Module 3: Elementary Logic

• LOGIC

 As a mathematical language.
 In your social science courses, logic could define as the study of the principles of correct
reasoning and it is not a psychology of reasoning.
 Mathematical logic, it is a statement about mathematical objects that are taken seriously as
mathematical objects in their own right.
 More generally, in mathematical logic we formalize, that is, we formulate in a precise
mathematical way its definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture, corollary, propositions and the
methods of proof.

A. Definition
- It is a formal statement of the meaning of a word or group of words and it could stand alone. -
There is exactness and the precision in definition. Example: a right triangle Definition: It consists of
two legs and a hypotenuse. The two legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is the longest
side of the right triangle and is the side opposite the right angle.
B. Theorem
- It is a statement that can be demonstrated to be true by accepted mathematical operations and
arguments. - It is the embodiment of some general principle that makes it part of a larger theory. -
The process of showing a theorem to be correct is called a proof. Example: Pythagorean Theorem
C. Methods of Proof
- To be able to say that a theorem is true, it should undergo the process of proving. - It is rigorous
mathematical argument which unequivocally demonstrates the truth of a given proposition.
Example: 1. Inductive 2. Deductive 3. Direct Proof 4. Indirect Proof 5. Proof by Counterexample 6.
Proof by Contradiction
D. Proposition
- It is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both. - All types of propositions are
precise and concise.
E. Corollary
- It is also a proposition that follows with little or no proof required from one already proven.
F. Lemma
- The only difference of a lemma into a theorem is that lemma is a short theorem used in proving a
larger theorem. - If lemma is a shorter version of a larger theorem and theorem is a precise
statement, we could say that a lemma is also a precise statement.

❖ PROPOSITION:
It is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both. A letter may be used to
represent a proposition.
 It is also known as STATEMENT.
 There are two kinds of propositions: simple and compound propositions.
a. Simple Proposition
– it is a proposition that conveys a single idea.
b. Compound Proposition – it is a proposition that conveys two or more ideas. It is created by
connecting simple propositions with words and phrases such as and, or, if…then, and if and
only if which are called CONNECTIVES.

Examples:
1. 3 is an odd integer.
2. Quezon City was once the capital city of the Philippines.
3. 12 ÷ 4 = 3
4. Bacolod is in Mindanao.
5. Paris is in France.
 6. Today is Wednesday.
7. 8 + 5 = 12
8. La Carlota City is the capital of Negros Occidental.
9. 41 is a prime number.
10. √3 is an integer.
• True (T) – a decision value given to an acceptable proposition. It is equivalent to 1.
• False (F) – a decision value given to an unacceptable proposition. It is equivalent to 0.
• Logical Matrix (Truth Table) – an array of decision value or truth value
• Propositional Logic – the area of logic that deals with proposition. The bases for propositional
logic are the three laws of Aristotelian logic.
• Aristotelian Logic
1. Law of Identity. “A thing is itself.”
2. Law of Excluded Middle. “A statement is either true or false but not both.”
3. Law of Non-Contradiction. “No statement is both true and false.”

❖ TRUTH TABLES
 When you're constructing a truth table, you have to consider all possible assignments of True
(T) and False (F) to the
propositions.
 If there are more than 1 proposition, use the formula: 2x to get the number of possibilities
(rows).
where: x = the number of propositions 2
For example; If there 2 propositions, p and q: 2x = 2 = 4

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

For example; If there 3 propositions, p, q and r: 2 x = 2 3 = 8

p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

❖ LOGICAL OPERATORS:
Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more propositions. These
new propositions are formed from existing propositions using logical operators. The logical
operators that are used to form new propositions from two or more existing propositions are called
connectives.

• NEGATION (~p or p’) – “not p”

Let p be a proposition. The statement “it is not the case that p” is another proposition called the
negation of p, denoted by ~p.
The truth value of ~p is the opposite of the truth value of p.

Table 1. The truth Matrix of the Negation of a Proposition

p -p (p’)
T F
F T

Examples:
1.5 is positive ‣ 5 is not positive
2.2 is an even number ‣ 2 is not an even number
3.Dr. Luciano T. Magallanes is the college president.
4.5 + 8 = 13
5.Today is Friday

• CONJUNCTION (p ^ q) – “p and q”
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p and q”, denoted by p ^ q is the proposition that is
true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
Examples:
1.Consider the following statements:
p: 2 is an even integer
q: 3 is an odd integer
The conjunction of these propositions p ^ q is: “2 is an even integer and 3 is an odd integer”
2.Let p: 3 divides 9
q: 3 divides 15
p ^ q: “3 divides 9 and 3 divides 15”

Table 2. The truth Matrix of the Conjunction of Two Proposition

p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

DISJUNCTION (p ˅ q) – “p or q”
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p or q”, denoted by p ˅ q is the proposition that is
false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise.

Example:

Let p: Students who have taken Algebra can take Discrete Mathematics.
q: Students who have taken Computer Science can take Discrete Mathematics.
The disjunction of these propositions p ˅ q is: “Students who have taken Algebra or Computer
Science but not both, can take Discrete Mathematics”

Table 3. The truth Matrix of the Disjunction of Two Proposition

p q p ˅q
T T T
T F T
 F T T
F F F

• IMPLICATION OR CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS (p → q) – “p implies q”

Let p and q be propositions. The implication p → q is the proposition that is false when p is true
and q is false and true otherwise.
In this implication p is called the premise, antecedent or the hypothesis, the proposition q is called
the conclusion or consequent.
If p then q is a conditional proposition and is denoted by:
p → q.
The implication p → q can be express in the following:
“if p then q”
“p implies q”
“p is sufficient for q”
“a necessary condition for p is q”
“q is necessary for p”
“q follows from p”

Table 4. The truth Matrix of the Conditional Proposition p → q

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Examples:
1.Let p: 1 > 2 F
q: 4 < 8 T
p → q: if 1>2, then 4<8 or 1>2 implies 4<8 T
2.If all men are mortal then Mario is mortal. (Logical implication)
3.If this polygon is quadrilateral then it has 4 equal sides. (Definitional implication)
4.If today is Monday, then tomorrow is Tuesday. (Sequential implication)
5.If sugar is placed in water, then it will dissolve. (Causal implication)
6.If x=0 → y = 10, x≠0 → y≠0. (Material implication)

Converse, Contra-positive and inverse

There are some related implications that can be formed from p → q.
The proposition q → p is called converse of p → q.
The proposition q” → p” is called the contra-positive of p → q.
The proposition p’ → q’ is called the inverse of p → q.

Examples: Write in the form “if p then q” then write the converse, contra-positive and inverse of the
following implication.

1.“The price of crude oil goes up whenever the US goes to war.”

This proposition can be expressed in the if-then form: “If the price of crude oil goes up, then the
US goes to war.”
Converse: “If the US goes to war, then the price of crude oil goes up.”
Contra-positive: “If the US does not go to war, then the price of crude oil does not go up.”
Inverse: “If the price of crude oils does not go up, then the US does not go to war.”
2.“You get promoted only if you work hard.”
3.“You can access the school Wi-Fi only if you are enrolled.”
4.“If it rains today, I will stay home and read my lessons.”

• BICONDITIONAL (p ↔ q) – “p iff q”

Let p and q be propositions. The bi-conditional p ↔ q is the proposition that is true when p and q
have the same truth values
and is false otherwise.
“p iff q”
“q iff p” or
“p implies q and q implies p”

Examples:
1.The curve is a circle if and only if the curve is equidistant to a point.
2.The polygon is a triangle if and only if it has three sides.
3.68,295 is divisible by 15 if and only if 68,925 is divisible by 3 and 5.

Table 5. The truth Matrix of the Bi-Conditional Proposition p ↔ q

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

• EXCLUSIVE OR (p ⊕ q)
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q denoted by p ⊕ q is the proposition that is
true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.

Example: Either you can have a glass of milk or a glass of orange juice for breakfast.
Table 6. The truth Matrix for Exclusive Or.

p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Table 7. The truth Matrix of Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Conditional, Bi-conditional and
Exclusive Or

p q p’ q’ p^q p˅q p→q p↔q p⊕q

T T F F T T T T F
 T F F T F T F F T
F T T F F T T F T
F F T T F F T T F

• MAJOR T: When two or more connectives are present in a statement, one of them is the
dominant or major connective. The major connective is shown by using the parenthesis.

• TAUTOLOGY: A proposition which has only the decision value True (T)
• CONTRADICTION: A proposition which is always False (F).
• CONTINGENCY: A proposition that is neither a tautology or a contradiction.

Module 4: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

❖ INDUCTIVE REASONING
- It is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples
- It involves going from a series of specific cases to a general statement.
- Conjecture is the term given to the conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning since it may
or may not be correct or
in other words, it is a concluding statement that is reached using inductive reasoning.
- Inductive reasoning uses a set of specific observations to reach an overarching conclusion or it is
the process of
recognizing or observing patterns and drawing a conclusion.
- It is very essential to solve some practical problems that we may encounter. With the use of
inductive reasoning, we can
easily predict a solution or an answer of a certain problem.

Examples:
1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following list: 3, 6, 9, 12,
15, ?

Explanation: The given sequence of number is clearly seen that each successive number is three
(3) larger than the preceding number, which is if the first number is increased by 3 the result is 6.
Now, when this 6 is increased by 3 the next number would be 9. If we are going to continue the
process, if 15 is increased by 3 then the next number would be 18.Hence the required number is
18.

2. Write a conjecture that describe the pattern 2, 4, 12, 48, 240. Then use the conjecture to find
the next item in the sequence.
Step 1. Look for a pattern:
2 4 12 48 240 ...?

Step 2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.

The numbers are multiplied by 2, then 3, then 4, then 5. The next number will be the product of
240 times 6 or 1,140.

Step 3: Make a conjecture: Now, the answer is 1,140

3. Write a conjecture that describes the pattern shown below. How many segments could be
formed on the fifth figure?

Step 1. Look for a pattern:

3-segments 9-segments 18-segments

Step 2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.

This could be written in a form of: (3)(2) (3)(3) (3)(4) (3)(5)

The figure will increase by the next multiple of 3. If we add 15, the next or the fifth figure is made of
45 segments.

Step 3. Make a conjecture: Hence the fifth figure will have 45 segments.

4. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3. Complete the above procedure for several different
numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of
the resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following
results:

• Original Number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 * 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20.
• Starting with 6 produces a final result of 24.
Multiply by 8: 8 * 6 = 48
Add 6: 48 + 6 = 54
Divide by 2: 54 ÷ 2 = 27
Subtract 3: 27 – 3 = 24
• Original Number: 57
Multiply by 8: 8 * 57 = 456
Add 6: 456 + 6 = 462
Divide by 2: 462 ÷ 2 = 231
Subtract 3: 231 – 3 = 228
• Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40.
• Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400.

We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.
➢ Scientists often use inductive reasoning.
➢ For instance, Galileo Galilei used inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a
pendulum to complete one swing, called the period (swing from left to right and back to its original
position) of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so
he measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.”
➢ The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths.
➢ For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.

Length of Pendulum, in Period of pendulum, in

units heartbeats

1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
5. Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions:

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution:
a.In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length.
Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period twice that of a pendulum with 1
unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a
length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

❖ DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- It is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures or
principles.
- A type of logic in which one goes from a general statement to a specific instance.

Examples:
1. First Premise: All positive counting numbers whose unit digit is divisible by two are even
numbers.
Second Premise: A positive counting number 1,236 has a unit digit of 6 which is divisible by two.
Conclusion: Therefore, 1,236 is an even number.
2. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2 and
subtract 3.
Solution:
Let “n” represent the original number We started with n and ended with 4n. The
Multiply the number by 8: 8n procedure given in this example
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6 produces a number that is four
times the
Divide the sum by 2:
8n+6
2

original number.

= 4n + 3
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3
= 4n