Mountain Building Processes and Distributional Pattern of Main

Mountain Belts
Structure of the earth

1. The earth is almost a sphere with a radius of about 6400 km.

2. In recent years, knowledge about the earth's interior has been obtained from the study of
earthquake waves.
3. The earth is made up of several concentric layers.

Crust

The crust is the outer layer of the earth. 2. The crust is composed of solid rocks.
The crust is subdivided into the continental crust and the oceanic crust.
The continental crust is a discontinuous layer which forms the continents.

• It is rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al), and is also called 'sial'.
• It consists of granitic rocks which are acidic (consist of more silicon) and is less dense (2.7 g
cm-3).

The oceanic crust is a continuous layer which lies under the continental crust and the oceans.

• It is rich in silicon and magnesium (Mg), and is also called ‘sima'.

• It consists of basaltic rocks which are basic (consist of less silicon) and is denser (3.0 g cm-3).

The crust is the thinnest layer of the earth.

• he thickness of the crust varies from place to place.

• The crust of the continents is thicker (averaging 35 km) than the crust under the oceans
(averaging 8 km).

The temperature, pressure and density of the crust are lower than the mantle and the core.

Mantle

1. The mantle is the layer of the earth between the crust and the core.
2. The mantle consists of a semi-molten upper mantle and a solid lower mantle.
3. The mantle consists of ultrabasic rocks rich in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg), and is also
called ‘mafe'.
4. The mantle is the thickest layer of the earth, about 2 900 km thick.
5. The temperature, pressure and density of the mantle are higher than the crust but lower
than the core.

Core

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 1. The core is the central part of the earth.
2. The core consists of a molten outer core and a solid inner core.
3. The core is rich in iron and nickel (Ni), and is also called ‘nife'.
4. The temperature, pressure and density of the core are higher than the mantle and the crust.

The four subsystems (spheres) of the Earth

Atmosphere system

1. The atmosphere is an envelop of gases surrounding the earth.

2. The hydrosphere is the area of the earth's surface covered by water, e.g. oceans, seas, rivers
and lakes.
3. The lithosphere is the solid rock layer on the outer part of the earth, including the crust and
the uppermost mantle.
4. The biosphere is the living and dead organisms found near the earth's surface.

Plate tectonics

Continental drift theory

In 1910, Wegener put forward the continental drift theory.

• 235 million years ago, there was one large super-continent which he named Pangaea.
• 180 million years ago, Pangaea is broken up into Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
• Further break-up formed the world's continents. The continents have been moving apart.

The concept was not accepted until the theory of plate tectonics was developed in the 1960s. Plate
tectonics theory

1. The lithosphere floats on the partly molten upper mantle (the asthenosphere).

Due to the great temperature in the upper mantle, magma (molten rock) moves by
convection.

2. The convectional current makes the plates move.

The lithosphere is broken up into several major plates.

o A continental plate makes up a continent. It is capped by both the continental crust

and the oceanic crust. e.g. Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, S American Plate, N
American Plate, African Plate, Antarctic Plate.
o An oceanic plate makes up an ocean. It is capped by the oceanic crust only. e.g.
Pacific Plate, Nazca Plate.
3. There are three directions of plate movements along the plate boundaries.
o Two plates may move away from each other. (see 4 constructive plate boundary)
o Two plates may move towards each other. (see 5 destructive plate boundary)
o Two plates may slide by each other. (see 6 conservative plate boundary)
4. Plate boundaries are the zones of instability, because there may be
o earthquakes,
o volcanic eruptions,

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 o mountains building processes, producing fold mountains, volcanoes, block
mountains.

Constructive plate boundary

1. In the upper mantle, the convectional currents of magma are diverging.

2. Tensional forces develop.
3. Two plates are moving away from each other. The crust is split apart.
4. agma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth surface.
5. [Magma which has reached the earth surface is now called lava. This is volcanic eruption.]
6. Lava cools and solidifies and forms new crust. [Therefore it is a constructive plate boundary.]
7. The ocean floor is widened. [Therefore it is a zone of sea-floor spreading.] Mid-oceanic ridge.
8. Lava cools and solidifies on the ocean floor and forms long submarine ridges called mid-
oceanic ridges.
9. e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Volcanic island
10. Sometimes the volcanoes may emerge above the sea, forming volcanic islands.
11. e.g. Iceland 5 Destructive plate boundary

Zone of subduction

1. In the upper mantle, the convectional currents of magma are converging.

2. Compressional forces develop.
3. An oceanic plate and a continental plate are moving towards each other.
4. The oceanic plate (which is basaltic) is denser than the continental plate (which is granitic).
5. The oceanic plate is subducted into the mantle under the continental plate. Ocean trench.
6. A long, narrow and deep trough called ocean trench is formed.
7. e.g. Marianas Trench (11 035 m deep) in the West Pacific Ocean Volcanic island arc.
8. The part of the oceanic plate is melted by into magma the great temperature in the mantle.
9. However, the melted magma is less dense than the magma in mantle.
10. The magma extrudes onto the earth surface along the lines of weakness due to a release of
pressure.
11. The violent volcanic eruptions form a chain of volcanic islands or a volcanic island arc parallel
to the ocean trench.
12. e.g. Ryukyu Islands (Japan)

Zone of collision

1. In a zone of collision, two continental plates collide.

2. Neither is subducted because the density is the same.

Fold mountains

Formation

• Rocks are broken down by denudation (weathering and erosion) over the continents.
• Materials are carried down by erosional agents (e.g. river, glacier, wind) to the ocean floor.
• The sediment deposits and accumulates on the ocean floor [or a geosyncline - a large
trench- like depression].
o The sediment in the lower layers is compressed and compacted by the increasing
weight of the overlying layers.
o The sediment is cemented, hardened and changed into sedimentary rock.
• Along the destructive plate boundary, two plates are moving towards each other.

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 o In a zone of subduction, an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide. The oceanic
plate is subducted into the mantle under the continental plate because it is denser.
o In a zone of collision, two continental plates collide.
• The sedimentary rock is compressed, bent into folds, and uplifted to form a fold mountain.

Young fold mountains

Characteristics

• Young fold mountains are formed relatively recently, in the Alpine period about 25 million
years ago.
• Young fold mountains are very high because they have been less affected by weathering and
erosion.
• Fold mountains are made up of sedimentary rock strata with a folded structure.
• They are rugged in relief and have steep slopes and are still uplifting.
• They have parallel ranges, often along the coast.
• There may be faulting (see 8) in areas where the rocks are under great pressure.
• There may be igneous activities (e.g. volcanic eruptions), forming igneous features (e.g.
volcanoes).

World distribution of fold mountains

• The Alpine-Himalayan system includes the Alps and the Himalayas. The world's highest
point, Mount Everest (or Qomolangma Feng) in the Himalayas is 8 848 m above sea-level.
• The Circum-Pacific system includes the Andes, the Rockies and the island arc fringing East
Asia.

Old fold mountains are formed long ago, about 440 to 300 million years ago.

• Old fold mountains are lower because they have undergone a long time of weathering and
erosion.
• They have less rugged relief and gentle slopes.
• They have become low mountains, plateau or highlands.
• e.g. the Eastern Highlands (Australia), the Appalachians (the USA)

Conservative plate boundary

1. Two plates slide by each other along a tear fault or transform fault.
2. Earthquakes frequently occur. [The crust is neither formed nor destroyed, so the plate
boundary is a conservative zone or a passive zone.]
3. e.g. the San Andreas Fault (California, USA)

Folding

Folding is the bending of rock layers by compressional forces.

Parts of a fold

• The rock layers may bend upwards to form anticlines, or downwards to form synclines.
• The highest part of the anticline is called the crest. The lowest part at the syncline is called
the trough.

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 • The two sides of the fold are called the limbs. The axial plane bisects the angle between two
limbs.

Types of folding

• symmetrical fold is formed when the two opposing forces are of equal strength.

It has two equally steep limbs and has a vertical axial plane.

• An asymmetrical fold is formed when the compressional force from one side is greater than
the other.

It has one limb is steeper than the other and has an inclined axial plane.

• When the compressional pressure is increased, an overfold is formed when one limb pushes
over the other.

The rock layers in one limb are overturned. One limb is then gently sloping and the other very steep
and short.

• An overfold may become a recumbent fold when it is pushed still further so that the two
limbs are almost parallel.

The axial plane is almost horizontal.

• n overthrust fold is formed when the rock is fractured by the strong compressional forces.

One limb is thrust (pushed) forward along a thrust-plane and overrides the other.

Faulting

Faulting occurs when rocks under pressure are fractured and displacement occurs.
Parts of a fault

• The fault line is the line of fracture appearing on the surface.

• The fault plane is the surface along which movement of adjacent rocks takes place.
• The upthrow is the block of land which has moved up.
• The downthrow is the block of land which has moved down.
• The scarp is the steep slope along which the downthrow has slide.
• The dip is the angle between the fault scarp and the horizontal plane.
• The strike is the direction of running shown by the fault line.

Types of faulting
A normal fault is formed by tensional forces.

• One side of a fault simply rises or falls in relation to the adjacent side (vertical displacement).
• The hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.

A reverse fault is formed by compressional forces.

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 • The rocks on one side may be thrust over those on the other side (vertical displacement).
• The hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall, producing an overhanging scarp.

A tear fault is formed by the lateral movement of two adjacent blocks.

A tear fault is characterised by a marked horizontal displacement of surface features, e.g. railways,
roads and rivers.

Block mountain

Formation

• During earth movements, two or more faults occur parallel to each other.
• [Tensional / compressional] forces produce [normal / reverse] faults.
• The two sides blocks move down, and the central part moves up to form a block mountain
or a horst.

Characteristics and example

• A block mountain has a flat top.

• It is bounded by steep-sided fault scarps.
• e.g. the Vosges and the Black Forest on the sides of the River Rhine.

Rift valley

Formation

• During earth movements, two or more faults occur parallel to each other.
• [Tensional / compressional] forces produce [normal / reverse] faults.
• The two sides blocks move up, and the central part moves down to form a rift valley or a
graben.

Characteristics and example

• A rift valley is a long, straight, symmetrical trough, with a wide and flat bottom.
• A rift valley is bounded by two steep-sided scarps of the block mountains.
• Stepped faults may be formed if there are many fault lines.
• The valley is often occupied by a river. Alluvium is deposited on the rift valley.
• A rift valley lake may also be found. f. e.g. the East African Rift Valley

Vulcanicity

1. When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
2. The magma in the mantle seeks its way along the lines of weakness (the crack or fracture)
and rises up to the crust.
3. Intrusive vulcanicity or intrusive igneous activity
o The magma intrudes into the rocks of the crust below the earth surface.
o This produces intrusive igneous features, e.g. batholith, laccoliths, sills and dykes.
4. Extrusive vulcanicity or extrusive igneous activity
o The magma extrudes onto the earth surface. Magma which has reached the earth
surface is now called lava.

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 o This produces extrusive igneous features, e.g. volcanoes, lava plateau and lava flow.

10 Intrusive igneous activity

Batholith

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle intrudes into the crust along lines of weakness.
• Magma cools and solidifies very slowly at great depth under the earth's surface and forms a
batholith.

Characteristics,influence on surface relief and example

• A batholith is a very large, dome-shaped mass of rock below the earth's surface.
• A batholith is made up of plutonic rocks which have large crystals, e.g. granite.
• After a long time of denudation, a batholith may be exposed on the surface as a domelike
mountain.
• In Hong Kong the granite area around Victoria Harbour is a batholith.

Dyke (dike)

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle intrudes vertically or obliquely into the crust along lines of weakness.
• Magma cools and solidifies at a moderate rate at a moderate depth under the earth’s
surface and forms a dyke.

Characteristics, influence on surface relief and example

• A dyke is a 'wall' of rock, either vertical or inclined below the earth's surface.
o A dyke cuts across the bedding planes of sedimentary rock strata.
o A dyke is made up of hypabyssal rocks which have medium-sized crystals, e.g.
prophyry.
• After a long time of denudation, a dyke may be exposed on the surface as
o a ridge, if it is more resistant than the surrounding rocks, or
o a depression, if it is less resistant than the surrounding rocks.
• Dykes usually occur in group which is called dyke swarm.
• In Hong Kong prophyry dykes swarms intruding into granite are found in north-east Lantau.

Sill

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle intrudes horizontally into the crust along lines of weakness.

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 • Magma cools and solidifies at a moderate rate at a moderate depth under the earth’s
surface and forms a sill.

Characteristics and influence on surface relief

A sill is a horizontal sheet of rock.

• A sill is parallel to and lies between the bedding planes of sedimentary rock strata.
• A sill is made up of hypabyssal rocks which have medium-sized crystals, e.g. prophyry.
• After a long time of denudation, a sill may be exposed to the surface as a flattopped plateau.

Extrusive igneous activity

Lava plateau

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• Basic lava flows out quietly from fissures onto the earth surface. (The outpouring of lava is
called lava flow.)
• The lava piles up and buries the original landscape, cools and solidifies to form a lava
plateau.

Characteristics and example

• A lava plateau is a highland formed when the lava cools and solidifies quickly.
• A lava plateau is made up of volcanic rocks which have fine crystals, e.g. basalt.
• The soil derived from basic lava is rich in minerals, and so volcanic areas of basic lava are
ideal for farming.
• e.g. Deccan Plateau (India)

Volcanoes

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• The lava cools and solidifies to form volcanic rocks which make up the volcano.
• The volcano is built higher and higher by repeated, periodic eruptions.

Characteristics and types

1. A volcano is symmetrical and conical in shape.

2. There are four types of volcanoes
o Acid lava cone
o Basic lava cone
o Ash and cinder cone
o Composite cone

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Structure of a volcano

• The vent is the hole on the earth's surface where lava erupts.
• The pipe is the channel where lava rises up. c. A crater is a depression at the top of the
volcano.

Life cycle of a volcano

• An active volcano is a volcano which has frequent volcanic eruptions.

• A dormant volcano is a volcano which has infrequent volcanic eruptions.
• An extinct volcano is a volcano with no records of volcanic eruptions in historical times.

Acid lava cone

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• Acid lava is viscous and flows very slowly. (Acid lava has a high silica content and is light
coloured.)
• The lava cools and solidifies around the vent and piles up to form a dome volcano called acid
lava cone.
• The volcano is built higher and higher by repeated, periodic eruptions.

Characteristics and example

• An acid lava cone is made up of layers of acid lava.

• An acid lava cone is high, narrow-based and has steep and convex slopes.
• An acid lava cone is symmetrical and conical in shape
• Volcanic eruptions are usually violent because the viscous acid lava clots the pipe. e. e.g.
Puys d'Auvergne (France)

Basic lava cone

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• Basic lava is fluid and flows rapidly. (Basic lava has a low silica content and is dark coloured.)
• The lava flows a long way before solidifying and piles up to form a shield volcano called basic
lava cone.
• The volcano is built higher and higher by repeated, periodic eruptions.

Characteristics and example

• A basic lava cone is made up of layers of basic lava.

• A basic lava cone is low, broad-based and has gentle and concave slopes.
• A basic lava cone is symmetrical and conical in shape.

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 • Volcanic eruptions are not violent because the fluid basic lava seldom clots the pipe. e. e.g.
Mauna Loa (Hawaii, USA)

Ash and cinder cone

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• During explosive volcanic eruptions, a large amount of gas bursts out violently onto the
surface.
• Lava and solid rock materials are ejected and blown into great height and broken into ash
and cinders.
• The lava cools and solidifies rapidly into fragmental rock materials called pyroclasts.
o Volcanic bombs are larger fragments with a diameter of about 10 cm.
o Lapilli are smaller fragments.
o Volcanic ash is fine, dust-like particles.
o Coarse debris called cinder piles up near the vent and fine ash piles up on the lower
slope further away.
o The volcano is built higher and higher by repeated, periodic eruptions.

Characteristics and example

• An ash and cinder cone is made up of layers of ash and cinder.

• An ash and cinder cone is high and has steep and concave slopes.
• An ash and cinder cone is symmetrical and conical in shape.e.g. Paricutin (Mexico)

Composite cone

Formation

• When earth movements occur, cracks develop along lines of weakness. Pressure on the crust
is released.
• Magma in the mantle extrudes onto the earth's surface along lines of weakness.
• During explosive volcanic eruptions, pyroclastic materials are thrown out forming a layer of
ash and cinder.
• When violent eruption stops, lava pours out quietly forming a layer of lava.
• Violent volcanic eruption occurs repeatedly at intervals.
• A composite cone is built up by alternate layers of ash and lava.
• The volcano is built higher and higher by repeated, periodic eruptions.

Characteristics and example

• A composite cone is very high and has concave slopes.

• A composite cone is symmetrical and conical in shape. c. A composite cone is built up by
alternate layers of ash and lava.
• These layers indicate periods of active vulcanicity and quiescence.
• The lava may pour out through cracks on the side of the volcano, forming conelets or
secondary cone.

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 • A violent eruption at a later stage may blow off the top of the cone, forming a large crater
called caldera.
• New cones may form within a caldera called parasitic cones.
• omposite cones is the most common type of volcano. Most of the highest volcanoes are
composite cones.
e.g. Mount Mayon (the Philippines)

World distribution of volcanoes

1. Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire

o The Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire includes two- thirds of the world's volcanoes.
o It encircles the Pacific Ocean: from the Andes, the Rockies,
o Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia to New Zealand.
2. Mediterranean and the East African Belt It extends from the Mediterranean, the Middle East
to the Himalayas, and the East African Rift Valley.
3. Mid-Atlantic Belt

Related volcanic features

A crater lake is a lake formed in the crater of a dormant or extinct volcano.

A volcanic plug is the remain of a volcano which had been worn away.

• The magma solidified in the pipe is more resistant to weathering and erosion.
• The magma is exposed as a sharp peak called volcanic plug.

A hot spring is a stream of hot groundwater flows out continuously.

• The rocks blow the earth's surface are heated up by hot magma.
• Groundwater in fissures and reservoirs below the earth's surface is superheated above 100
oC due to great pressure.
• Groundwater in these rocks flows out through a crack or fissure.

A geyser is a hot spring from which a column of hot groundwater and steam eject explosively at
regular intervals.

• The rocks blow the earth's surface are heated up by hot magma.
• Groundwater in fissures and reservoirs below the earth's surface is superheated above 100
oC due to great pressure.
• Vapour pressure increases until it is so great that it forces the superheated water and steam
to eject high in the air.
• The shooting repeats when the superheated water and steam is restored and the vapour
pressure is built up again.e.g. geysers in the Yellowstone National Park (USA)

A fumarole is a vent ejecting gases only, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and
steam (H2O).
A solfatara is a fumarole ejecting gases rich in sulphur.

Influence of volcanic activities on human activities

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Benefits

• Basic lava gives fertile volcanic soil for farming.

• Minerals deposits are rich and mining can be done. Industries can also be developed.
(Intrusion of magma leads to concentration of minerals upon cooling or metamorphism.)
• Volcanoes, hot springs, geysers and other features attract tourists and favour tourism.
• Geothermal energy can be tapped from hot springs, etc. to provide cheap energy for
industries.

Natural hazards

• Volcanic eruption causes fire and the emission of poisonous gases (e.g. sulphur).
• Earthquake, which is related to plate movement, causes great damage.
• Tsunami are huge sea waves caused by an earthquake which takes place on the ocean floor.
• Landslide and mudflow bury farms and settlements under ash and lava.
• Flooding occurs when landslide or mudflow materials block the river.

Influence of mountains on human activities

1. Mountains act as climatic barriers, e.g. provide shelter from cold winds and bring relief rain
on windward sides.
2. Mountains contain rich natural resources, e.g. mineral, timber, and provide sites for H.E.P.
development.
3. Mountains are the habitats of valuable species of wildlife.
4. Mountains provide sites for recreation and tourism.
5. Mountains are of strategic importance for defence

Denudation

1. The landforms on the earth's surface are the result of mountain building processes.
2. However, external forces also shape the land surface and lower the level of land by wearing
it away.
3. Denudation is the processes of breaking up and removing the rocks exposed on the earth
surface.
4. The three major denudation processes are
o weathering,
o mass wasting and
o erosion.

Weathering
Weathering is the disintegration or decomposition of rock which is exposed to the weather.

• hysical weathering is the disintegration of rock into small fragments. The chemical
composition is unchanged. e.g. exfoliation, granular disintegration, block disintegration.
• Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock by chemical change in the rockforming
minerals. e.g. spheroidal weathering, honeycomb weathering.
• Biological weathering is the physical disintegration or chemical decomposition by the actions
of animals and plants.

Weathering is a static process - little or no direct movement of material is involved.

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Mass wasting (or mass movement)

Mass wasting is the movement of weathered or loosened materials down-slope due to gravity.

• Slow movement, e.g. soil creep, rock creep.

• Rapid movement, e.g. mud flow, landslide, rock fall.

Mass wasting is a dynamic process - movement of materials is involved.

Erosion

Erosion

• Erosion is the wearing away of surface rocks or weathered materials by natural agents, e.g.
rivers, glaciers and wind.
• Erosion is also a dynamic process - movement of materials is involved.

Transportation

• ransportation is process by which the eroded material is carried by the erosional agents.
• The material transported by an erosional agent is called load.

Deposition

• Deposition happens when the natural agent loses its transporting power and deposits its
load, e.g.
i. when the speed of flow of the natural agent is reduced, or
ii. when there is an obstruction. b. The material deposited is called sediment.
• Deposition fills up the hollows and helps to level the land.

Physical weathering (or mechanical weathering)

• Physical weathering is the disintegration of rocks into smaller fragments without any change
in the chemical composition.
• Physical weathering speeds up chemical weathering by exposing a larger surface area of
rocks to chemical processes.
• Physical weathering is caused by
o temperature changes,
o freeze-thaw action (frost action),
o pressure release, and
o alternate wetting and drying.
• Physical weathering is common in areas with a large diurnal (daily) temperature range.
o The day-time temperatures are high and the night-time temperatures are low.
o In hot and dry areas, the clear (cloudless) sky allows the land
i. to gain heat rapidly in the daytime,
ii. to lose heat rapidly at night.

Physical weathering caused by temperature changes

Exfoliation

• Exfoliation is common in fine-grained rocks of uniform structure.

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 • Alternate heating and cooling causes alternate expansion and contraction.
o In the daytime, the rock surface is heated up and expands.
o At night, the rock surface loses its heat and contracts.
o Repeated expansion and contraction produces radial and concentric cracks on the
rock surface.
o The interior of the rock has a relatively smaller temperature change, hence a smaller
expansion and contraction.
o Thin layers on the rock surface 'peel off' like an onion.
o This process is known as exfoliation or onion weathering.
o The rock mass is subjected to further exfoliation and is changed into a rounded
boulder.

Granular Disintegration

• Granular disintegration is common in coarse- grained rocks made of different minerals, e.g.
granite.
• Alternate heating and cooling causes alternate expansion and contraction.
o In the daytime, the rock surface is heated up and expands.
o At night, the rock surface loses its heat and contracts.
o Repeated expansion and contraction causes stress on the rock surface.
o Different mineral grains have different rates of expansion and contraction.
o The rock breaks down grain by grain.
o This process is known as granular disintegration.
o Sand grains accumulate at the base of the rock mass.

Block Disintegration
Block disintegration is common in areas with well-jointed rocks, e.g. granite.

o Alternate heating and cooling causes alternate expansion and contraction.

o In the daytime, the rock surface is heated up and expands.
o At night, the rock surface loses its heat and contracts.
o Repeated expansion and contraction causes stress within the rock and widens the
joints.

Blocks of rock may split away from the rock mass.

This process is known as block disintegration.
The blocks of rock may in turn be broken gradually into even smaller pieces.

Physical weathering caused by freeze-thaw action (or frost action)

1. Physical weathering due to freeze-thaw action is common a. where daily temperatures

fluctuate above and below freezing point (0oC), b. e.g. on high mountains and in temperate
latitudes, esp. in areas with well-jointed rocks.
2. When water freezes, its volume increases by 9%.
o At night, the temperature drops below 0oC. The water in a joint freezes and
expands.
o In the daytime, the temperature rises above 0oC. The water in the joint thaws.
o The joint is widened and deepened and can hold more water.
o This allows more water to enter, and the water produces a more powerful pressure
when it freezes again.

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 o The repeated action of freezing and thawing of water is called freeze-thaw action or
frost action.

• Angular blocks of rock may split away from the rock mass.
• This is also block disintegration.

• The angular fragments of rock may in turn be broken gradually into even smaller pieces.

Physical weathering caused by pressure release due to unloading

• The pressure of the overlying rocks keeps the underlying rock mass in a state of contraction.

• When the overlying rocks are removed by erosion, the pressure on the rock mass is released due
to unloading.

• The rocks expand and cracks parallel to the rock surface develops.

• Large sheets of rock is split away from the parent rock.

Physical weathering caused by alternate wetting and drying

1. Certain minerals of rocks absorb water. The rocks expand.

2. The rocks are dried and contract when heated by the sun.
3. Alternate wetting and drying causes alternate expansion and contraction in the rock.
4. This is common along the coasts where the rise and fall of sea level induce wetting and
drying on rocks.

Physical weathering in Hong Kong

1. Physical weathering is less important than chemical weathering in Hong Kong.

2. Hong Kong have well-jointed granite or volcanic rocks.
3. Block disintegration is common, particularly on higher grounds, e.g. on Lantau Peak and
Victoria Peak.
4. Hong Kong has a sub-tropical climate. The daily temperature range is not great.
5. Both the daily range and the monthly range of temperature are largest between November
and March.
6. During this period, there is greater expansion and contraction in the rocks.
7. Freeze-thaw action is not as frequent as in the desert and high latitude areas.
8. However, freeze-thaw action may occur occasionally
o when temperatures in winter occasionally rise and fall about the freezing point,
o esp. in the northern part of the New Territories and on high elevations, e.g. Tai Mo
Shan.,

Chemical weathering

1. Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock by chemical change in the rockforming

minerals.
2. The change in mineral composition weakens the rock structure.
3. Chemical weathering is more important in hot and wet

conditions.

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 o High temperature provides energy and speeds up chemical reactions.
o High humidity provides water for chemical reactions.

Chemical processes involved in chemical weathering

Carbonation

• Rainwater (H2O) combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) and forms a weak carbonic acid
(H2CO3).
• Limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) is soluble in the acid rain to form calcium
hydrogencarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2).
• Calcium hydrogencarbonate (calcium bicarbonate) is soluble in water and is removed in
solution.

Hydrolysis
Free hydrogen ion (H+) in water (H2O) enters the mineral structure and creates a new compound.
Hydration

• Hydration is the addition of water molecules to a mineral.

• The swelling of the minerals exert pressure within the rock pores causing disintegration.

Oxidation
A mineral, e.g. iron, in contact with oxygen (in the air and water) oxidises. The oxidised iron is then
decomposed.
Solution

Minerals which can be dissolved in water are carried away in form of solution.

Spheroidal weathering

Process

• Spheroidal weathering is common in well- jointed granite areas.

• Granite is characterised by three sets of joints. The joints divide the rock into blocks.
• Hong Kong has a hot, wet sub-tropical climate which favour active chemical weathering.
o Rain water (H2O) combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air and forms a weak
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
o The acidic rainwater enters into the rock through the joints.
o Chemical weathering, e.g. hydration, hydrolysis and oxidation, concentrates along
the joint planes.
o Chemical weathering proceeds from around the surface of the blocks to the inner
core.
▪ Concentric rings of weathered materials are formed around the blocks.
▪ Rectangular blocks are rounded off into corestones.
▪ When weathered materials around the corestones are eroded, the
corestones exposed onto surface are called tors.
▪ A typical weathering profile of granite in Hong Kong
▪ In granite areas in Hong Kong, spheroidal weathering produces a
typical weathering profile.
▪ Zone I near the surface is the completely weathered zone
with reddish-brown weathered materials (i.e. soil).

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 ▪
▪ Zone II below is the partially weathered zone, with mainly
weathered materials and some smaller corestones.
▪ Zone III further below is the partially weathered zone, with
mainly larger corestones and some weathered materials.
▪ Zone IV further below is the unweathered parent rock zone.
▪ Road cutting in a granite rock area may show such a soil
profile, and spheroidal rock blocks can clearly be seen.
▪ The weathered material is usually red to yellow in colour
which is the colour of the iron oxide in lateritic soil.

Honeycomb weathering

• Rocks may contain different minerals some of which are soluble.

• Sea spray, moisture or rain water dissolves the soluble minerals.
• Such minerals are removed in solution. Many holes are left on the rock surface.
• The rock surface looks like a honeycomb.e.g. in the coastal rocks on Cheung Chau Lei Yue
Mun Tai O and Ma Sze Chau.

Chemical weathering in Hong Kong

1. Chemical weathering is more important than physical weathering in Hong Kong.

2. Hong Kong has a sub-tropical climate, with high temperature, heavy rainfall and high
humidity in summer.
3. Granite in Hong Kong is less resistant because a. granite is well-jointed.
o granite contains minerals which are easily weathered,
o feldspar is decomposed into kaolin by hydrolysis,
o mica is oxidised into iron oxide by oxidation; however
o quartz is not chemically weathered, but only physically disintegrated into sand
grains.

Biological weathering

1. Biological weathering is the physical disintegration or chemical decomposition by the actions

of animals and plants.
2. Biological weathering by physical processes
o The growth of plant roots may enlarge and prise open the joints or cracks of rocks.
o Worms and rabbits may help to loosen the soil and bring fresh soil to the surface
from below.
3. Biological weathering by chemical processes
o Plants may help to promote chemical weathering by releasing humic acid.
o Bacteria, in the presence of water, may decompose certain minerals from the soil.
Mass wasting (or mass movement)

Slow Movements

1. Slow movements include soil creep, rock creep and solifluction.

2. Soil and rock move very slowly downslope.
3. The movement is too slow to be observed directly.
4. However, there is evidence of this slow movement on the hill-slopes.
o Fences, posts and telephone poles are tilted.
o Tree trunks may bend downhill.

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 o
There is a thicker soil layer accumulated on lower hill-slopes.
o
Irregular soil creep or rock creep produces a stepped surface called terracettes.
5. The creep is faster on steeper slopes, but may occur on slopes where the angle is as small as
5 degrees.
6. Conditions favouring rapid movements include:
o alternate heating and cooling, b. alternate wetting and drying,
o alternate freezing and thawing,
o burrowing of animals,
o trampling by animals, and
o arthquakes and other vibrations.

Soil creep

1. Soil creep is the slow downslope movement of soil particles due to gravity.
2. During wet weather, the soil on the slope is saturated with water. The soil becomes bulky.
3. The surface soil grains are forced to rise upward perpendicular to the slope.
4. During dry weather, the soil on the hill-slope dries up. The soil contracts.
5. The surface soil grains move vertically downward due the gravity. [The movement is vertical
- perpendicular to the horizontal plane, NOT perpendicular to the slope.]
6. Alternate wetting and drying causes the soil grains to move downslope.

Rock creep

1. Rock creep is the slow downslope movement of rock fragments due to gravity.
2. Rock creep is caused by alternate heating and cooling of rock fragments.

Solifluction

1. Solifluction is the slow downslope movement of soil and rock debris saturated with water
due to gravity.
2. Solifluction is caused by alternate freezing and thawing of soil and rock debris in high
latitudes and high altitudes.

Rapid movements

1. Rapid movements include mud-flow, earth- flow, rock-fall and landslide.

2. When soil and rock move rapidly downslope, the movement can be observed directly.
3. Conditions favouring rapid movements include:
o steep slope,
o lack of surface vegetation so that the bare rock is exposed to the air,
o rock less resistant to weathering,
o climate with alternate cold-dry and hot-wet season which speed up weathering.

Mud-flow and earth-flow

1. Mud-flow or earth-flow is the rapid downslope movement of weathered materials saturated

with water due to gravity.
2. It is common after volcanic eruption when volcanic ash saturated with melting snow moves
downslope.

Rock-fall

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 • Rock-fall is the sudden free falling of rocks from a cliff or a steep slope due to gravity.
• Partially weathered blocks of rock stands up as a tor on top of a cliff or a steep slope.
• Heavy rainfall or earthquake may remove the underlying supporting materials.
• This provides a 'trigger action' for the block of rock or tor to fall vertically from the cliff.

Landslide

1. Landslide is the rapid downslope movement of weathered materials due to gravity.

o A thick layer of deeply weathered materials lies on top of an unweathered layer of
parent bedrock.
o The surface between these two layers forms the slide plane.
o Weathered layer moves downslope along the slide plane.
2. Slumping is a landslide on a curved slope.

Cause of landslide in Hong Kong

1. A thick layer of deeply weathered materials lies on top of an unweathered layer of parent
bedrock.
2. In Hong Kong, intense and prolonged rainfall is common in summer.
o The rainwater infiltrates into the soil, the soil is saturated with water and increases
in weight.
o The rainwater lubricates the slide plane. c. The rainwater reduces the friction
between the weathered materials and the bedrock.
o The rainwater reduces the cohesive forces between the soil particles.
o The rainwater reduces the stability of the slope.
3. In Hong Kong there is a shortage of land and a large population.
o Hills are cut into steep slopes or terraces to provide sites for buildings and
construction purposes.
o Vegetation (grass or plants) is removed.
o When the lower slope is removed there is a lack of support for the heavy weight of
the upper slopes.

Ways to prevent mass movements, esp. landslides

1. Retaining walls are built to hold back the soil.

2. Slopes are covered with cement called Chunam plaster to reduce the amount of water that
enters the soil.
3. Gutters or pipes (surface and sub-surface drainage) are installed to drain the water inside
the soil.
4. Grass is planted on the hill-slopes, the roots of plants hold the soil and absorb part of the
water during rainstorms.
5. Dangerous slopes are regularly monitored and maintained.
o Development in dangerous zones is restricted.
o Potentially unstable rocks are removed.
o The steepness of slopes is reduced.

Rain Water Erosion

1. Heavy rainfall and over-depletion of trees may produce a bare surface.

2. This leads to serious soil erosion caused by the action of rain.
3. In rain-wash erosion, the surface soil is removed by
o rain-splash, by raindrop impact, when raindrops hit on the soil;

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 o sheet wash, by overland flow, when rain flows downslope on the land in a sheet
form.

Earth cigar and earth pillar

1. Earth cigar and earth pillar are earth columns with a boulder on top.
2. On sloping surfaces with little vegetation, soil is eroded by rain-splash and rain-wash.
3. However, the scatter pebbles on the slopes act as caps which protect the soil underneath.
4. Earth columns with a boulder on top called earth cigars are formed.
5. Larger earth cigars are called earth pillars.
6. Earth cigars and earth pillars are found in areas with frequent heavy rainfall and high
temperatures, e.g. the wet tropics.

Gullies and badlands

1. A gully is a deep, long and wide channels formed by rain-splash erosion.

2. Badlands are extensive gully areas with little vegetation and deeply dissected steep slopes.

Formation

• The vegetation cover has been removed by cutting for fuel or hill-fires.
• During dry season, the soil dries up.
• Cracks develop due to the attack of wind.
• In wet season, rain water collects in cracks running down-slope.
• The cracks are widened into small streams called rills.
• Additional heavy rain enlarges the rills into steep-sided, V-shaped channels called gullies.
• Soil erosion goes on in the gullies and more weathered materials are washed away.
• Deposition at the bottom of the gullies makes them become U-shaped.

Characteristics

• Gullies are dry on rainless days.

• An extensive gully area is called badlands which has very little or no vegetation cover.
• A badland is an area where the land surface is barren and is deeply dissected.

Examples in Hong Kong

• Badlands and gullies are very common in the deeply weathered granite hill-slopes in Hong
Kong.e.g. southern part of Lamma Island, Castle Peak, northern Lantau, Cheung Chau and
hillslopes of New Kowloon.

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