends among other things on the structural design and the a large difference in the electrochemical potential, the time-dependent
design of the joints, the resulting stress situation and the material. influence of corrosion on damage has to be considered. Furthermore,
Hereby, many different material-geometry combinations (Bielak et al., cracks, which have been developed during the joining process or initi
2021b) are possible resulting in complex cause-and-effect relationships. ated by the operational load, can (further) propagate due to the opera
Hence, in the initial design phase of the assembly, the loads, the ge tional loading situation. Therefore, the corrosive assessment as well as
ometry and the material of the individual parts are roughly determined. the fracture mechanical evaluation of mechanically joined connections
Then, the joining design is initially defined. According to Eggink and complete the consistent simulation of the process chain.
Groll (2020), it is characterized by the sum of all joining elements, For the analytical/numerical prognosis of the joinability and the
whereby a single joining connection is completely described by its operational properties along the life cycle of clinched connections, an
technology, location and properties. With (i) the experience of de swers to the following research questions are essential:
signers, (ii) guidelines, (iii) characteristic values of previously used
joints and with (iv) the help of artificial intelligence, an initial joining Q1: Which methods exist to predict the loading of clinch joints during
design can be derived. In addition to the pure joint load capacity, the the design phase?
joining process steps have to be taken into account. Despite the Q2: What is the minimal number of clinch joints and their optimal
increasing use of numerical methods like the finite element method distribution within an assembly?
(FEM), until now the design of mechanically joined connections is Q3: Which process parameters are significant for the joining process
generally done heuristically and based on empirical knowledge (Eggink and how do they affect the resulting properties of the clinch joint?
and Groll, 2020). For an assessment of the joinability, a thorough un Q4: What is the role and the influence of damage during the clinching
derstanding of the relationships between the component’s geometry and process and how can it be modeled and simulated?
the load of an individual joint has to be taken into account and included Q5: How does corrosion affect the load-bearing capacity and the
into the design method. service life of a clinched assembly?
Furthermore, the joining process itself is also very important for the Q6: How does fatigue crack growth occur in clinched assemblies and
reliability of the resulting joints and has to be considered in the simu how does it affect the remaining service life?
lation of the process chain. Thereby, joining-specific material properties
and characteristics (e.g. ductility, strength, stiffness, tendency to dam Answers to these questions enable target-oriented changes to the
age or cracks) can significantly limit the range of suitable joining pa joining processes and process steps in consideration of (i) the design
rameters and must be examined from a fundamental scientific point of phase, (ii) the joining process and (iii) the operational phase.
view (Varis and Lepistö, 2003). Material modeling is an important
prerequisite for the simulation of mechanical joining processes. In Modeling clinch joints in the design phase
addition to the accurate modeling of large plastic strains, the description
of the damage behavior (Lambiase and Di Ilio, 2016) is also important in In this section, an overview about the state of art and research of
order to optimize the clinching joining processes as done by Roux and methods for the design and the assessment of joints will be presented.
Bouchard (2013). The pre-deformation of parts to be joined, e.g. by Starting with analytical methods for describing the load situation in the
forming processes, can result in anisotropic material behavior (Saberi joint itself in Section 3.1, Section 3.2 provides an overview about
et al., 2008) which has to be considered for the simulation of the forming modeling techniques for joined connections based on the finite element
and testing of clinch joints (Dean et al., 2017). For the exact simulation method. Section 3.3 considers methods for optimizing the overall
of the joining process, especially with anisotropic, heterogeneous joining design. In the following Section 3.4, the concept of load path
joining partners, (i) the complete description of the three-dimensional analysis for describing the force flow in joints is introduced as a possible
stress state is required, (ii) accurate material models including finite alternative or complementary method to the methods mentioned before.
strain plasticity and damage for metals have to be applied, and (iii) Finally, the robustness of optimization-based methods against un
multi-scale material models are necessary for fiber-reinforced polymers certainties is considered in Section 3.5.
in order to take into account their complex damage behavior (Gude
4
Analytical design of mechanical joints Numerical design of mechanical joints
There is a general need for developing and using analytical methods It has been shown that analytical methods are limited for application
for the design of mechanical joints in order to enable (i) a direct in design processes of clinched structures. Therefore, numerical methods
determination of the mechanical and geometrical properties of the are required to better assess the joint’s behavior. In the present section,
clinch points and (ii) the direct integration into the initial design phase we demonstrate the application of the finite element method in the
of clinched components. Unfortunately, there is no uniform analytical design of joined connections. The modeling effort of a joint depends on
method for determining the properties of mechanical joints. Therefore, the type of model, which in turn is chosen with respect to (i) the required
different approaches were investigated for numerous mechanical joining result accuracy, (ii) the number of joints, (iii) the analysis type, and (iv)
technologies. Hahn et al. (2000) developed a design concept for the computational resources. The finite element simulation of mechan
self-pierce riveted steel components that are predominantly subjected to ical joints can either be performed by a finely discretized, ideal geometry
varying stresses. Chergui (2004), on the other hand, provided a design on which stress and strain fields are resolved and evaluated in detail, as
concept proposal for self-pierce riveted aluminum components. Both has been shown by Bielak et al. (2021b) for clinch joints and by Bier and
approaches are based on previously experimentally determined char Sommer (2015) for self-piercing riveted joints, or by equivalent models
acteristic values of the point-shaped connections. By using correction which are calibrated by means of experimental data and/or by numer
factors, the model of Chergui (2004) is subsequently adjusted and the ical results of finely discretized finite element models (Breda et al.,
damage accumulation is considered for lifetime prediction. Hahn et al. 2017). Due to the high computational effort the first variant is only used
(2000) and Chergui (2004) pointed out the problem of the design for a small number of joints and for the design of equivalent models. For
method, which (i) does not cover all joining technologies and which (ii) reasons of efficiency, equivalent joint models are applied for the
requires different procedures for the experimental determination of the calculation of large assemblies.
characteristic values of the joints. Hence, the development of a uniform The focus of equivalent joint modeling is laid on the correct repre
procedure for the characterization of mechanical joints is investigated sentation of the mechanical behavior of clinched components, on the
from different perspectives. correct prediction of their stiffness and strength (Khalkhali and Mian
The definition of a specific yield strength to characterize the doabchi, 2020) or on the investigation of the dynamic behavior of
behavior of the joint according to the U.S. military standard (Military structures with joints (Bograd et al., 2011; Yunus et al., 2018). Ac
Handbook, 1998) is not sufficient since it does not capture only the joint cording to Hanssen et al. (2010), different equivalent modeling ap
behavior, but rather the entire specimen. At this specific yield strength, proaches for point connectors are available. For example, (i)
plastic deformations may already be present in the joint, which will lead node-to-node constraints, (ii) node-to-surface, and (iii)
to premature failure if the joint is loaded again. Furthermore, the surface-to-surface constraints by contact formulations are used.
deformation of the joint has a very small influence on the overall Furthermore, beam, rod, brick or cohesive elements are applied for the
deformation of the specimen. This makes a reliable characterization of a connector, see Fig. 5 for some exemplary equivalent joint models. To
joint difficult. Fuchs et al. (2009), therefore, proposed the experimental calibrate the equivalent models, either experimental tests, which expose
determination of an equivalent yield force as a basis for the design of the the mechanical behavior of the joint (Breda et al., 2018), or numerical
joint. This equivalent yield force concept takes into account both the simulations with validated finely discretized finite element (FE) models
maximum force of a joint and its ductility. Thus, this value is a combined (Bérot et al., 2014) are required.
strength-deformation value. The experimental calibration of equivalent joint models requires that
Furthermore, analytical approaches for mechanically joined con load-displacement relations, experimentally obtained for one clinch
nections are available, which describe the joint behavior for different joint by adequate experimental tests, are reproduced by the equivalent
loading conditions. In this context, the study of Liu et al. (2021) on the joint model. An experimental test, which is often used for that, is the
analytical model of joint strength prediction of flat-clinching and of Lee modified Arcan test. Within this experiment, mixed-mode loading can be
et al., 2017 on the design of mechanical clinching tools have to be applied to the joint, as first proposed by Langrand et al. (2002) for riv
mentioned. As another example, the analytical method for determining eted joints and modified for clinch joints by Coppieters et al. (2013).
the pull-out force of clinch joints according to Coppieters et al. (2012) is Furthermore, shear lap tests, peel tests, cross tension tests or H tension
described in the following in more detail. First, the authors investigated tests are used (Breda et al., 2017).
different failure mechanisms for given loads: either the neck of the joint
cracks, the joint unbuttons or a combination of both failure types occurs.
Applying a pure pull-out force to the connection frequently leads to neck
fracture, plastic deformations in the joining area or a combination of
both. To derive an analytical expression for the pure pull-out strength of
a clinched connection the slab equilibrium technique is used. Small el
ements are extracted from the deforming connection and a force balance
is performed on these small slabs. The resulting differential equations –
relating the stresses in the joint to geometrical variables in the defor
mation process – are solved analytically by using specific simplifying
assumptions. Both numerical and experimental results are used subse
quently to calibrate the analytical method.
Concluding, analytical methods would be excellent approaches for
the determination of the properties of clinch points and for the initial
design phase of clinched components. But, as has been shown, there is
no uniform analytical method for determining the properties of me
chanical joints, in particular for different load cases. The presented
analytical approaches are based on simplifying assumptions and are
often not adequate to represent the characteristics of the mechanical
joints. Hence, there is a great desire for further development of exact and Fig. 5. Different equivalent joint models for a rivet: (a) beam element, (b)
efficient analytical methods which is an important point for future hexahedron element, (c) constrained element, (d) cluster of four hexahedron
research work in the framework of clinched structures. elements (adapted from Sommer and Maier (2011)).
5
An equivalent joint model for clinch joints is presented in Breda et al. in the base material is identified as a point for future research. Grujicic
(2017), which consists of a beam-like connector element with six de et al. (2014) presented a three-step computational procedure to define
grees of freedom, three relative displacements and three rotations. It is and calibrate an equivalent joining point model for self-piercing rivets.
connected to the joining partners, usually discretized with shell ele Thereby, the joining process is taken into account and a virtual valida
ments, within a coupling zone, which represents the area of influence of tion with several loadings was performed. The equivalent joining point
the clinch joint, see Fig. 6 for the graphical presentation of a similar models show a very good representation of the joint strength, ductility
approach of Hanssen et al. (2010) for rivets. This coupling zone is either and overall toughness as compared to finely discretized FE models.
assumed to be rigid, which is denoted as kinematic coupling (Breda Bérot et al. (2014) propose an alternative method based on virtual
et al., 2017), or the forces and moments within the connector element three-dimensional elements. These virtual elements have their own
are distributed to the nodes within the coupling zone. This is suggested equivalent constitutive model and replace the initially finely discretized
by Weyer et al. (2006) for self-piercing rivets. Breda et al. (2017) point joint. This approach introduces some simplifications compared to the
out that kinematic coupling results in stiffer behavior of the connector simulation with the fine discretization, but does not represent an alter
element than structural distributed coupling and is in their study closer native to the standard connector elements due to its high computational
to the experimental results for clinch joints, compare Fig. 7. effort. The applicability of equivalent joining point models that were
The constitutive behavior of the equivalent joint model is usually calibrated for one joining point to structures with several joining points
nonlinear and described by elastic, plastic and damage/failure parts, was investigated in Breda et al. (2018). The equivalent joining point
which are formulated in terms of relative displacements/rotations and model from Breda et al. (2017) was used to simulate structures which
related forces/moments. Elastic parameters are specified separately for contain multiple clinched joints. It was found that the stiffness of the
the normal and shear directions and are calibrated by experimental structure was overestimated which was attributed to the significantly
tests. In Weyer et al. (2006) a coupled plasticity model is suggested for high peel moments in the clinched joints. More research is needed to
self-piercing rivets, which only requires one experimental test for the better understand the interaction effects in structures with multiple
calibration. A yield surface is defined by means of an equivalent normal clinch points.
force, which also contains the moments, and an equivalent shear force, For other joining processes, such as spot welding, further equivalent
which combines both tangential forces. The initial yield forces in normal joint models have been introduced and explored. For example, in
and tangential direction can be specified separately, but a coupled Ho-Nguyen-Tan and Kim (2020), the joint locations themselves are
equivalent hardening law is introduced. Breda et al. (2017) illustrate finely discretized based on interface shell elements and linked to the
that an uncoupled representation of the hardening law, i.e. independent coarsely meshed global structure. The applicability of this approach is
definitions of hardening laws in normal and tangential directions, is limited since these special element formulations are not included in
more appropriate for equivalent clinch joint models. In Weyer et al. common FE codes and require implementation via user subroutines. In
(2006) and Grujicic et al. (2014) the failure initiation is defined by De Alba Alvarez et al. (2014), a surface-to-surface constraint consisting
means of the equivalent plastic deformation and the mode-mix ratio. of an array of springs is proposed, which successfully reduces mesh
Hanssen et al. (2010) introduce a damage parameter, which increases sensitivity in static and dynamic simulations. The formulation and
with the equivalent deformation, depends on the mode-mix ratio and validation of a connector element for multi-layer multi-steel grade spot
accounts for the correct behavior during unloading. welds are presented in Chtourou et al. (2017). Khandoker and Takla
In Breda et al. (2019) the effect of the anisotropy of the base material (2014) introduce six different equivalent joint models for spot welds to
on the calibration process of an equivalent joint model is analyzed. It is be used in the FE simulation of automotive assemblies. Due to the large
shown that for an accurate calibration of the axial elastic and plastic number of spot welds in these structures, the focus in this work is mainly
behavior of the equivalent joint model the residual stress state and the on the efficiency of the equivalent models. Choi et al. (2012) investigate
plastic anisotropy of the sheets have to be taken into account. Since the the effect of the strain rate on the damage behavior of spot welds during
consideration of the entire process chain is often very expensive, the an impact test. They propose an equivalent joint model which includes
definition of a correction factor to approximate the residual stress state the experimentally observed rate-dependency. When simulating an
impact test with a top-hat profile, they achieved much better agreement
of the deformation and failure of the profile than without the rate
dependent equivalent joint model. A review of equivalent joint models
for spot welds is given in Palmonella et al. (2005).
The equivalent models are very efficient and can be used to accu
rately represent the global load-displacement responses of joined
structures (this addresses research question Q1). However, if one is
interested in local quantities, such as the stresses in the joint or in the
base material in the proximity of the joint, finely discretized finite
element models are needed. These detailed FE models are not used in
combination with equivalent joint models. In addition, pre-stresses and
pre-damage introduced during the joining process can only be taken into
account indirectly in the equivalent models, via the experimental cali
bration. This is discussed for clinch joints by Martin et al. (2022) and for
self-piercing riveted joints by Bier and Sommer (2015). Therefore, crack
initiation in the base material resulting from the interaction between the
joint and base material stresses can only be predicted to a limited extent.
Fig. 8 shows the numerical results of the stress distributions within a
lap shear test for three different modeling techniques of a self-piercing
rivet connection. On the left, the results of a detailed, finely dis
Fig. 6. Connector element, represented by the rivet node, and its coupling zone
cretized FE model are shown. The simulation in the middle uses an
which represents the domain of influence of the joint (Hanssen et al., 2010).
"Reproduced from Hanssen, A.G. et al. A large-scale finite element equivalent joining point model (constrained SPR3 model in LS-DYNA)
point-connector model for self-piercing rivet connections. European Journal of with undamaged sheets. In Fig. 8 (right), the same equivalent joining
Mechanics - A/Solids, 2010; 29(4):484-495. Copyright ©2010 Elsevier Masson point model is applied, but a hole in the connection area is taken into
SAS. All rights reserved.") account (Bier and Sommer, 2015). The mesh of the detailed model is
6
Fig. 7. Structural distributing vs. kinematic coupling of the connector element to the coupling zone and the related load-displacement curves for a pull-out test
(adapted from Breda et al. (2017)). ”Reprinted from Thin-Walled Structures, 113, A. Breda, S. Coppieters, D. Debruyne, Equivalent modelling strategy for a clinched
joint using a simple calibration method, 1-12, Copyright (2017), with permission from Elsevier”
Fig. 8. Simulation results of lap shear tests with equivalent stress (von Mises) as contour plot at the point of maximum force for three different modeling techniques
(left to right: detailed model, joint specific equivalent model with undamaged sheets, joint specific equivalent model with hole in the connection area) (Bier and
Sommer, 2015).
adaptively refined in the connection area, while a homogeneous mesh is In conclusion, equivalent models can represent the global load-
applied for the equivalent model. Therefore, three different stress dis displacement curves of clinched structures. In order to obtain local in
tributions are obtained for the simulation of the same joint. Only the fine formation of the deformations and stresses within the structure, espe
discretization of the detailed model (Fig. 8 (left)) allows to accurately cially in the surrounding of the clinch point, detailed finite element
calculate the stresses close to the joining point and the stress gradients simulations based on 3D continuum models are required. Therefore,
caused by contact and notch effects. The coarse discretizations used in both modeling techniques of clinch joints, (i) based on a finely dis
the simulations with equivalent joining point models (Fig. 8 (middle, cretized, ideal geometry or (ii) using calibrated equivalent joint models
right)) lead to lower stresses in the base material. Neglecting the are important for the design and the assessment of joints and joined
pre-hole (Fig. 8 (middle)) amplifies this effect and makes it impossible to assemblies (research question Q1). For real world applications, e.g. in
design the point-shaped connection considering maximum stresses. automotive industry, based on complex structures with many joints,
7
equivalent joint models are applied to obtain the global behavior. In authors illustrate the procedure by means of a BIW for a car. The used FE
order to determine the local stress-strain-behavior, an efficient coupling model of the BIW, the initial spatial distribution of spot welds as well as
between the equivalent modeling technique and the detailed finite their optimized distribution are shown in Fig. 9.
element method, e.g. by sub-model techniques, would be desirable. Nowadays, joint topology optimization is very often used in order to
optimize joint distributions (Ryberg and Nilsson, 2016). This method is
Design layout optimization procedure based on topology optimization (Bendsøe and Sigmund, 2003; Bendsøe
and Kikuchi, 1988), which was initially used to identify the best possible
In order to meet the requirements of automotive assemblies in terms material distributions within a variety of advanced numerical studies
of static and dynamic operating loads as well as short-term dynamic and industrial applications. Reviews by Eschenauer and Olhoff (2001)
crash loads, the joints are essential. In today’s automotive bodies, there and by Deaton and Grandhi (2014) are available focusing on the opti
are several thousand point-shaped connections. These joints have to be mization of continuum structures. A comparative review on this topic
arranged in such a way that (i) the compliance with the specified load has been written by Sigmund and Maute (2013). With respect to me
requirements (Yamaguchi et al., 2008), (ii) the joining safety of the chanical joining, joint topology optimization can be used for optimizing
joining partners, (iii) the accessibility to the joining position, and (iv) spot weld arrangements. Thereby, each spot weld is defined as a design
the robustness against process uncertainties (e.g. the location of joints, parameter characterized by an artificial density. This density indicates
defective joints) are ensured. Thereby, the general objective is the whether the joint is maintained or eliminated. Approaches based on
reduction of the number of joints in order to reduce process times and spring elements with variable stiffness representing the connections can
production costs. According to Huang and Arora (1997) a high number be traced back to Jiang and Chirehdast (1997). In addition, bar and solid
of joints in assemblies precludes user-guided optimization and also elements with variable density have been used by Yang et al. (1996) to
significantly restricts the application of conventional algorithms for model spot welds. Other investigations with regard to the reduction of
optimizing the arrangement and the amount of joints. Many of the number of spot welds and their optimization in a BIW were carried out
existing optimization methods deal with spot weld joints. Amorim and by Wang et al. (2003) using modal analysis and by Puchner et al. (2006)
Lima (2014) present a methodology for assessing the influence of spot considering stiffness and/or fatigue behavior in order to find improved
welds on a vehicle body node on the basis of the finite element method spot weld distributions. By simultaneously optimizing both the joint
and a design of experiment (DOE) analysis. An artificial bee colony al layout and the body sheet thickness, Yamaguchi et al. (2008) deter
gorithm with sequential Kriging optimization is used by Fang et al. mined the lightest-weight solution while keeping the body stiffness and
(2014) to optimize spot-welded joints. Yan et al. (2021) report on a size the number of spot welds constant. Long et al. (2016) introduced a to
optimization procedure for irregularly spaced spot welds. However, pology optimization approach with continuous solid elements in order
since these joints themselves as well as their connection to the envi to solve the disadvantage of restricted element positions due to discrete
ronment are represented in automotive assemblies as discrete structural elements. Yang et al. (2019) even extended the method by performing
elements, the studies related to spot weld joints can be transferred to topology optimizations at global and local levels. Advantage of the joint
other joining elements as well. topology optimization is the possibility to combine it with classical to
The following three methods have been identified by Ryberg and pology optimization. In this context, Woischwill and Kim (2018) pro
Nilsson (2016) in order to reduce the number of spot welds in auto posed a method which enables the determination of the optimal
motive assemblies (this addresses research question Q2): topology of multi-material components and simultaneously of the
optimal joining design (e.g. the quantity and the type of joints as well as
• ranking based selection, their distribution) between dissimilar materials. Their method is based
• joint topology optimization and on an approach where the optimization problem is decomposed into two
• size optimization of a parametrized model. smaller subproblems: (i) multi-material topology optimization (MMTO)
and (ii) multi-joint topology optimization (MJTO). The objective of
Ranking based selection deals with the successive removal of joints MMTO is to determine the optimal distribution of two solid materials,
and considers the extent to which this affects the properties of the whereas MJTO aims at reducing the total joining cost while keeping the
overall assembly. Hereby, the status of each joint is represented by a compliance of the domain equal to or less than the optimal objective
binary variable indicating an existing joint (”1”) or a missing joint (”0”), function value of the original MMTO subproblem (Woischwill and Kim,
respectively. This method is applied, for example, in Savic and Xu 2018). The authors demonstrated the functionality of their method by
(2003) to reduce the number of spot welds in different assemblies means of different examples, e.g. the Messerschmitt-Bölow-Blohm beam
considering static stiffness load cases and/or modal analysis. Here, in Fig. 10. Here, the optimal distribution of two structural materials
optimized solutions are found by excluding the most critical joints on the (steel and aluminum) and two joint types (weld and bond) was found
basis of stress values. For the minimization of the number of spot welds while minimizing both structural compliance and joining cost. However,
in a body in white (BIW), Ouisse and Cogan (2010) removed less Pakalapati et al. (2011) point out that joint topology optimization is
important joints in each iteration. For this, all load cases have been restricted to linear load cases.
simulated and the spot welds have been ranked according to their strain In contrast to ranking-based selection and topology optimization, the
energies, forces or stresses in the spot weld elements, respectively. After third method size optimization of a parameterized model uses spot weld
summing up these ranks, as proposed by Savic and Xu (2003), the least densities along connection lines as variables and optimizes them
important spot welds were eliminated. For the identification of the least (Ryberg and Nilsson, 2016). According to Yan et al. (2021), this method
important joints, Ouisse and Cogan (2010) used the relative elastic can be further classified into two groups: (i) weld layouts with an
strain energy. Further alternative optimization algorithms are discussed equal-spacing design and (ii) weld layouts with an unequal-spacing
by Hasegawa et al. (2007) and Mario et al. (2013) aiming at reducing design. Size optimization of a parameterized model is successfully
computational costs and improving convergence. It should be noted that applied by different authors considering various combinations of static
ranking based selection can consider both linear and non-linear load and/or dynamic loading scenario. For example, this method is used for
cases and does not require any optimization (Ryberg and Nilsson, 2016). the optimization of a spot welded-thin-walled hat section by Xiang et al.
However, according to Yang et al. (2019), the result of the ranking based (2006), of a foam filled spot-welded column by Shariati et al. (2010) as
selection might be influenced by the initial joint distribution. In addi well as of vehicle structures by Patil et al. (2014) and by Wu et al.
tion, spot welds once removed cannot be reapplied. An advancement of (2010). In general, the model is parameterized to reduce the number of
this method by Bhatti et al. (2011) enables the reactivation of spot welds variables of the model (Ryberg and Nilsson, 2016). Hereby, a certain
in sensitive regions by using an adaptive optimization algorithm. The number of spot welds in a defined area (e.g. lines along all spot weld
8
Fig. 9. Illustration of optimizing the spatial distribution of spot welds (adapted from Bhatti et al. (2011)): a) FE model of BIW, b) Initial distribution of spot welds, c)
Optimized distribution of spot welds (black: retained, green: removed, red: added). ”Reprinted from Computers & Structures, 89, Q.I. Bhatti, M. Ouisse, S. Cogan, An
adaptive optimization procedure for spot-welded structures, 1697-1711, Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier”
Fig. 10. Comparison between multi-material topology optimization (top) and multi-joint topology optimization (bottom) for the Messerschmitt-Bölow-Blohm beam
(Woischwill and Kim, 2018). ”Reprinted from Journal of Advanced Joining Processes, 115, C. Woischwill and I.Y. Kim, Multimaterial multijoint topology optimi
zation, 13-28, Copyright (2018), with permission from John Wiley and Sons”.
flanges affected by the optimization) is treated as a design variable the influences of the joining process, i.e. change of material and geo
instead of considering each spot weld individually. For the approxima metric properties (e.g. residual stresses, pre-deformation or damage),
tion of detailed models and the reduction of computational time, met are not considered.
amodels can be used in size optimization. However, if these metamodels
cannot be sufficiently realized, detailed simulations have to be directly
Load path analysis as a design tool for joined structures
incorporated within the optimization process. Ryberg and Nilsson
(2016) highlight that size optimization can consider load cases based on
Besides the presented methods for the design of the joints and their
simulations of both linear and non-linear systems simultaneously.
distribution, there are further methods for the design process. Based on
However, accurate model preparation and coupling between the opti
joined assemblies, load values can be determined for individual joints,
mization software and a pre-processor are also essential.
which can then be used in a detailed analysis of the joint. The load path
As has been shown by a comparison of the mentioned methods in
analysis is appropriate to visualize load paths in components during the
Ryberg and Nilsson (2016) for different load cases, an optimal solution is
design process and is usually based on results of a finite element analysis
not achieved by ranking-based selection, as it is not an optimization
(FEA). This enables the analysis of the load distribution in a single joint,
method in the mathematical sense. Topology optimization enables the
in a component or in an overall assembly. Results from the simulation of
removal of approximately twice the amount of spot welds and is addi
the clinching process can be used in a following simulation of the
tionally characterized by lower modeling and computational efforts
loading of a single joint for its detailed analysis. The visualization of load
than size optimization of a parameterized model. However, it is gener
paths in components allows the assessment of the design and structural
ally limited to load cases based on linear analyses. In contrast, size
integrity and can qualitatively show how the loads are redistributed in
optimization of a parameterized model is suitable for a combination of
case of local damage (Kelly and Elsley, 1995). The load path analysis can
simulations of linear and non-linear systems, whereby this is accompa
also be used to analyze alternative load paths for changes in lifetime
nied by a significant effort in terms of model preparation as well as
(Marhadi and Venkataraman, 2009) and is suitable for identifying crit
time-consuming simulations. Ryberg and Nilsson (2016) conclude that
ical regions in a component (Kelly et al., 2011a). It is increasingly used
the last two methods have the best potential to identify redundant spot
in civil engineering for the design of reinforced concrete structures. The
welds and, hence, to optimize the structure: (i) topology optimization
design of reinforced concrete using load path analysis is listed in the
for load cases involving simulations of linear systems and (ii) size
standard as an acceptable alternative to stress trajectories and stress
optimization of a parameterized model for more complex, nonlinear
distributions analysis for the design of truss models (DIN EN 1992-1-1,
analyses. A shortcoming of the presented optimization methods is that
2004). Li et al. (2005) used the load path analysis for designing the
9
fiber orientation in fiber-reinforced plastic composites. Suzuki et al. Marhadi and Venkataraman (2009) presented a comprehensive
(2020) applied the load path visualization for the fiber optimization for overview of the different methods of load path analysis including an
additive manufacturing of composites. Another field of application for assessment of their performance. The easiest form of load path analysis
load path analysis is the construction of steel structures. For these is based on the direction vectors of the largest principal stress in the
structures, Moldenhauer (2012) applied the load path analysis to screw integration points from the FEA. This approach provides good results for
connections and rivet joints. Here, the load path in a connection plate regions with low shear stress and without multi-axial stress states
with four riveted joints was analyzed. Moldenhauer (2017) also used the because the principal stress vectors align along an expected load path if
developed method for optimizing the orientation of fibers in fiber-plastic the proportion of the smallest principal stress is low.
composites. In order to overcome the limitations regarding the visualization of
The approach by Moldenhauer (2012) is based on the general shear stress, Kelly and Elsley (1995) developed an alternative calcula
equations of force equilibrium tion approach for load paths and presented a basic approach based on an
iterative solution for the calculation of the rotation angle β. This rotation
σ ij,j + fi = 0 , (1)
angle results from the stress tensor and coordinates from the FEA. In the
first step for identifying load paths, it is necessary to define an exami
where σ are the mechanical stresses and f are the volume forces. σ ij,j
nation direction (in this case the x-direction of the coordinate system).
represents the derivative of the stress component σ ij with respect to the
The assumption is that a force equilibrium (F1 = F2 ) along a path be
spatial direction xj .
tween the point of force application and the bearing exists. For plane
By neglecting the volume forces, this results in the force equilibria in
stress, the coordinate system u − v rotated by an angle β to the original
x-, y- and z-direction
x − y-system is introduced, see Fig. 11a). The obtained stresses in the u,
∂σ xx ∂σ xy ∂σ xz v-coordinate system read
+ + =0 (2)
∂x ∂y ∂z σxx + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ uu = + cos2β + σxy sin2β (5)
2 2
∂σ yx ∂σ yy ∂σ yz
+ + =0 (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z σxx + σ yy σ xx − σ yy
σ vv = − cos2β − σxy sin2β (6)
2 2
∂σ zx ∂σzy ∂σ zz
+ + = 0. (4) σxx − σ yy
∂x ∂y ∂z σ uv = − sin2β + σ xy cos2β. (7)
2
Then, the stresses (or forces) can be computed at the edges of the finite Please note that the rotation of the local coordinate system is per
elements in the respective directions and load paths can be determined. formed under the condition that an equilibrium exists between the
Please note that the resulting forces at the edges of the elements are projection of the shear stress σ uvx and normal stress σuux projected onto a
dependent on the chosen examination direction.
Fig. 11. (a) Rotation, i.e., stresses in the x − y- and the rotated u − v-coordinate system. (b) Calculation scheme for load paths in x-direction of the coordinate system,
according to the approach by Kelly and Elsley (1995). (c) A simple hole plate under tensile loading with two exemplary load paths.
10
reference axis (in this case the x-axis), see Fig. 11(b). Fig. 11(c) shows et al. (2018) mention computational efficiency, computational
the basic approach to analyze the load path according to Kelly and simplicity, elimination of post-processing for the visualization of
Elsley (1995) for a simple hole plate under tensile loading in the x-di obtaining load paths and load flow information. The disadvantage of all
rection with two exemplary load paths. these approaches is the dependence of the solution on the alignment of
Applying the addition theorems to Eqs. (5)-(7) results in Eqs. (8)- the coordinate system and thus of the examination direction to the
(10): effective load and it is, therefore, not transferable to complex assemblies
without adjustments. Steinfelder and Brosius (2020) presented a new
σ uu = σ xx cos2 β + σ yy sin2 β + 2σxy sinβcosβ (8)
approach for the analysis of a load. In comparison to other approaches,
this new method is independent of the alignment of the specimen in the
σ vv = σ xx sin2 β + σ yy cos2 β − 2σxy sinβcosβ (9)
global coordinate system. The assumption for this new method is, that a
( ) ( ) load can be represented independently of a (chosen) direction by an
σ uv = − σxx − σ yy sinβcosβ + σ xy cos2 β − sin2 β (10)
effective force. The effective force is determined by stress components at
The normal stress component σuu and the shear stress component σ uv the considered point by using the principal stresses from the FEA.
can be calculated by Eqs. (5) and (7) at a point on an arbitrary plane. By Steinfelder et al. (2021) extended their approach and applied it to a
applying Eqs. (8), (10) and (11), the angle β can be determined itera clinch joint in the next step. The investigation was carried out with a 2D
tively. In the next step, the angle of the tangents α – where α = β +90∘ – axisymmetric FE simulation of a clinch joint, in the cross tension test. By
can be used to build and visualize the load path. The exemplary load computing the effective force, load concentrations in the component can
paths shown in Fig. 11c) are related to an examination direction in the be identified and direction information for the load path analysis is
x-direction of the coordinate system, i.e., the equilibrium of forces, in included. A further analysis strategy based on the FEA is proposed by
which F2 − F1 = 0 is fulfilled. According to Kelly and Elsley (1995), this Wischer et al. (2021). The presentation was made by friction spun joint
results in connectors in order to identify the critical regions for load transfer. A
new approach based on the consideration of the deformation energy as a
σ uux − σ uvx = σuu cosβ − σ uv sinβ = 0 . (11) function of a change in stiffness was developed for the evaluation of the
load-bearing behavior of the joined connection. The Young’s modulus is
From Eq. (11) follows
reduced step by step for each element and the energy of the system is
σuu σ cos2 β + σ yy sin2 β + 2σ xy sinβcosβ calculated. The difference for every step is calculated by using the en
tanβ = = ( xx ) ( ) , (12) ergy of an unaffected system. The energy difference provides informa
σuv σ xy cos2 β − sin2 β − σ xx − σyy sinβcosβ
tion about the contribution to load transfer of the individual areas.
which – as the stresses σ uu and σ uv are dependent on β – has to be solved Concluding, the load path analysis can be applied during the design
iteratively. process of joined connections and can be seen as a possible alternative or
Please note that in Waldman et al. (2002), an analytical solution complementary method to the methods listed in Section 3.3. The in
based on the work of Kelly and Elsley (1995) for determining the pro formation about the load distribution and the load path can be used in
jection angle β is given for a specific case, i.e. a load path in x-direction. the design phase to support the adjustment of the joint position, the joint
In further work the visualization of load paths was investigated by size and the joint quantity as well as a possible adaptation of the
Kelly et al. (2011b). To depict the load path contour, a fourth-order component. It should be noted, that special attention has to be laid on
Runge-Kutta scheme is used for the identification of the load paths. the choice of the evaluation direction within the load path analysis. The
Kelly et al. (2011a) focused on the interpretation of load paths, provided methods presented here are aimed at research questions Q1 and Q2 and
force flow diagrams based on exemplary loads and discussed them af can provide information on the distribution of joints and the prediction
terwards. Naito et al. (2012) used an index-based approach developed of their load capacities.
by Takahashi and Sakurai (2005) to describe load transfer in structures
and applied it to components joined by spot welding. It is possible to use Robustness in process design and evaluation of the reliability of joints
the variable U∗ to determine whether or not a region of a structure has
the potential to transmit load. Hereby, the ’load path index’ U∗ (Naito Manufacturing processes in general and, thus, also forming processes
et al., 2012) is a measure of the strength of a connection between a load such as joining are always subject to statistical fluctuations which are
application point or bearing point and any arbitrary point in between. usually not taken into account in deterministic design methods. The
The assumption is that regions with a high U∗ value contribute more to stochastic influences acting on a process include, for example, material-
load transfer and the load paths can be built through the regions with the related variations (such as surface roughness, anisotropy, in
highest U∗ values. The load path index U∗ is calculated using the strain homogeneities), tool-side variability (such as wear, temperature
energy stored, see Eq. (13). dependence and tolerances) and process-side variations (such as punch
speed, press stiffness and blankholder force) (Col, 2003). In order to
U
U∗ = 1 − (13) prevent component misproduction and failure in service, conservative
U′ safety factors are usually used. However, they limit the usable process
Here, U is the strain energy stored in the entire body when the point in window and thus the material utilization (Wiebenga et al., 2014). In
addition, the safety factors are determined purely heuristically and,
the body is unrestrained and U is the strain energy stored in the entire
′
strictly speaking, have to be calculated separately for each load case,

body when the same point in the body is restrained. Furthermore, re
process and material, i.e. they are not adaptable.
gions can be identified where point shaped joints should be positioned in
Due to the high number of joints in a structure or assembly, it is not
order to achieve an effective load transfer to adjacent parts.
possible to perform a verification for each joint. In addition, some joints
Gharibi et al. (2017) determined load paths in plates and shells by
fail during operation due to cyclic loads and/or fatigue. A detailed dis
using a load path function and Tamijani et al. (2018) developed a ’load
cussion on the failure of joints due to fatigue cracks and corrosion will be
function method’ for the visualization of load paths in plane stress or
given in part III (Schramm et al., 2022) of this review series. For this
strain elasticity problems. The stresses are written in terms of a load
reason, in addition to the joint layout itself, there is also a great interest
function which is derived from 2D equilibrium equations. The load path
in the robustness of the joint layout, i.e., the influence of the failure of
can be calculated by using the gradient of the load function. Load paths
joints on selected design criteria.
for plane stress structures are determined and compared to results from
To evaluate the robustness of joining layouts, Donders et al. (2006)
Kelly et al. (2011a). As main advantages of the new method, Tamijani
divided the existing joints in a vehicle body into two groups, damaged
11
and undamaged joints, based on a (weighted) selection probability. The global behavior of the component and the local stress-strain-behavior
joints identified as damaged were removed from the model. Monte Carlo near the joints, an efficient coupling between the equivalent modeling
robustness analyses were then performed to evaluate the torsion and technique and the detailed 3D finite element approach would be rec
bending modes and to use them to analyze the effect of spot weld failure ommended. Furthermore, optimization-based methods have been pre
on the dynamic vehicle characteristics. In Sommer et al. (2013), a sented which are able to reduce the number of joints and optimize their
method for predicting the load-bearing capacity of similar spot-welded arrangement. As an alternative or complementary method for the design
joints of steel materials is presented. The aim of the study is to and analysis of point-shaped joints, the load path analysis has been
describe the load-bearing capacity of these joints under scattering introduced. The information stemming from the load path analysis –
influencing variables. This method and the results are limited in their obtained for a specified examination direction – can be used to optimize
applicability in that dissimilar or multi-layer spot-welded joints are joint position, joint size and number of joints. Finally, an overview of
predominant in automobiles. The robustness of a topology-optimized specialized numerical methods to determine the robustness of the
spot-weld layout was demonstrated in Cui et al. (2014) using a truck joining design with respect to the failure of individual joints has been
cab. The optimized layout increased the robustness compared to the given.
initial layout for static bending and torsion as well as the first modal The methods presented here are able to answer the research ques
frequency. The selection of the joints was based on the strain energy tions ’Which methods exist to predict the loading of clinch joints during
density. This approach is very similar to the criterion presented in the design phase?’ (Q1) and ’What is the minimal number of clinch
Donders et al. (2006). Bhatti et al. (2011) divide the cause of failure of joints and their optimal distribution within an assembly?’ (Q2). As has
joints into the two categories, (i) manufacturing uncertainties and (ii) been shown, there exist a variety of numerical methods to treat me
fatigue. In the former category, a homogeneous statistical distribution of chanical clinching in the design phase. Unfortunately, it is an enormous
defects is assumed, while for the latter, a selection is performed based on challenge to evaluate the different approaches. A recommendation for
the loading in the joints. The reason for this is that more heavily loaded validating the different numerical methods and associated software
joints have a higher risk of failure than less heavily loaded ones. The tools is to define representative benchmark problems. Based on these
evaluation of the load intensity is based on an energy criterion, similar to experimental results, a comparison and an evaluation can be performed,
the one used for topology optimization (Bhatti et al., 2011). Monte Carlo similarly to existing other benchmark challenges in additive
simulations with 200 samples were performed to investigate the manufacturing (Levine et al., 2020; NIST, 2022) or in failure mechanics
process-induced uncertainty. The large number of analyses to be per (Hinton et al., 2004). As the simulation chain of the clinching process
formed was taken as an opportunity in Bhatti et al. (2011) to introduce consists not only of the design phase, the further phases, i.e., the process
an alternative method, the ’Info-Gap Robustness Analysis’, for evalu simulation of the clinching process and the operating phase (e.g.
ating the robustness of joining designs. In this method, robustness is corrosion phenomena and fatigue crack growth), are investigated in the
defined as the worst case performance for a given level of uncertainty, following parts II and III of this review series, respectively.
which is defined as the number of missing/failed joints. By means of this
robustness analysis a small number of critical joints can be identified. Declaration of Competing Interest
The quality of these joints has to be controlled to ensure the safety of the
design. The methodology proposed in Ouisse and Cogan (2010) gives The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
not only indicators of the robustness of a joining design but also shows interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the compromise between improved robustness and higher assembly and the work reported in this paper.
quality control costs.
In summary, numerical methods exist to optimize not only the Acknowledgment
number and position of joints in a structure, but also to determine the
robustness of the joining design with respect to the failure of individual This research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
joints. (DFG, German Research Foundation), project number 418701707 - TRR
285. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support.
Summary
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12
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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 6 (2022) 100133

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

A Review on the Modeling of the Clinching Process Chain - Part I:

Introduction contributes to a better safety and a higher environmental sustainability

Fig. 2. Detailed description of the simulation chain of the clinching process.

Analytical design of mechanical joints Numerical design of mechanical joints

strictly speaking, have to be calculated separately for each load case,

rounding area. For industrial applications, in order to obtain both the

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