Chemical formulae, equations and

Chapter calculations Part 1

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Year 4 - IGCSE Chemistry Textbook pages: 38-41

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

You should be able to:

1. write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols):

• for reactions studied in this specification

• for unfamiliar reactions where suitable information is provided.

1 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

In order to write a chemical equation correctly, you should be able to write chemical
formulae. Chemical formulae are shorthand ways of representing chemical
substances. Chemical equations show what happens during a chemical reaction or
change.

Formulae of metals

When writing the formula of a metal just take its chemical symbol from the Periodic
Table. For example:

Chemical Chemical
Name of metal Name of metal
Formula Formula
lithium barium
sodium aluminium
potassium copper
rubidium iron
magnesium zinc
calcium nickel
strontium silver

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Formulae of ionic compounds

If a substance is made from metal and non-metal then it is an ionic compound. Even
though ionic compounds are made up of positive and negative ions, they are
electrically neutral. The formula simply gives the simplest whole number ratio
between positive and negative ions to have zero charge overall.

Use the following steps to write the formula of an ionic compound:

1. Write down the formulae, including the charge, of the positive and the negative
ions. For main group elements, you can get the charge from the group:

Group in Periodic Charge on Group in Periodic Charge on

Table ion Table ion
1 1+ 5 3-
2 2+ 6 2-
3 3+ 7 1-

These are the ions you need to memorise:

Name Formula Name Formula

zinc ion Zn2+ nitrate NO3-
silver ion Ag+ hydroxide OH-
copper(I) ion Cu+ carbonate CO32-
copper(II) ion Cu2+ sulfate SO42-
iron(II) ion Fe2+
iron(III) ion Fe3+
lead(II) ion Pb2+
hydrogen ion H+
ammonium ion NH4+

Note that Roman numerals after an element indicate its charge. Such numerals
are used when elements, usually transition metals, have variable charges.

Roman numeral Charge Roman numeral Charge

I 1+ IV 4+
II 2+ V 5+
III 3+ VI 6+

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2. Cross over the numbers in the charges to get the formula. Remember:

• When then charges on the positive and negative ions are the same, there is
no need to swap over the numbers.

• Brackets are used round the polyatomic ions.

Example 1: lithium fluoride Example 2: lithium oxide

lithium fluorine lithium oxygen

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 7

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 6
Li+ F- : LiF Li+ O2- : Li2O

Example 3: magnesium sulfide Example 4: iron(III) sulfate

magnesium sulfur iron(III) sulfate

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 2

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 6

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 6

Mg2+ S2- : MgS Fe3+ SO42- : Fe2(SO4)3

Example 5: calcium nitride Example 6: barium nitrate

calcium nitrogen barium nitrate

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 6

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 1

→
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 6

Number 1 is not written in chemical formulae!

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Test yourself

1. Give the formulae of the following ionic compounds.

Formula of ionic
Name Formulae of ions
compound
1. potassium bromide

2. calcium oxide

3. potassium chloride

4. cobalt(II) chloride

5. potassium hydride

6. chromium(III) chloride

7. silver bromide

8. silver chloride

9. copper(I) oxide

10. copper(II) carbonate

11. silver iodide

12. copper(II) chloride

13. silver nitrate

14. sodium carbonate

15. iron(II) oxide

16. copper(II) oxide

17. sodium hydroxide

18. sodium chloride

19. copper(II) sulfate

20. iron(II) carbonate

21. copper(II) nitrate

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 Formula of ionic
Name Formulae of ions
compound
22. iron(II) chloride

23. iron(II) hydroxide

24. sodium sulfate

25. silver oxide

26. zinc carbonate

27. iron(II) sulfate

28. zinc chloride

29. iron(III) chloride

30. zinc hydroxide

31. zinc oxide

32. zinc nitrate

33. iron(III) hydroxide

34. silver sulfate

35. lead(II) oxide

36. aluminium carbonate

37. sodium nitride

38. zinc nitrate

39. iron(III) carbonate

40. calcium hydroxide

41. strontium iodide

42. caesium oxide

43. vanadium(V) oxide

44. manganese(IV) oxide

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Formulae of noble gases

Noble gases have a full outer shell, so they exist as monoatomic particles. So, their
formula is just the chemical symbol from the Periodic Table.

Name of noble gas Chemical Symbol

helium

neon

argon

krypton

xenon

radon

Formulae of covalent elements

The main non-metallic elements exist as simple molecular structures consisting of

diatomic molecules.

Mnemonic!
I Iodine, I2
Bring Bromine, Br2
Cookies Chlorine, Cl2
For Fluorine, F2
Our Oxygen, O2
New Nitrogen, N2
Home Hydrogen, H2

Note that the chemical formula of an element with giant covalent structure is
just its chemical symbol form the Periodic Table. For example, the chemical
formula of diamond or graphite is C.

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Formulae of covalent compounds

If a substance is made only from non-metals atoms joined together, then it is

covalent. Simple molecular structures are made up of covalent molecules. The
formula gives the number of atoms in each molecule.

You can use two ways to work out the formula of a covalent molecule:

1. Draw the dot and cross diagram of the molecule using the outer shell electrons

2. Use valencies of atoms involved

The valency is the combining power of an element or the number of bonds the
atom of the element can make. You can find the valency of a non-metallic
element from its position in the Periodic Table.

For elements in groups 4-8:

valency of group
= 8 -
non-metal number

Note that the valency of hydrogen is 1.

For example, ammonia is a covalent molecule made up of nitrogen and hydrogen

atoms:

Dot and cross diagram Valencies

Group: 5 1

N H

Valency: 3 1

Formula: NH3 Formula: NH3

Number 1 is not written in chemical formulae!

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Test yourself

1. Give the chemical formula of methane (a molecule made of carbon and hydrogen
atoms)

Dot and cross diagram Valencies

Group:

Valency:

Formula: Formula:

2. Give the chemical formula of phosphine (a molecule made of phosphorus and

hydrogen atoms)

Dot and cross diagram Valencies

Group:

Valency:

Formula: Formula:

3. Give the chemical formula of water (a molecule made of oxygen and hydrogen
atoms)

Dot and cross diagram Valencies

Group:

Valency:

Formula: Formula:

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Many non-metals have variable valences. Roman numerals are used to distinguish
between them. For example,

phosphorus(III) oxide phosphorus(V) oxide

P O P O
Valency: Valency:

Formula: Formula:

The formulae of compounds composed of molecules are best found from their
names, since valences may vary.

Name of the compound Formula

carbon dioxide

carbon monoxide

nitrogen monoxide

nitrogen dioxide

hydrogen chloride

sulfur dioxide

sulfur trioxide

phosphorus trichloride

phosphorus pentachloride

silicon tetrafluoride

Formulae of acids

Name of acid Chemical formula Name of acid Chemical formula

hydrochloric acid HCl carbonic acid H2CO3

nitric acid HNO3 phosphoric acid H3PO4

sulfuric acid H2SO4 ethanoic acid CH3COOH

sulfurous acid H2SO3

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2 NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Many compounds are named using simple rules but there are some which have
‘trivial’ names that are not fixed by the rules. It is important that you learn the names
and formulae of these compounds.

Naming ionic compounds

1. First write the name of the cation (metal) and then the anion (non-metal).

2. The suffix of the non-metal changes to -ide. This applies when the compound is
binary – only two elements are present.

Depending on the negative ion present the compound is called:

Type of compound Examples

hydride lithium hydride, LiH
sodium oxide, Na2O
oxide
calcium oxide, CaO
sulfide sodium sulfide, Na2S
nitride magnesium nitride, Mg3N2
chloride magnesium chloride, MgCl2 The compounds of
bromide zinc bromide, ZnBr2 Group 7 elements are
also called halides.
iodide potassium iodide, KI

sodium hydroxide, NaOH Note that the hydroxides

hydroxide
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 are not binary compounds

3. Once you have an ‘ate’ ending, it means that there is oxygen (and possibly other
things) there as well.

Name of oxo-anion Formula Examples

sodium nitrate, NaNO3

nitrate NO3-
magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
carbonate CO32-
ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3
iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4
sulfate SO42-
iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3

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4. Some elements, mainly transition metals, have variable charges. We indicate
that in a bracket, using Roman numbers, after the name of the metal.

Formula of ionic compound Name of ionic compound

PbCl2

PbCl4

Fe(OH)2

Fe(OH)3

Cu2O

CuO

Naming covalent compounds

For compounds containing two non-metal atoms the actual number of atoms of the
element present is stated. For example:

Formula of covalent Name of covalent

compound compound
CO carbon monoxide mono- means one

CO2 carbon dioxide di- means two

SO2 sulfur dioxide

SO3 sulfur trioxide tri- means three

SiCl4 silicon tetrachloride tetra- means four

There are some molecules that do not follow the above rules. You will need to learn
their names and formulae.

Formula of covalent Name of covalent

compound compound
H2O water

H2O2 hydrogen peroxide

NH3 ammonia

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Test yourself

1. Give the name of each of the substances in the table below:

Chemical Formula Workings Name

1. H2O

2. CO2

3. NH3

4. O2

5. H2

6. SO2

7. SO3

8. HCl

9. HI

10. HF

11. H2S

12. HBr

13. H2SO4

14. HNO3

15. NaCl

16. NaNO3

17. Na2CO3

18. NaOH

19. Na2SO4

20. CaCl2

21. Ca(NO3)2

22. Ca(OH)2

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Chemical Formula Workings Name

23. CaSO4

24. BaCl2

25. AlCl3

26. Al(NO3)3

27. Al2(SO4)3

28. FeSO4

29. FeCl2

30. FeCl3

31. Fe2(SO4)3

32. PbO

33. PbO2

34. Pb(NO3)2

35. PbCl2

36. PbSO4

37. Cu(NO3)2

38. CuCl

39. CuCl2

40. CuSO4

41. ZnCl2

42. AgNO3

43. NH4Cl

44. (NH4)2SO4

45. (NH4)2CO3

46. KI

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3 WRITING EQUATIONS

A chemical equation describes what happens during a chemical reaction. It shows

the starting substances (the reactants) on the left and the final substances (the
products) on the right, separated by an arrow:

reactants → products

There are two types of chemical equation that you could be asked to write:

• Word equations
• Symbol equations

Symbol equations are usually called chemical equations. All chemical equations must
be balanced.

Follow these steps when writing chemical equations:

1. Write a word equation

2. Put in the symbols and formulae

Using your knowledge of writing formulae represent each substance by its

formula.

3. Balance the equation

Balancing an equation involves making sure that the same number of atoms
appear on both sides (law of conservation of mass). This is done by counting
and multiplying by a suitable integer co–efficient which we place in front of the
formula of the substance.

Balancing can only be done by inspection, trial and error.

4. Include state symbols if the question asks for them

(s) - solid (l) - liquid

(g) - gas (aq) - aqueous solution (dissolves in water)

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How to determine the correct state symbol of a substance

To give as much information as possible in a chemical equation, the physical states

of the substances must be indicated. The condition of the reaction must be taken
into account – if the chemical reaction takes place in water, the soluble substances
are in the aqueous state.

Here are some hints that may help you.

Physical state at Solubility in

Substance Comments
room temperature water

Exception: mercury is
Metals solid ---
a liquid

Many ionic
compounds are
Ionic soluble in water
solid
compounds forming aqueous
solutions (see next
table)

Examples:
Giant
solid ---
covalent
C(s), Si(s), SiO2(s)

Examples: Soluble gases:

solid I2(s), P4O10(s), PCl5(s) Halogens – F2(aq),

Cl2(aq), Br2(aq),
liquid or Br2(l) I2(aq)
Simple
molecular
gas H2(g), O2(g), N2(g), HCl(aq), NH3(aq),
F2(g), Cl2(g) SO2(aq), NO2(aq)
CO(g), CO2(g),
HCl(g), NH3(g),
SO2(g), NO2(g)

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Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. The table shows the solubility of some
common ionic compounds.

Ionic compound Soluble Insoluble

sodium ✓
potassium ✓
ammonium ✓
nitrates ✓
chlorides ✓ AgCl(s), PbCl2(s)
sulfates ✓ CaSO4(s), BaSO4(s), PbSO4(s)

Na2CO3(aq), K2CO3(aq) ,
carbonates ✓
(NH4)2CO3(aq)

NaOH(aq), KOH(aq),
hydroxides ✓
NH4OH(aq)

Metal oxides are insoluble. However, some metal oxides when mixed with water they
react with it forming the corresponding metal hydroxide solution. This applies for
group 1 oxides (Li2O, Na2O, K2O) and group 2 oxides (CaO, BaO).

Group 1 oxides: Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq)

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)

Group 2 oxides: CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (s and aq) slightly soluble in water

BaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(aq)

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Test yourself

1. Balance the following chemical equations.

(a) KClO3(s) → KCl(s) + O2(g)

(b) H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + O2(g)

(c) NH3(g) + O2(g) → N2(g) + H2O(g)

(d) Fe(s) + H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)

(e) H2S(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) + SO2(g)

(f) H2S(g) + SO2(g) → H2O(l) + S(s)

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2. Give the word and chemical equations, including state symbols, for the following
reactions:

(a) Solid sodium carbonate reacts with an aqueous solution of dilute hydrochloric
acid to give an aqueous solution of sodium chloride, water and carbon
dioxide gas.

Word ………………………………………………………………………………………..
equation

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

(b) When magnesium metal burns in air (reacts with oxygen) solid magnesium
oxide is formed.

Word ………………………………………………………………………………………..
equation

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

(c) Sodium metal reacts with water to give sodium hydroxide solution and
hydrogen gas.

Word ………………………………………………………………………………………..
equation

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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 (d) Methane (natural gas, CH4) burns in air to give carbon dioxide and water (as
steam).

Word ………………………………………………………………………………………..
equation

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

3. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.

(a) copper + oxygen → copper(II) oxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

(b) calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

(c) iron + hydrochloric acid → iron(II) chloride + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

(d) iron + chlorine → iron(III) chloride

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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4 END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS

Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions. Include state symbols.

1. hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

2. magnesium + steam → magnesium oxide + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

3. lead(II) carbonate → lead(II) oxide + carbon

dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

4. zinc sulfate + potassium → zinc + potassium

hydroxide hydroxide sulfate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

5. aluminium → aluminium + nitrogen + oxygen

nitrate oxide dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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6. nitric acid → water + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

7. carbon + sulfuric → water + sulfur + carbon

acid dioxide dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

8. copper(II) + carbon → copper + carbon

oxide monoxide dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

9. iron(II) + barium → iron(II) + barium

sulfate chloride chloride sulfate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

10. silver + calcium → silver + calcium

nitrate chloride chloride nitrate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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11. aluminium + sulfuric → aluminium + hydrogen
acid sulfate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

12. nitric acid + iron(II) → iron(II) + water

oxide nitrate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

13. copper + conc. sulfuric → copper(II) + water + sulfur

acid sulfate dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

14. ammonium + potassium → potassium + ammonia + water

sulfate hydroxide sulfate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

15. ammonium + sulfuric → ammonium + water + carbon

carbonate acid sulfate dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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16. carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

17. hydrogen + oxygen → water

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

18. magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

19. hydrogen + nitrogen → ammonia

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

20. ammonia + oxygen → nitrogen + water

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

21. lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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22. calcium + silver → silver + calcium
chloride nitrate chloride nitrate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

23. iron + sulfuric acid → iron(II) sulfate + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

24. magnesium + hydrochloric → magnesium + water

oxide acid chloride

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

25. barium + sodium → barium + sodium

chloride sulfate sulfate chloride

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

26. chlorine + potassium bromide → bromine + potassium chloride

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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27. potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

28. calcium + nitric → calcium + carbon + water

carbonate acid nitrate dioxide

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

29. zinc nitrate → zinc oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

30. sodium + sulfuric acid → sodium + water

hydroxide sulfate

Chemical ………………………………………………………………………………………
equation

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Additional notes:

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