Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of
conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic
discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences.
Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to
neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and
groups.[1][2] Ψ (psi), the first letter of the Greek word psyche from which the term psychology is
derived (see below), is commonly associated with the science.

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a psychologist. Some

psychologists can also be classified as behavioral or cognitive scientists. Some psychologists
attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior. Others explore
the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence,

subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. Psychologists' interests
extend to interpersonal relationships, psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas
within social psychology. They also consider the unconscious mind.[3] Research psychologists
employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial
variables. Some, but not all, clinical and counseling psychologists rely on symbolic interpretation.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health
problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of
human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.[4][5][6] Many
psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing psychotherapy in clinical,
counseling, or school settings. Other psychologists conduct scientific research on a wide range of
topics related to mental processes and behavior. Typically the latter group of psychologists work in
academic settings (e.g., universities, medical schools, or hospitals). Another group of psychologists
is employed in industrial and organizational settings.[7] Yet others are involved in work on human
development, aging, sports, health, forensic science, education, and the media.

Etymology and definitions

The word psychology derives from the Greek word psyche, for spirit or soul. The latter part of the
word "psychology" derives from -λογία -logia, which refers to "study" or "research".[8] The Latin word
psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book,
Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae (Psychology, on the Nature of the Human Soul) in the late
15th century or early 16th century.[9] The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English
was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary. The dictionary refers to "Anatomy, which
treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[10]

In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena
and their conditions."[11] This definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. However, this
meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such as John B. Watson, who in 1913
asserted that the discipline is a "natural science", the theoretical goal of which "is the prediction and
control of behavior."[12] Since James defined "psychology", the term more strongly implicates
scientific experimentation.[13][12] Folk psychology refers to ordinary people's, as contrasted with
psychology professionals', understanding of the mental states and behaviors of people.[14]

History

The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical
study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought
disorders.[15] Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle
(especially in his De Anima treatise),[16] addressed the workings of the mind.[17] As early as the 4th
century BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather
than supernatural causes.[18] In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes
take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart.[19]

In China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius,
and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from
introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and acting. It frames the
universe in term of a division of physical reality and mental reality as well as the interaction between
the physical and the mental. Chinese philosophy also emphasized purifying the mind in order to
increase virtue and power. An ancient text known as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal
Medicine identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality
based on yin–yang balance, and analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social
disequilibria. Chinese scholarship that focused on the brain advanced during the Qing Dynasty with
the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), Liu Zhi (1660–1730), and Wang Qingren
(1768–1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous
system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and
insomnia, and advanced a theory of hemispheric lateralization in brain function.[20]
Influenced by Hinduism, Indian philosophy explored distinctions in types of awareness. A central
idea of the Upanishads and other Vedic texts that formed the foundations of Hinduism was the
distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their eternal, unchanging soul. Divergent
Hindu doctrines and Buddhism have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasized
the importance of reaching higher awareness. Yoga encompasses a range of techniques used in
pursuit of this goal. Theosophy, a religion established by Russian-American philosopher Helena
Blavatsky, drew inspiration from these doctrines during her time in British India.[21][22]

Psychology was of interest to Enlightenment thinkers in Europe. In Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm

Leibniz (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took
place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference between conscious and
unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. Christian Wolff identified psychology as its own
science, writing Psychologia Empirica in 1732 and Psychologia Rationalis in 1734. Immanuel Kant
advanced the idea of anthropology as a discipline, with psychology an important subdivision. Kant,
however, explicitly rejected the idea of an experimental psychology, writing that "the empirical
doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or
experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere
division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does
another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even
observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object." In 1783,
Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812) designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and
Logic and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon
overshadowed by the Napoleonic Wars.[23] At the end of the Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities
discontinued the Old University of Münster.[23] Having consulted philosophers Hegel and Herbart,
however, in 1825 the Prussian state established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly
expanding and highly influential educational system. However, this discipline did not yet embrace
experimentation.[24] In England, early psychology involved phrenology and the response to social
problems including alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.[25]
Beginning of experimental psychology

Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his

psychological laboratory, the first of its kind

Philosopher John Stuart Mill believed that the human mind was open to scientific investigation,
even if the science is in some ways inexact.[26] Mill proposed a "mental chemistry" in which
elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity.[26] Gustav Fechner began
conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig in the 1830s. He articulated the principle that human
perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically according to its intensity.[27]: 61  The principle became
known as the Weber–Fechner law. Fechner's 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant's
negative view with regard to conducting quantitative research on the mind.[28][24] Fechner's
achievement was to show that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes,
but also that these could be measured by experimental methods."[24] In Heidelberg, Hermann von
Helmholtz conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist Wilhelm
Wundt. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory
that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in
chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of materials.[29] Paul
Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another influential laboratory at Leipzig, a psychology-
related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.[24]

The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a researcher at the University of Berlin, was
another 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and
developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting.[30] In the early twentieth century,
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology
(not to be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls). The approach of Gestalt psychology is
based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than reducing
thoughts and behavior into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists
maintained that whole of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts.
Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in
setting up laboratories.[31] G. Stanley Hall, an American who studied with Wundt, founded a
psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at Johns Hopkins
University. Hall, in turn, trained Yujiro Motora, who brought experimental psychology, emphasizing
psychophysics, to the Imperial University of Tokyo.[32] Wundt's assistant, Hugo Münsterberg, taught
psychology at Harvard to students such as Narendra Nath Sen Gupta—who, in 1905, founded a
psychology department and laboratory at the University of Calcutta.[21] Wundt's students Walter Dill
Scott, Lightner Witmer, and James McKeen Cattell worked on developing tests of mental ability.
Cattell, who also studied with eugenicist Francis Galton, went on to found the Psychological
Corporation. Witmer focused on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.[27]: 60 

Another student of Wundt, the Englishman Edward Titchener, created the psychology program at
Cornell University and advanced "structuralist" psychology. The idea behind structuralism was to
analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of introspection.[33]
William James, John Dewey, and Harvey Carr advanced the idea of functionalism, an expansive
approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian idea of a behavior's usefulness to the
individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, The Principles of Psychology, which expanded
on the structuralism. He memorably described "stream of consciousness." James's ideas interested
many American students in the emerging discipline.[33][11][27]: 178–82  Dewey integrated psychology
with societal concerns, most notably by promoting progressive education, inculcating moral values
in children, and assimilating immigrants.[27]: 196–200 

One of the dogs used in Pavlov's experiment with

a surgically implanted cannula to measure
salivation, preserved in the Pavlov Museum in
Ryazan, Russia

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in South

America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the University of Buenos Aires.[34] In Russia,
too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with
Ivan Sechenov's 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?" Sechenov advanced the
idea of brain reflexes and aggressively promoted a deterministic view of human behavior.[35] The
Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed
"classical conditioning" and applied the process to human beings.[36]

Consolidation and funding

One of the earliest psychology societies was La Société de Psychologie Physiologique in France,
which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology
sponsored by the International Union of Psychological Science took place in Paris, in August 1889,
amidst the World's Fair celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one
of three Americans among the 400 attendees. The American Psychological Association (APA) was
founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held at different locations
in Europe and with wide international participation. The Sixth Congress, held in Geneva in 1909,
included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as Esperanto. After a hiatus for
World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the
war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven,
Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA.[31] Tokyo Imperial University led the way
in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas about psychology diffused from Japan into
China.[20][32]

American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing committee
headed by Robert Yerkes administered mental tests ("Army Alpha" and "Army Beta") to almost 1.8
million soldiers.[37] Subsequently, the Rockefeller family, via the Social Science Research Council,
began to provide funding for behavioral research.[38][39] Rockefeller charities funded the National
Committee on Mental Hygiene, which disseminated the concept of mental illness and lobbied for
applying ideas from psychology to child rearing.[37][40] Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and
later funding of Alfred Kinsey, Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the
U.S.[41] Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Record Office, the Draper-funded
Pioneer Fund, and other institutions, the eugenics movement also influenced American psychology.
In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes.[42] In contrast to
the US, in the UK psychology was met with antagonism by the scientific and medical
establishments, and up until 1939, there were only six psychology chairs in universities in
England.[43]

During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established
themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new Office of
Strategic Services intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright
reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in 1939–1941. He
observed that "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible
for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the United States Government." Cartwright
also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy.[44] The
Army rolled out its new General Classification Test to assess the ability of millions of soldiers. The
Army also engaged in large-scale psychological research of troop morale and mental health.[45] In
the 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation collaborated with the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) to fund research on psychological warfare.[46] In 1965, public controversy
called attention to the Army's Project Camelot, the "Manhattan Project" of social science, an effort
which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of foreign
countries for strategic purposes.[47][48]

In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which was
subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during Nazi Germany.[24] Under the
direction of Hermann Göring's cousin Matthias Göring, the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute was
renamed the Göring Institute. Freudian psychoanalysts were expelled and persecuted under the
anti-Jewish policies of the Nazi Party, and all psychologists had to distance themselves from Freud
and Adler, founders of psychoanalysis who were also Jewish.[49] The Göring Institute was well-
financed throughout the war with a mandate to create a "New German Psychotherapy." This
psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by
one physician, "Despite the importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of
the patient represent the best way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them
to the requirements of the Volk and the Gemeinschaft." Psychologists were to provide Seelenführung
[lit., soul guidance], the leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German
community.[50] Harald Schultz-Hencke melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology and racial
origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.[51] Johannes Heinrich
Schultz, a German psychologist recognized for developing the technique of autogenic training,
prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered genetically undesirable, and
devised techniques for facilitating this process.[52]

After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their Nazi
affiliation, were discredited. Alexander Mitscherlich founded a prominent applied psychoanalysis
journal called Psyche. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation, Mitscherlich established the
first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at Heidelberg University. In 1970, psychology was
integrated into the required studies of medical students.[53]

After the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks promoted psychology as a way to engineer the "New
Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large numbers of
students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made available for those
students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military. The Russian state
emphasized pedology and the study of child development. Lev Vygotsky became prominent in the
field of child development.[35] The Bolsheviks also promoted free love and embraced the doctrine of
psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual repression.[54]: 84–6 [55] Although pedology and intelligence
testing fell out of favor in 1936, psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of
the Soviet Union.[35] Stalinist purges took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the
profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society.[54]: 22  Following World War II, Jewish psychologists past
and present, including Lev Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, and Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov
(posthumously) and Stalin himself were celebrated as heroes of Soviet psychology.[54]: 25–6, 48–9 
Soviet academics experienced a degree of liberalization during the Khrushchev Thaw. The topics of
cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable again. The new field of engineering
psychology emerged. The field involved the study of the mental aspects of complex jobs (such as
pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars such as Georgy
Shchedrovitsky developed systems theory approaches to human behavior.[54]: 27–33 

Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with

translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology
departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of
Psychological Testing (1930) and the Chinese Psychological Society (1937). Chinese psychologists
were encouraged to focus on education and language learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn
to the idea that education would enable modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese
audiences between 1919 and 1921, had a significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor
T'sai Yuan-p'ei introduced him at Peking University as a greater thinker than Confucius. Kuo Zing-
yang who received a PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of Zhejiang
University and popularized behaviorism.[56]: 5–9  After the Chinese Communist Party gained control
of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major influence, with Marxism–Leninism the
leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved means of behavior change.
Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness, envisioning an
"active consciousness" (pinyin: tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to transcend material conditions through
hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of "recognition" (pinyin: jen-shih)
which referred to the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview;
failure to correspond with party doctrine was "incorrect recognition."[56]: 9–17  Psychology education
was centralized under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, supervised by the State Council. In 1951,
the academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of
Psychology. Because most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first
concern of the academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child
psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a central
goal of the discipline.[56]: 18–24 

Disciplinary organization

Institutions

In 1920, Édouard Claparède and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology organization called
the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later called the
International Congress of Psychotechnics and then the International Association of Applied
Psychology.[31] The IAAP is considered the oldest international psychology association.[57] Today, at
least 65 international groups deal with specialized aspects of psychology.[57] In response to male
predominance in the field, female psychologists in the U.S. formed the National Council of Women
Psychologists in 1941. This organization became the International Council of Women Psychologists
after World War II and the International Council of Psychologists in 1959. Several associations
including the Association of Black Psychologists and the Asian American Psychological
Association have arisen to promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the
profession.[57]

The International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) is the world federation of national
psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices of the United Nations
Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO).[31][58] Psychology departments have
since proliferated around the world, based primarily on the Euro-American model.[21][58] Since 1966,
the Union has published the International Journal of Psychology.[31] IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976
each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis.[57]

IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist.[57] The
American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest.[57] Its membership has increased
from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day.[33] The APA includes 54 divisions, which since
1960 have steadily proliferated to include more specialties. Some of these divisions, such as the
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the American Psychology–Law Society,
began as autonomous groups.[57]

The Interamerican Psychological Society, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology across
the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and ha had 1,000
members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology Associations, founded
in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of 100,000 individual members. At least 30
other international organizations represent psychologists in different regions.[57]
In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent
themselves as a "psychologist."[59] The APA defines a psychologist as someone with a doctoral
degree in psychology.[60]

Boundaries

Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from parapsychology,

which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including the interest of scholars such as
William James). Some people considered parapsychology to be part of "psychology."
Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were major topics at the early International Congresses.
But students of these fields were eventually ostracized, and more or less banished from the
Congress in 1900–1905.[31] Parapsychology persisted for a time at Imperial University in Japan,
with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but it was mostly
shunned by 1913.[32]

As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft" science.
Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-
paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in mature sciences such
as chemistry and physics.[61] Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as
surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics
have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion cannot be directly measured and are often
inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have
devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.[62][63][64]

Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique
experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data points within a larger
population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has
become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism," which limits the scope of research
because investigators restrict themselves to methods derived from the physical sciences.[65]: 36–7 
Feminist critiques have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of
(historically) mostly male researchers.[37] Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream
psychological research has advanced a patriarchal agenda through its efforts to control
behavior.[65]: 120 
Major schools of thought

Biological

False-color representations of cerebral fiber

pathways affected, per Van Horn et al.[V]: 3 

Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore an
important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, involves
the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic mechanisms
underlying behavior in humans and other animals. The allied field of comparative psychology is the
scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals.[66] A leading question
in behavioral neuroscience has been whether and how mental functions are localized in the brain.
From Phineas Gage to H.M. and Clive Wearing, individual people with mental deficits traceable to
physical brain damage have inspired new discoveries in this area.[67] Modern behavioral
neuroscience could be said to originate in the 1870s, when in France Paul Broca traced production
of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain
function. Soon after, Carl Wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of
speech.[68]: 20–2 

The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the physical basis of behavior.
Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the neural, genetic,
and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning, memory, and fear
responses.[69] Cognitive neuroscientists, by using neural imaging tools, investigate the neural
correlates of psychological processes in humans. Neuropsychologists conduct psychological
assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and cognition are related to the brain. The
biopsychosocial model is a cross-disciplinary, holistic model that concerns the ways in which
interrelationships of biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors affect health and
behavior.[70]
Evolutionary psychology approaches thought and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective.
This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in
human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to find out how human
psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of natural selection or sexual selection over
the course of human evolution.[71]

The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The idea of
white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world
conquest by Europeans.[72] Carl von Linnaeus's four-fold classification of humans classifies
Europeans as intelligent and severe, Americans as contented and free, Asians as ritualistic, and
Africans as lazy and capricious. Race was also used to justify the construction of socially specific
mental disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica—the behavior of uncooperative
African slaves.[73] After the creation of experimental psychology, "ethnical psychology" emerged as
a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important
link between animal behavior and the psychology of more evolved humans.[74]

Behaviorist

Skinner's teaching machine, a

mechanical invention to automate the
task of programmed instruction

A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior is
learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved in learning
apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral researchers have developed a treatment
known as behavior modification, which is used to help individuals replace undesirable behaviors
with desirable ones.
 CC

3:21

The film of the Little Albert experiment

Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as classical

conditioning. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus (e.g., food that elicits
salivation) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) over several learning trials, the
neutral stimulus by itself can come to elicit the response the biologically potent stimulus elicits.
Ivan Pavlov—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the presence of a stimulus previously
linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers to use his
methods on humans.[35] In the United States, Edward Lee Thorndike initiated "connectionist" studies
by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and rewarding them for escaping. Thorndike wrote in 1911,
"There can be no moral warrant for studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control
his acts."[27]: 212–5  From 1910 to 1913 the American Psychological Association went through a sea
change of opinion, away from mentalism and towards "behavioralism." In 1913, John B. Watson
coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought.[27]: 218–27  Watson's famous Little Albert
experiment in 1920 was at first thought to demonstrate that repeated use of upsetting loud noises
could instill phobias (aversions to other stimuli) in an infant human,[12][75] although such a
conclusion was likely an exaggeration.[76] Karl Lashley, a close collaborator with Watson, examined
biological manifestations of learning in the brain.[67]

Clark L. Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used
paradigm.[33] A new method of "instrumental" or "operant" conditioning added the concepts of
reinforcement and punishment to the model of behavior change. Radical behaviorists avoided
discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which they considered
impossible to assess scientifically.[77] Operant conditioning was first described by Miller and
Kanorski and popularized in the U.S. by B.F. Skinner, who emerged as a leading intellectual of the
behaviorist movement.[78][79]

Noam Chomsky published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that
behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language
acquisition and language use.[80][81] The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce the status
of behaviorism within psychology.[27]: 282–5  Martin Seligman and his colleagues discovered that they
could condition in dogs a state of "learned helplessness", which was not predicted by the
behaviorist approach to psychology.[82][83] Edward C. Tolman advanced a hybrid "cognitive
behavioral" model, most notably with his 1948 publication discussing the cognitive maps used by
rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a maze.[84] Skinner's behaviorism did not die, in
part because it generated successful practical applications.[81]

The Association for Behavior Analysis International was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had members
from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and Japan.[85] Applied behavior
analysis is the term used for the application of the principles of operant conditioning to change
socially significant behavior (it supersedes the term, "behavior modification").[86]

Cognitive

Cognitive psychology involves the study of mental processes, including Green Red Blue
perception, attention, language comprehension and production, memory, Purple Blue Purple
[87]
and problem solving. Researchers in the field of cognitive psychology
are sometimes called cognitivists. They rely on an information processing Blue Purple Red
model of mental functioning. Cognitivist research is informed by Green Purple Green
functionalism and experimental psychology.
The Stroop effect is the
fact that naming the
color of the first set of
words is easier and
quicker than the
second.

Baddeley's model of working memory

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and
others re-emerged as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually,
constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary cognitive science.[88][89] Some called this
development the cognitive revolution because it rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism
as well as the strictures of psychoanalysis.[89]

Albert Bandura helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology.
Bandura and other social learning theorists advanced the idea of vicarious learning. In other words,
they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing the immediate social environment and
not necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting a behavior, although they did not rule out
the influence of reinforcement on learning a behavior.[90]

The Müller–Lyer illusion.

Psychologists make inferences
about mental processes from
shared phenomena such as optical
illusions.

Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations. English
neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental
methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the brain. The rise of
computer science, cybernetics, and artificial intelligence underlined the value of comparing
information processing in humans and machines.

A popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias, or irrational thought. Psychologists
(and economists) have classified and described a sizeable catalogue of biases which recur
frequently in human thought. The availability heuristic, for example, is the tendency to overestimate
the importance of something which happens to come readily to mind.[91]

Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral
therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist
Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive

psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence, human–
computer interaction, and computational neuroscience. The discipline of cognitive science covers
cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience.[92]
Computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest.
Social

Social psychology is concerned with how behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and the social environment
influence human interactions.[93] Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others
on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion) and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and
stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology
for the purpose of understanding how people process, remember, or distort social information. The
study of group dynamics involves research on the nature of leadership, organizational
communication, and related phenomena. In recent years, social psychologists have become
interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of person and social
factors in accounting for behavior. Some concepts that sociologists have applied to the study of
psychiatric disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events, culture,
migration, and total institution, have influenced social psychologists.[94]

Psychoanalytic

Group photo 1909 in front of Clark

University. Front row: Sigmund Freud,
G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; back row:
Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor
Ferenczi.

Psychoanalysis refers to the theories and therapeutic techniques applied to the unconscious mind
and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform treatments for mental
disorders.[95][96][97] Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s, most prominently with the work of
Sigmund Freud. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods,
introspection, and clinical observation. It became very well known, largely because it tackled
subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious.[54]: 84–6  Freud pioneered the methods
of free association and dream interpretation.[98][99]
Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers who diverged
from Freud include Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney,
Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, Freud's daughter Anna Freud, and Harry Stack Sullivan. These
individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse schools of thought. Among these
schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational
psychoanalysis.

Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper sharply criticized
psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific
discipline,[100] whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been
contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the 20th century, psychology departments in
American universities mostly had marginalized Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and
dead" historical artifact.[101] Researchers such as António Damásio, Oliver Sacks, and Joseph
LeDoux; and individuals in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis have defended some of
Freud's ideas on scientific grounds.[102]

Existential-humanistic

Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943

posited that humans have a hierarchy of
needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the
basic needs first (food, water etc.) before
higher-order needs can be met.[103]

Humanistic psychology, which has been influenced by existentialism and phenomenology,[104]

stresses free will and self-actualization.[105] It emerged in the 1950s as a movement within
academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[106] The humanistic
approach seeks to view the whole person, not just fragmented parts of the personality or isolated
cognitions.[107] Humanistic psychology also focuses on personal growth, self-identity, death,
aloneness, and freedom. It emphasizes subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and
concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of
thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human
needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive psychology is
the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being, focusing more on people
who are currently healthy. In 2010, Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted
to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of
gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that positive psychology is effective in making people
happier.[108][109] Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are
thought to be somewhat better than placebo effects.

The American Association for Humanistic Psychology, formed in 1963, declared:

Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of

psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for
the worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-
mindedness as to acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new
aspects of human behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary
psychology, it is concerned with topics having little place in existing
theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic
need-gratification, self-actualization, higher values, being, becoming,
spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-
transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play,
transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related
concepts.[110]

Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation towards the
world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and other methods that
objectify the individual.[105] In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by philosophers Søren Kierkegaard
and Martin Heidegger, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May helped to
develop existential psychology. Existential psychotherapy, which follows from existential
psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the idea that a person's inner conflict arises
from that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig
Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may also be said to belong to the existential
school.[111] Existential psychologists tend to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the
former's relatively neutral view of human nature and relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[112]
Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning,
suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths and narratives; meaning can be deepened by the
acceptance of free will, which is requisite to living an authentic life, albeit often with anxiety with
regard to death.[113]

Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's
therapeutic power from reflections upon his own internment.[114] He created a variation of
existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will
to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of will to power or Freud's will
to pleasure.[115]

Themes

Personality

Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.
Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought. Each theory carries
different assumptions about such features as the role of the unconscious and the importance of
childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the
id, ego, and super-ego.[116] By contrast, trait theorists have developed taxonomies of personality
constructs in describing personality in terms of key traits. Trait theorists have often employed
statistical data-reduction methods, such as factor analysis. Although the number of proposed traits
has varied widely, Hans Eysenck's early biologically-based model suggests at least three major trait
constructs are necessary to describe human personality, extraversion–introversion, neuroticism-
stability, and psychoticism-normality. Raymond Cattell empirically derived a theory of 16 personality
factors at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum factors.[117][118][119][120]
Since the 1980s, the Big Five (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism) emerged as an important trait theory of personality.[121]
Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing support, and a version of dimensional
assessment has been included in the DSM-V. However, despite a plethora of research into the
various versions of the "Big Five" personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from
static conceptualizations of personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, acknowledging
that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over the lifespan.[122][123]

An early example of personality assessment was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, constructed
during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, Myers–Briggs Type
Indicator[124] was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according to the personality
theories of Carl Jung. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), despite its name, is
more a dimensional measure of psychopathology than a personality measure.[125] California
Psychological Inventory contains 20 personality scales (e.g., independence, tolerance).[126] The
International Personality Item Pool, which is in the public domain, has become a source of scales
that can be used personality assessment.[127]

Unconscious mind

Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but that is
believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early psychology. In one of
the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States, C.S. Peirce and Joseph Jastrow
found in 1884 that research subjects could choose the minutely heavier of two weights even if
consciously uncertain of the difference.[128] Freud popularized the concept of the unconscious
mind, particularly when he referred to an uncensored intrusion of unconscious thought into one's
speech (a Freudian slip) or to his efforts to interpret dreams.[129] His 1901 book The
Psychopathology of Everyday Life catalogues hundreds of everyday events that Freud explains in
terms of unconscious influence. Pierre Janet advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which
could contain autonomous mental elements unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject.[130]

The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive

psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention. According to the model, much information
processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain stimuli, limited by
their nature and number, make their way through the filter. Much research has shown that
subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and behavior.[130] Because of
the unreliability of self-reporting, a major hurdle in this type of research involves demonstrating that
a subject's conscious mind has not perceived a target stimulus. For this reason, some
psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. In another approach, one
can also describe a subliminal stimulus as meeting an objective but not a subjective threshold.[131]

The automaticity model of John Bargh and others involves the ideas of automaticity and
unconscious processing in our understanding of social behavior,[132][133] although there has been
dispute with regard to replication.[134][135] Some experimental data suggest that the brain begins to
consider taking actions before the mind becomes aware of them.[136] The influence of unconscious
forces on people's choices bears on the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh, Daniel
Wegner, and Ellen Langer describe free will as an illusion.[132][133][137]
Motivation

Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate a
behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals continue
or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the term motivation to
refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of will in European philosophy. With the steady
rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be seen as a primary source of
motivation.[138] According to drive theory, the forces of instinct combine into a single source of
energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regarded these forces as
demands originating in the nervous system. Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially
the sexual instincts, could become entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical
psychoanalysis conceives of a struggle between the pleasure principle and the reality principle,
roughly corresponding to id and ego. Later, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud introduced the
concept of the death drive, a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of
traumatic events.[139] Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models
(pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a thirsty
creature will take pleasure in drinking.[138][140] Clark Hull formalized the latter idea with his drive
reduction model.[141]

Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations in
animals.[140] Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though theoretically
these could be explained as resulting from desires for belonging, positive self-image, self-
consistency, truth, love, and control.[142][143]

Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have found that
eating, for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for homeostasis—an
important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian rhythms, food availability,
food palatability, and cost.[140] Abstract motivations are also malleable, as evidenced by such
phenomena as goal contagion: the adoption of goals, sometimes unconsciously, based on
inferences about the goals of others.[144] Vohs and Baumeister suggest that contrary to the need-
desire-fulfilment cycle of animal instincts, human motivations sometimes obey a "getting begets
wanting" rule: the more you get a reward such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you
want it. They suggest that this principle can even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.[145]
Development psychology

Developmental psychologists
would engage a child with a
book and then make
observations based on how
the child interacts with the
object.

Developmental psychology refers to the scientific study of how and why the thought processes,
emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives.[146] Some credit Charles
Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental psychology,
having published in 1877 a short paper detailing the development of innate forms of
communication based on his observations of his infant son.[147] The main origins of the discipline,
however, are found in the work of Jean Piaget. Like Piaget, developmental psychologists originally
focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to adolescence. Later,
developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over the life span. In addition to
studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come to focus on affective, behavioral,
moral, social, and neural development.

Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For example,
they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools[148] and engage them in
experimental tasks.[149] Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are
both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful. Developmental researchers have even devised
clever methods to study the mental processes of infants.[150] In addition to studying children,
developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, including old
age.[151] These psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their
research.[146]

Genes and environment

All researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment, to varying
degrees.[152][153] These two sources of influence are often confounded in observational research of
individuals and families. An example of this confounding can be shown in the transmission of
depression from a depressed mother to her offspring. A theory based on environmental
transmission would hold that an offspring, by virtue of their having a problematic rearing
environment managed by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing depression. On the other
hand, a hereditarian theory would hold that depression risk in an offspring is influenced to some
extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes and environment in these simple
transmission models are completely confounded. A depressed mother may both carry genes that
contribute to depression in her offspring and also create a rearing environment that increases the
risk of depression in her child.

Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this
confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior.[71]
Traditionally the research has involved twin studies and adoption studies, two designs where
genetic and environmental influences can be partially un-confounded. More recently, gene-focused
research has contributed to understanding genetic contributions to the development of
psychological traits.

The availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies allows

researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual genetic
variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and psychopathology through
methods including genome-wide association studies. One goal of such research is similar to that in
positional cloning and its success in Huntington's: once a causal gene is discovered biological
research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences the phenotype. One major result
of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological traits and psychopathology,
as well as complex medical diseases, are highly polygenic,[154][155][156][157][158] where a large number
(on the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to
individual differences in the behavioral trait or propensity to the disorder. Active research continues
to work toward understanding the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their
interaction.

Applications

Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of mental
processes and behavior.

Psychological testing

Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the examinations for the
Chinese civil service. Written exams began during the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the
Chinese system required a stratified series of tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of
diverse topics. The system was ended in 1906.[159]: 41–2  In Europe, mental assessment took a
different approach, with theories of physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—
described by Aristotle in 4th century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the
Enlightenment, and added the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on
simple assessment of neuroanatomy.[159]: 42–3 

When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By virtue
of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an inventor of
modern mental testing (also known as psychometrics).[159]: 44–5  James McKeen Cattell, a student of
Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of psychological testing to the United States, and in fact coined
the term "mental test".[159]: 45–6  In 1901, Cattell's student Clark Wissler published discouraging
results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia and Barnard students failed to predict academic
performance.[159]: 45–6  In response to 1904 orders from the Minister of Public Instruction, French
psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence
in 1905–1911. They used a range of questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon
introduced the concept of mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as idiots.
Henry H. Goddard put the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level
such as imbecile and feebleminded. In 1916, (after Binet's death), Stanford professor Lewis M.
Terman modified the Binet-Simon scale (renamed the Stanford–Binet scale) and introduced the
intelligence quotient as a score report.[159]: 50–56  Based on his test findings, and reflecting the
racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability "represents the level of
intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-Indians and Mexican families of the
Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial."[160]

Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist Robert Yerkes
in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational psychologists for large-scale
employee testing and selection of military personnel.[161] Mental testing also became popular in the
U.S., where it was applied to schoolchildren. The federally created National Intelligence Test was
administered to 7 million children in the 1920s. In 1926, the College Entrance Examination Board
created the Scholastic Aptitude Test to standardize college admissions.[159]: 61  The results of
intelligence tests were used to argue for segregated schools and economic functions, including the
preferential training of Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black
intellectuals such a Horace Mann Bond and Allison Davis.[160] Eugenicists used mental testing to
justify and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded (now
referred to as intellectual disability).[42] In the United States, tens of thousands of men and women
were sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U.S. Supreme Court
affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case Buck v. Bell.[162]

Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western societies.[159]: 2 
Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure, consistency of results,
output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing population outcomes, and, ideally,
effective prediction of behavior and life outcomes outside of testing situations.[159]: 4–6 
Psychological testing is regularly used in forensic contexts to aid legal judgments and
decisions.[163] Developments in psychometrics include work on test and scale reliability and
validity.[164] Developments in item-response theory,[165] structural equation modeling,[166] and
bifactor analysis[167] have helped in strengthening test and scale construction.

Mental health care

The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the U.S.
Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology professions
engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical psychologists typically
include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology. In Canada, some
of the members of the abovementioned groups usually fall within the larger category of
professional psychology. In Canada and the U.S., practitioners get bachelor's degrees and
doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology usually spend one year in a predoctoral
internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In Mexico and most other Latin American and
European countries, psychologists do not get bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a
three-year professional course following high school.[60] Clinical psychology is at present the largest
specialization within psychology.[168] It includes the study and application of psychology for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychological distress, dysfunction, and/or
mental illness. Clinical psychologists also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth.
Central to the practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and psychotherapy
although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic
testimony, and program development and administration.[169]

Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner Witmer, who
established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was Morton
Prince, an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and academic
discipline.[168] In the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States
was performed by psychiatrists, who are medical doctors. Psychology entered the field with its
refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For
their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using psychoanalysis and other forms of
psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat the mentally ill.[37][170]

Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and

psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities. Some in
the clinical psychology community adopted behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-psychodynamic
model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of patients. A key aspect of
behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's effectiveness. In the 1970s, cognitive-
behavior therapy emerged with the work of Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck. Although there are
similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy
required the application of cognitive constructs. Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-
behavior therapy among clinical psychologists increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-
behavioral therapy is exposing patients to things they fear, based on the premise that their
responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.[171]

Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977,
National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as a source of
"intense competition and role confusion."[37] Graduate programs issuing doctorates in clinical
psychology emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase through the 1980s. The PhD degree
is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct scientific research. The PsyD degree is
more exclusively designed to train practitioners.[60]

Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This
subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a
regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster psychology (see crisis
intervention) involves professionals who respond to large-scale traumatic events.[172]

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic

approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an
individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of
thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive
behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing
movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased
understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the
advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the
major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic
alliance.[173][174] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an
eclectic therapeutic orientation.[175][176][177][178][179]
Diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM).[180] The study of mental illnesses is called abnormal psychology.

Education

An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test

used in educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness
of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as
organizations. Educational psychologists can be found in preschools, schools of all levels including
post secondary institutions, community organizations and learning centers, Government or private
research firms, and independent or private consultant[181] [[Madisonodell5/sandbox]]. The work of
developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner has been
influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often
included in teacher education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New
Zealand.

School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to
understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted
students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe,
supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational
and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive
training in research.[182]

Work

Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that apply
psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-lives.[183] In the field's
beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study of scientific
management techniques for improving workplace efficiency. The field was at first called economic
psychology or business psychology; later, industrial psychology, employment psychology, or
psychotechnology.[184] An influential early study examined workers at Western Electric's Hawthorne
plant in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to 1932. Western Electric experimented on factory workers to
assess their responses to changes in illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came
to focus on workers' responses to observation itself, and the term Hawthorne effect is now used to
describe the fact that people's behavior can change when they think they're being observed.[185]
Although the Hawthorne research can be found in psychology textbooks, the research and its
findings were weak at best.[186][187]

The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it became
enshrined in the name of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Division 14 of the
American Psychological Association.[184] One goal of the discipline is to optimize human potential
in the workplace. Personnel psychology is a subfield of I/O psychology. Personnel psychologists
apply the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. Another
subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management
styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.[188] Most I/O psychologists work
outside of academia, for private and public organizations and as consultants.[184] A psychology
consultant working in business today might expect to provide executives with information and ideas
about their industry, their target markets, and the organization of their company.[189][190]

Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within
organizations.[191] One way to differentiate I/O psychology from OB is to note that I/O psychologists
train in university psychology departments and OB specialists, in business schools.

Military and intelligence

One role for psychologists in the military has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and other
personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I, when Robert Yerkes established the
School of Military Psychology at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia. The school provided psychological
training for military staff.[37][192] Today, U.S. Army psychologists perform psychological screening,
clinical psychotherapy, suicide prevention, and treatment for post-traumatic stress, as well as
provide prevention-related services, for example, smoking cessation.[193] The United States Army's
Mental Health Advisory Teams implement psychological interventions to help combat troops
experiencing mental problems.[194][195]

Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological
warfare. Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy soldiers
and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it originates from a source
other than the Army.[196] The CIA's MKULTRA program involved more individualized efforts at mind
control, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture, and covert involuntary administration of
LSD.[197] The U.S. military used the name Psychological Operations (PSYOP) until 2010, when these
activities were reclassified as Military Information Support Operations (MISO), part of Information
Operations (IO).[198] Psychologists have sometimes been involved in assisting the interrogation and
torture of suspects, staining the records of the psychologists involved.[199]

Health, well-being, and social change

Social change

An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of Kenneth
and Mamie Phipps Clark. These two African American psychologists studied segregation's adverse
psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings played a role in the desegregation
case Brown v. Board of Education (1954).[200]

The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on teaching
and learning. Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole language"
approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious.[201]

Medical applications

Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of health
psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in how to follow a medical
regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on patient
compliance.[202][203] Psychologists in the field of public health use a wide variety of interventions to
influence human behavior. These range from public relations campaigns and outreach to
governmental laws and policies. Psychologists study the composite influence of all these different
tools in an effort to influence whole populations of people.[204]

Worker health, safety and wellbeing

Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to improve the
health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired by organizations to
solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the organization. Applications
include conducting surveys to identify issues and designing interventions to make work healthier.
Some of the specific health areas include:
 Accidents and injuries: A major contribution is the concept of safety climate, which is employee
shared perceptions of the behaviors that are encouraged (e.g., wearing safety gear) and
discouraged (not following safety rules) at work.[205] Organizations with strong safety climates
have fewer work accidents and injuries.[206]

Cardiovascular disease: Cardiovascular disease has been related to lack of job control.[207]

Mental health: Exposure to occupational stress is associated with mental health disorder.[208]

Musculoskeletal disorder: These are injuries in bones, nerves and tendons due to overexertion
and repetitive strain. They have been linked to job satisfaction and workplace stress.[209]

Physical health symptoms: Occupational stress has been linked to physical symptoms such as
digestive distress and headache.[210]

Workplace violence: Violence prevention climate is related to being physically assaulted and
psychologically mistreated at work.[211]

Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence. Interventions that
reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it can help in areas where
stress is an important component.

Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when government
ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on workers in munitions factories
but not other types of factories.[212][213] In the U. K. some interest in worker well-being emerged with
the efforts of Charles Samuel Myers and his National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) during
the inter-War years.[214] In the U. S. during the mid-twentieth century industrial psychologist Arthur
Kornhauser pioneered the study of occupational mental health, linking industrial working conditions
to mental health as well as the spillover of an unsatisfying job into a worker's personal life.[215][216]
Zickar accumulated evidence to show that "no other industrial psychologist of his era was as
devoted to advocating management and labor practices that would improve the lives of working
people."[215]

Occupational health psychology

As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field of
occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is
interdisciplinary.[217][218][45][219] OHP is concerned with the health and safety of workers.[45][219] OHP
addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stressors on physical and mental health,
mistreatment of workers (e.g., bullying and violence), work-family balance, the impact of involuntary
unemployment on physical and mental health, the influence of psychosocial factors on safety and
accidents, and interventions designed to improve/protect worker health.[45][220] OHP grew out of
health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and occupational medicine.[221] OHP
has also been informed by disciplines outside psychology, including industrial engineering,
sociology, and economics.[222][223]

Research methods

Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Although
the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled experiments in laboratory settings,
such research can only assess a limited range of short-term phenomena. Some psychologists rely
on less rigorously controlled, but more ecologically valid, field experiments as well. Other research
psychologists rely on statistical methods to glean knowledge from population data.[224] The
statistical methods research psychologists employ include the Pearson product–moment
correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression,
structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling. The measurement and
operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs.

Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative research,
some psychologists conduct qualitative research. This type of research can involve interviews,
questionnaires, and first-hand observation.[225] While hypothesis testing is rare, virtually impossible,
in qualitative research, qualitative studies can be helpful in theory and hypothesis generation,
interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings, and understanding why some
interventions fail and others succeed.[226]

Controlled experiments

Flowchart of four phases (enrollment,

intervention allocation, follow-up, and data
analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of
 two groups, modified from the CONSORT
2010 Statement[227]

The experimenter (E) orders the

teacher (T), the subject of the
experiment, to give what the latter
believes are painful electric shocks to
a learner (L), who is actually an actor
and confederate. The subject believes
that for each wrong answer, the
learner was receiving actual electric
shocks, though in reality there were no
such punishments. Being separated
from the subject, the confederate set
up a tape recorder integrated with the
electro-shock generator, which played
pre-recorded sounds for each shock
level etc.[228]

A true experiment with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called subjects) to
rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal relationships. When
there are large numbers of research participants, the random assignment (also called random
allocation) of those participants to rival conditions ensures that the individuals in those conditions
will, on average, be similar on most characteristics, including characteristics that went unmeasured.
In an experiment, the researcher alters one or more variables of influence, called independent
variables, and measures resulting changes in the factors of interest, called dependent variables.
Prototypical experimental research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled
environment.

A quasi-experiment refers to a situation in which there are rival conditions under study but random
assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with preexisting
groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much the nonrandom
assignment threatens the study's validity.[229] For example, in research on the best way to affect
reading achievement in the first three grades of school, school administrators may not permit
educational psychologists to randomly assign children to phonics and whole language classrooms,
in which case the psychologists must work with preexisting classroom assignments. Psychologists
will compare the achievement of children attending phonics and whole language classes and,
perhaps, statistically adjust for any initial differences in reading level.

Experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which involves making
predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data collected are
consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from one or more abstract
scientific hypotheses about how the phenomenon under study actually works.[230]

Other types of studies

Surveys are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring
changes in mood, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations (checking research
participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to). Psychologists have commonly
used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-
mail. Web-based surveys are increasingly used to conveniently reach many subjects.

Observational studies are commonly conducted in psychology. In cross-sectional observational

studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many cross-sectional
studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By contrast, in longitudinal
studies psychologists collect data on the same sample at two or more points in time. Sometimes
the purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends across time such as the stability of traits or
age-related changes in behavior. Because some studies involve endpoints that psychologists
cannot ethically study from an experimental standpoint, such as identifying the causes of
depression, they conduct longitudinal studies a large group of depression-free people, periodically
assessing what is happening in the individuals' lives. In this way psychologists have an opportunity
to test causal hypotheses regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's lives that put them
at risk for depression. Problems that affect longitudinal studies include selective attrition, the type
of problem in which bias is introduced when a certain type of research participant
disproportionately leaves a study.

Exploratory data analysis refers to a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a great
many variables to a small number overarching factors. In Peirce's three modes of inference,
exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction.[231] Meta-analysis is the technique research
psychologists use to integrate results from many studies of the same variables and arriving at a
grand average of the findings.[232]

Direct brain observation/manipulation

An EEG recording setup

A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the electroencephalogram
(EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to measure voltage changes in
different parts of the brain. Hans Berger, the first researcher to use EEG on an unopened skull,
quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves": electric oscillations which correspond to
different states of consciousness. Researchers subsequently refined statistical methods for
synthesizing the electrode data, and identified unique brain wave patterns such as the delta wave
observed during non-REM sleep.[233]

Newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging and
positron emission tomography, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain. These
technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create
representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide insight which avoids the
classic problems of subjective self-reporting. It remains challenging to draw hard conclusions about
where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such localization corresponds
with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable results showing the existence of
correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw on a systemic neural network model
rather than a localized function model.[234][235][236]
Interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information about
brain–mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental effects.

Artificial neural network with two

layers, an interconnected group of
nodes, akin to the vast network of
neurons in the human brain

Computer simulation

Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to

simulate behavior.[237] This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process
information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power.
Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of
mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses
mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which
represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic
systems and stochastic modeling.

Animal studies

A rat undergoing a Morris water

navigation test used in behavioral
neuroscience to study the role of the
hippocampus in spatial learning and
memory
Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception,
emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs,
pigeons, and rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled
experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique
effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In
contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many
factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. There are pitfalls,
however, in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.[238]

Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-
human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and
development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects
to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology.[239]
Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but
some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of
E.O. Wilson.[240] Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior,
e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help describe
events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope
of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory
examinations are made.

Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and

participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main possibilities for qualitative research,
including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative
researchers[241] sometimes aim to enrich our understanding of symbols, subjective experiences, or
social structures. Sometimes hermeneutic and critical aims can give rise to quantitative research,
as in Erich Fromm's application of psychological and sociological theories, in his book Escape from
Freedom, to understanding why many ordinary Germans supported Hitler.[242]
 Phineas P. Gage survived an
accident in which a large
iron rod was driven
completely through his head,
destroying much of his
brain's left frontal lobe, and
is remembered for that
injury's reported effects on
his personality and
behavior.[243]

Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of
chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic observation of ongoing human
social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed,
and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines must
be followed when covert observation is being carried out.

Program evaluation

Program evaluation involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of information to
answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their
effectiveness.[244][245] In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know the
extent which the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving, or objecting to are
producing the intended effects. While program evaluation first focuses on effectiveness, important
considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could
be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are
unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.[246]
Contemporary issues in methodology and practice

Metascience

Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The field of
metascience has revealed problems in psychological research. Some psychological research has
suffered from bias,[247] problematic reproducibility,[248] and misuse of statistics.[249] These findings
have led to calls for reform from within and from outside the scientific community.[250]

Confirmation bias

In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and
discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying possible publication
bias.[251][252][253] Similarly, Fanelli (2010)[254] found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies
confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a
positive result) was around five times higher than in fields such as space science or geosciences.
Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their
conscious and unconscious biases.

Replication

A replication crisis in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not been
replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent results.[255][256][257]
Systematic efforts, including efforts by the Reproducibility Project of the Center for Open Science,
to assess the extent of the problem found that as many as two-thirds of highly publicized findings in
psychology failed to be replicated.[258] Reproducibility has generally been stronger in cognitive
psychology (in studies and journals) than social psychology[258] and subfields of differential
psychology.[259][260] Other subfields of psychology have also been implicated in the replication crisis,
including clinical psychology,[261][262][263] developmental psychology,[264][265][266] and a field closely
related to psychology, educational research.[267][268][269][270][271]

Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test important
findings.[272][273] In response to concerns about publication bias and data dredging (conducting a
large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but restricting reporting to the results
that were statistically significant), 295 psychology and medical journals have adopted result-blind
peer review where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are
completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of
their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their proposed statistical analysis
before data collection or analysis is conducted.[274][275] In addition, large-scale collaborations
among researchers working in multiple labs in different countries have taken place. The
collaborators regularly make their data openly available for different researchers to assess.[276]
Allen and Mehler[277] estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have yielded null results, in
contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in traditional research.

Misuse of statistics

Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Psychologist and statistician Jacob
Cohen wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with practical
importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts.[278] Some psychologists
have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on p-
values.[279]

WEIRD bias

In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association journals were
about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of the world's population. He complained that
psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological processes to be universal and generalizing
research findings to the rest of the global population.[280] In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan
reported a bias in conducting psychology studies with participants from "WEIRD" ("Western,
Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic") societies.[281][282] Henrich et al. found that "96% of
psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the world’s population" (p. 63). The
article gave examples of results that differ significantly between people from WEIRD and tribal
cultures, including the Müller-Lyer illusion. Arnett (2008), Altmaier and Hall (2008) and Morgan-
Consoli et al. (2018) view the Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem considering
psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in WEIRD regions in their
research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the world.[280][283][284] In 2018, Rad,
Martingano, and Ginges showed that nearly a decade after Henrich et al.'s paper, over 80% of the
samples used in studies published in the journal Psychological Science employed WEIRD samples.
Moreover, their analysis showed that several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their
samples; the authors offered a set of recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD
bias.[285]
Unscientific mental health training

Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the
application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[286] Critics say there has been an increase
in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence.[287]
Practices such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques
including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or
even dangerous, despite their popularity.[288] These practices, however, are outside the mainstream
practices taught in clinical psychology doctoral programs.

Ethics

Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today
considered unethical and in violation of established codes (the Canadian Code of Conduct for
Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report). The American Psychological Association has
advanced a set of ethical principles and a code of conduct for the profession.[289]

The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. After World
War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects.
Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the
National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974
adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to
obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential
but ethically dubious studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT-
Harvard Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis
study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.

Humans

Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g., voluntary nature of
participation in the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing distress) of research
participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure that researchers
protect the rights and well-being of participants; an investigator's research project cannot be
conducted unless approved by such an ethics committee.[290]

The ethics code of the American Psychological Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical Standards
of Psychologists". This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most American states. It
has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989, the APA revised its
policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an investigation by the Federal Trade
Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to distinguish between "aspirational" ethical
standards and "enforceable" ones. Members of the public have a five-year window to file ethics
complaints about APA members with the APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-
year window.[291]

Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only within
the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid sexual relations
with them. Another important principle is informed consent, the idea that a patient or research
subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are undergoing.[291] Some of the most
common complaints against clinical psychologists include sexual misconduct.[291]

Other animals

Research on other animals is also governed by university ethics committees. Research on

nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee of the researcher's
home institution. Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific
purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is
outweighed by the benefits of the research.[292] Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use certain
research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans.

Comparative psychologist Harry Harlow drew moral condemnation for isolation experiments on
rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[293] The aim of
the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also devised what he
called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture.[294]
In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go
on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in
advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that
Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.[295]

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Further reading

Badcock, Christopher R. (2015). "Nature-Nurture Controversy, History of". International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 340–344. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.03136-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Cascio, Wayne F. (2015). "Industrial–Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice".

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 879–884. doi:10.1016/B978-0-
08-097086-8.22007-2 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2) . ISBN 978-0-
08-097087-5.

Chryssochoou, Xenia (2015). "Social Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 532–537. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Deakin, Nicholas (2015). "Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology". International Encyclopedia of

the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 31–36. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9 (https://do
i.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Demetriou, Andreas (2015). "Intelligence in Cultural, Social and Educational Context". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 313–322. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.92147-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Gelso, Charles J. (2015). "Counseling Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 69–72. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21073-8 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21073-8) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Henley, Tracy B. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Early Period)". International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 406–411. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Knowland, Victoria C.P.; Purser, Harry; Thomas, Michael S.C. (2015). "Cross-Sectional
Methodologies in Developmental Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 354–360. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.23235-2 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.23235-2) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Louw, Dap (2015). "Forensic Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 351–356. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB
978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

McWilliams, Spencer A. (2015). "Psychology, History of (Twentieth Century)". International

Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 412–417. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.03046-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Pe-Pua, Rogelia (2015). "Indigenous Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 788–794. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24067-1) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Peterson, Roger L.; Peterson, Donald R.; Abrams, Jules C.; Stricker, George; Ducheny, Kelly (2015).
"Training in Clinical Psychology in the United States: Practitioner Model". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 517–523. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.21086-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Poortinga, Ype H. (2015). "Cross-Cultural Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 311–317. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24011-7 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24011-7) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Spinath, Frank M.; Spinath, Birgit; Borkenau, Peter (2015). "Developmental Behavioral Genetics
and Education". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 320–325.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.9200
9-9) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
 Smith, Edward E. (2015). "Cognitive Psychology: History". International Encyclopedia of the Social
& Behavioral Sciences. pp. 103–109. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03028-2 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03028-2) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

Staerklé, Christian (2015). "Political Psychology". International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 427–433. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24079-8 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.24079-8) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.

External links

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Psychology (https://curlie.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/) at Curlie

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Association for Psychological Science (http://www.psychologicalscience.org/)

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