Geometric Design of

Highways and Airports

Lecture 2
Factors Influencing the Geometric Design
of Highways
Factors Influencing the Geometric Design of Highways
• Functional classification of Highway

• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix

• Design speed

• Design vehicle

• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians

• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades

• Topography of the area that the highway traverses

• Level of service
Factors Influencing the Geometric Design of Highways
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors
Factors Influencing the Geometric Design of Highways
• Functional classification

• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix

• Design speed

• Design vehicle

• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians

• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades

• Topography of the area that the highway traverses

• Level of service
Functional classification
• Highways and streets are primarily classified depending upon the area in
which they are located.

Urban Roads
Rural Roads
• Because urban and rural areas have significantly different characteristics
with respect to the type of land use and population density, which in turn
influences travel patterns.
Functional classification
• Within the classification of urban and rural, highways are categorized into
the following groups:
• Principal arterials

• Minor arterials

• Major collectors

• Minor collectors

• Local roads and streets

Functional System of Urban Roads
Functional System of Rural Roads
Traffic Volume

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

• The most basic measure of the traffic demand for a highway is the average
daily traffic (ADT) volume.

• The ADT is defined as the total volume during a given time period (in whole
days), greater than one day and less than one year, divided by the number of
days in that time period.

• Average Daily Traffic is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a

number of days greater than one but less than a year.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

• Annual Average Daily Traffic is the average of 24-hour counts collected every
day for an entire year.
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

• Peak Hour Traffic is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a
highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.

• PHVs are used for

a. Functional classification of highways

b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number
of lanes, intersection signalization, or channelization
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

• Traffic volumes for an interval of time shorter than a day more appropriately
reflect the operating conditions that should be used for design.

• The brief, but frequently repeated, rush-hour periods are significant in this
regard. In nearly all cases, a practical and adequate time period is one hour.

• The traffic pattern on any highway shows considerable variation in traffic

volumes during the various hours of the day and in hourly volumes throughout
the year.

• A key design decision involves determining which of these hourly traffic

volumes should be used as the basis for design.
Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
• While it would be wasteful to predicate the design on the maximum peak-hour
traffic that occurs during the year, the use of the average hourly traffic would
result in an inadequate design.

• The hourly traffic volume used in design should be a value that will not be
exceeded very often or by very much.

• On the other hand, it should not be a value so high that traffic would rarely be
sufficient to make full use of the resulting facility.

• One guide in determining the hourly traffic volume that is best suited for use in
design is a curve showing variation in hourly traffic volumes during the year.
• 30th highest hourly
volume of the year,
abbreviated as 30 HV

• 30th highest hourly is

usually taken as Design
Hourly Volume.
K - Factor

K-factor represents proportion of AADT that occurs in the 30th

HHV
K-factor = _DHV x 100
AADT
K = 8 to 12% urban, 12 to 18% rural
If AADT is 3500 vpd and the 30th highest hourly volume for the year is
420 vph what is the K-factor for that facility?

K-factor = _DHV x 100

AADT

K-factor = 420 x 100 = 12%

3500
 Question: What’s the impact of choosing different K factor for
design?
If AADT is 3500 vpd, how will the design volume differ for K-factor =
8% vs. 12%?

DHV = K-factor x AADT

100
DHVk=8% = 8 x 3500 = 280 vph
100
DHVk=12% = 12 x 3500 = 420 vph (diff of 140 Veh)
Directional Distribution

 D = directional distribution = one way volume in peak direction

(expressed as a percentage of two-way traffic) Rural 55 to 80%

 Can also adjust for how traffic is distributed between lanes (e.g.,
3 lanes, highest/outside lane may be 40% of total directional
flow)
Directional Distribution (example)

• If traffic is directionally split 60/40, what is directional

distribution of traffic for previous example (Design hourly
volume = 420 veh/hr)?

• Directional Design Hourly Volume (DDHV) =

• 0.6 x 420 = 252 veh/hr
• Notice we use 0.6 not 0.4!!
Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

PHF = peak-hour volume

4(peak 15-min volume)

Flow is not uniform throughout an hour

DHV = Peak-Hour Volume
PHF
Example

Peak hour volume from previous = 375 vph

PHF = 0.625

DHV = 375 = 600 vph

0.625
Note: the traffic you design for is the busiest 15 minutes during the peak hour … another way to think of it
is 150 vehicles per 15 minutes = 600 vehicles per 60 minutes
Design Speed

Objectives

 Get familiar with design speeds for functional classes.

◉ Types of Speeds
○ Posted speed
○ Operating speed
○ Running speed
○ Design speed
Posted speed

◉ Posted speed = speed limit

◉ Posted speed is the legal speed limit on a roadway.

 Operating speed

◉ Operating speed = free flow

◉ The operating speed of a road is the speed at which motor vehicles
generally operate on that road.

◉ Operating speed is the speed at which a typical vehicle or all vehicles

operates, commonly measured as the 85th percentile speed of all vehicles.
Operating speed

◉ Operating Speed is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles
during free flow conditions.

◉ The 85th percentile of the distribution of observed speeds is the most frequently
used measure of the operating speed associated with a particular location or
geometric feature.
 Spot speed

◉ Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location

Running speed
 Running speed

 Running speed = length of highway section ÷ running time

Design speed

◉ Design speed = selected speed used to determine geometric design

features.

◉ Design speed (AASHTO Green Book): is the speed used to determine

various geometric design features, including horizontal curvature,
gradient, super elevation, stopping sight distance.
Design speed

◉ Design speed is different from the legal speed limit which is the speed
limit imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel beyond an
accepted safe speed.

◉ Design speed is also different from the desired speed which is the
maximum speed at which a driver would travel when unconstrained by
either traffic or local geometry.
 Design speed

◉ Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric
design.
◉ It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical
curves.

◉ Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is
adopted for all the geometric design.

◉ Design speed is defined as the highest continuous speed at which individual

vehicles can travel with safety on the highway when weather conditions are
conducive.
 Design speed

◉ Since there are wide variations in the speed adopted by different drivers, and
by different types of vehicles, design speed should be selected such that it
satisfy nearly all drivers.

◉ At the same time, a higher design speed has cascading effect in other
geometric designs and thereby cost escalation.
◉ Therefore, an 85th percentile design speed is normally adopted.
◉ This speed is defined as that speed which is greater than the speed of 85% of
drivers. In some countries this is as high as 95 to 98 percentile speed.
Design speed

◉ The 85th percentile speed assists in determining the posted speed.

◉ However, the posted speed and the 85th percentile speed may not be the
same.

◉ The posted speed may be set below the 85th percentile speed.
Design Speed

◉ Design speed is defined by the AASHTO Green Book as: ...

◉ The maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section
of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.

◉ Design Speed should be :

◉ 1) consistent with the speed the driver is likely to expect
◉ 2) fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all drivers.
 Not posted speed and not operating speed (but ALWAYS higher than both)
Design speed

◉ The design speed to be 5 mph above posted speed for existing roadways, and
10 mph for new roads.
Design Speed Considerations

◉ Functional classification of the highway

◉ Character of the terrain

◉ Density and character of adjacent land uses

◉ Traffic volumes expected to use the highway

◉ Economic and environmental considerations

Design Speed Considerations
Perception/Reaction
Time
Perception
Identification

Emotion
Reaction
Perception/Reaction
Time
• PIEV
• Used for Signal Design and Breaking
Distance
Perception-Reaction Process
Perception
Sees or hears situation (sees deer)
Identification
Identify situation (realizes deer is in road)
Emotion
Decides on course of action (stop, change lanes, etc)
Reaction (volition)
Acts (time to start events in motion but not actually do
action)
• Foot begins to hit brake
Typical Perception-Reaction time range
is:
• 0.5 to 7 seconds
Affected by a number of
• factors.

• What are they?

Perception-Reaction Time Factors
 Environment:
• Urban vs. Rural
• Night vs. Day
• Wet vs. Dry

Age

Physical Condition:
• Fatigue
• Drugs/Alcohol
Distractions
Perception-Reaction Time Factors
Medical condition
visual acuity
ability to see (lighting conditions, presence of fog, snow,
etc)
complexity of situation (more complex = more time)
complexity of necessary response
expected versus unexpected situation (traffic light turning
red vs. dog darting into road)
Age

• Older drivers

• May perceive something as a hazard but not act

quickly enough
• More difficulty seeing, hearing, reacting
• Drive slower
Age
Younger drivers

May be able to act quickly but not have experience

to recognize things as a hazard or be able to
decide what to do

Are unfamiliar with driving experience

Are less apt to drive safely after a few drinks

Age
Younger drivers

Are easily distracted by conversation and others

inside the vehicle

May be more likely to operate faulty equipment

Poorly developed risk perception

Alcohol

 Affects each person differently

 Slows reaction time
 Increases risk taking
 Dulls judgment
 Slows decision-making
 Presents peripheral vision difficulties
Experience

• Familiarity

Faster on familiar
Unfamiliar more distracted
Weather
• Fog
• Rain
• Ice
• Snow
• affects ability to see (snow, fog)
• changes ability to stop (ice, snow, wet)
Perception reaction Distance

Dp = 1.47(V)(t)
where:
Dp = Distance traveled during PIEV process (feet)
V = velocity (mph)
t = perception-reaction time = 2.5s
Example

• How much longer does it take an impaired driver to perceive/

react than an unimpaired one at 65 mph?
• Unimpaired has P/R time of 2.5 seconds
• Dp = 1.47(V)(t) =
• 1.47(65 mph)(2.5 sec.) ~ 240 feet
• Impaired Driver has P/R time of 4 seconds
• Dp = 1.47(65 mph)(4 sec) ~ 380 feet

• Difference is 380 – 240 = 140 feet

• Difference is safety and economic problem!
Perception/Reaction Applications

Stopping sight distance

Passing sight distance

Placement of signs/traffic control devices

Design of horizontal/vertical curves

Design Vehicle
Design Vehicle

Introduction
◉ Design vehicles are selected motor vehicles with the weight,
dimensions, and operating characteristics used to establish
highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of designated
classes.

◉ In a practice, mix of different vehicle types uses a road at any time.

◉ Hence a largest and widest vehicle that uses the road in frequent
basis is considered as Design Vehicle.
Design Vehicle

◉ For purposes of geometric design, each design vehicle has larger

physical dimensions and a larger minimum turning radius than most
vehicles in its class.

◉ The design of an intersection is significantly affected by the type of

design vehicle, including horizontal and vertical alignments, lane
widths, turning radii, intersection sight distance, acceleration and
deceleration lengths on lanes.
DESIGN VEHICLE CLASSES

◉ A design vehicle represents an individual class in a conservative manner.

◉ Four general classes of vehicles have been established, namely,

passenger cars, buses, trucks, and recreational vehicles .

◉ The passenger car class includes compacts, subcompacts, sedans,

pick-up trucks, minivans, and full-size vans.

◉ Buses include inter-city (motor coaches), city transit, school, and buses.
 DESIGN VEHICLE CLASSES

• The truck class includes single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer

combinations, and truck tractors with semitrailers in combination with
full trailers.

• Recreational vehicles include motor homes, cars with camper trailers,

cars with boat trailers, motor homes with boat trailers, and motor homes
pulling cars.

• Additionally, the bicycle should also be considered a design vehicle

when its use on a roadway is permitted.
 Dimensions of Design Vehicles

◉ The design vehicle dimensions must represent the values

critical to geometric design and are thus greater than nearly all
vehicles belonging to the corresponding vehicle classes.

◉ The 2001 AASHTO Green Book includes 19 design vehicles.

 Choice of Design Vehicle

◉ The choice of design vehicle is influenced by the functional

classification of a roadway, and by the proportions of the various types
and sizes of vehicles expected to use the facility.

◉ On rural facilities, to accommodate truck traffic, one of the semitrailer

combination trucks should be considered in design.

◉ In urban areas that are highly built-up, intersections may be designed to

provide fully for passenger vehicles but require the larger vehicles to
swing wide upon turning.
 Turning Radii

◉ The principal dimensions affecting design are the minimum

centreline turning radius, the wheelbase, and the path of the
inner rear tire.
Wheel base
Turning Radii
 Turning Radii

◉ Transit vehicles typically require an effective turning radius. The radius

depends on lane width, length of vehicle and speed of the vehicle.

◉ Minimum turning path for single unit trucks or buses, semi‑trailer

combinations with wheelbases of 40, 50 and 62 ft [12.2, 15.24 and 18.9
m], and double-trailer combination with wheelbase of 67 ft [20.43 m]
respectively.

◉ Buses and trucks generally require more generous geometric design

than the passenger vehicles. This is largely because trucks and buses
are wider and have longer wheelbases and greater minimum turning
Wheel base
Minimum Turning Path
Passenger Car
◉ Minimum turning path is defined
by the outer trace of the front overhang
and the path of the inner rear wheel.
Minimum Turning Path
Double-Trailer Combination
 Characteristics of Design Vehicle

 Design Vehicle – largest (slowest, loudest?) vehicle

likely to use a facility with considerable frequency
 Three characteristics that affect almost all aspects of
highway design
 Physical
 Operating
 Environmental
Physical Characteristics

 Type (GB defines 20 design vehicle types)

 Passenger Car P
 Buses B
 Trucks
 RVs
 Farm tractor

 Size
 Length
 Height
 Weight
 Width
 Height of driver’s eye (car: 3.5’ – avg., truck: 7.6’ – high
side)
Operating Characteristics

 Acceleration
 Deceleration and breaking
 Power/weight ratios
 Headlights
 Friction (ball bank)
Environmental Characteristics

 Noise (noise meter)

 Exhaust
 Fuel Efficiency
 Dust (particulate and VOCs from tires and
brakes)
Vehicle Performance

Characteristics
acceleration
deceleration
difficulties in maintaining steady speed
Use
intersections
freeway ramps
climbing or passing lanes, and
turnouts for buses