Cost Effective Borehole Training

Workshop 24th-27th September 2013

(DAY 1)

Short course 1:
Basic Hydrogeology and Borehole Siting
Dotun Adekile & Mustapha Thomas
 Background to the course
Tapping Treasure – Cost Effective Boreholes in Sierra Leone
• Launched in July 2013 by MOWR
• Aims
– Supporting government departments
and NGOs to develop their capacity to
manage borehole drilling
– Supporting drillers to manage the risks
of drilling
– Creating an awareness of groundwater
amongst senior government and
opinion leaders
– Developing a code of practice for
borehole drilling
• Short course 1 is the first in a
series of training courses
designed to develop the
capacity of practitioners in the
country in borehole drilling
2
 Background to the course
What is Cost Effective Boreholes?
• Cost effective borehole delivery does not
mean cheaper boreholes.
• It means optimum value is obtained for
the money invested over the long term.
• For boreholes to be cost effective they
have to be properly sited, professionally
constructed and supervised.
• To effectively site, design, procure and
construct boreholes, an understanding
of the processes and factors affecting
the occurrence and movement of
groundwater is required.
• Groundwater occurrence and movement
in turn depend on the underlying rocks.
Therefore, a basic knowledge of geology
is essential in understanding
groundwater occurrence.
 Learning objectives

• An appreciation of groundwater occurrence in

the context of the hydrological cycle
• An understanding of groundwater occurrence
in different geological terrains of Sierra Leone
• Understanding the importance and use of
groundwater data
• Location of optimum sites for productive
boreholes, taking in to consideration socio-
cultural preferences and technical aspects
 Course outline
• Day 1
– Unit 1 Basic Geology
– Unit 2 Understanding Groundwater
– Geology and Groundwater Resources of Sierra Leone
– Practical class – Map reading, rock identification, use of GPS, Google Earth
images
• Day 2
– Unit 3 Borehole Siting
– Group work: Development of a conceptual model for groundwater occurrence
in Gerihun community, Bo District
• Day 3
– Field work – Village evaluation, hydrogeological reconnaissance, resistivity
survey at Gerihun community, Bo District
• Day 4
– Computer interpretation of VES Curves
– Report writing
– Quiz
– Course evaluation
 UNIT 1
Introduction to Basic Geology
Dotun Adekile
24th September 2013
 Unit Objective

To provide participants
with a basic knowledge of
geology specific to
groundwater occurrence
in Sierra Leone to enable
cost effective siting and
construction of boreholes
in the country.
 UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC GEOLOGY

Unit outline
1. What is geology? What is
hydrogeology?
2. The Structure of the Earth
3. Rocks
4. Classification of Rocks
5. The Rock Cycle
6. Weathering
7. Erosion and deposition
8. Inselbergs
9. Geologic Time Scale
10. The Geology of Sierra Leone
11. Summary
1. What is geology? What is hydrogeology?

• Geology is the science

of the Earth
• Geology is also the
study of rocks
• Groundwater occurs in
rocks
• Hydrogeology is the
study of groundwater
occurrence
 2. The Structure of the Earth
The Earth is made up of four layers:
• The inner core of the
Earth is solid
• The outer core consists
of viscous liquid
• The mantle is also made
up of liquid material but
the material is less
viscous than that of the
outer core
• The crust of the Earth
consists of the continents,
where we live and is Source: Wikipedia (2013)
made up of solid rocks
 2.1 The Structure of the Earth

Magma
The temperature and
pressure in the mantle
are very high. Therefore
the material is in a
liquid state called
magma or molten rock.

Source: Wikipedia (2013)

2.2 Structure of the Earth - Crustal plate movement

• The crust consists of several plates i.e. the

continents, Africa, Asia, America, Australia,
Europe which float on the underlying mantle and
are in continuous up, down and sideways
movement.

• The movements of the crust vary from those that

are very slow as in the movement of the crustal
plates to those that are rapid and violently
destructive as in earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
 2.2 Crustal plate movement

(Source; Fletcher, 2011)

 3. Rocks

• A rock is an assemblage of minerals

• Examples of rocks include soft and loose
(unconsolidated) materials e.g. sands, clays, gravel
• And harder (consolidated) material such as granites,
gneisses, gabbro, dolerite, sandstone, mudstone
• Minerals are solid chemical compounds or sometimes
single elements that can be seen in rocks as crystals or
grains
• Minerals are the units which make up a rock, just as
bricks put together make a building
 3.1 Rocks - minerals

• Each speck of white,

black, grey, red or other
colour is a separate
mineral
• Common minerals are
quartz, mica and
feldspar
 4. Classification of rocks

Rocks are classified into 3 groups depending on

their origin or mode of formation:
• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
 4.1 Igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock i.e. magma, cools
and solidifies
• If the magma reaches the surface of the Earth, it is called
lava. The lava cools rapidly and solidifies. There is no time for
crystals to be well developed therefore the rock formed is fine
grained. Basalt is formed in this way.
• When magma does not reach the surface, it solidifies in the
crust and cools slowly and large crystals are formed. The rocks
that are formed are coarse grained. Granite is formed in this
way.
• Dolerite is formed when magma intrudes (often in the form of
a dike) and cools not as rapidly as basalt and the crystals
formed are visible in hand lens.
 4.1 Igneous rocks (Cont.)
Igneous rocks are classified into two groups:

• Plutonic or Intrusive rocks: solidify deep in the crust;

seen on the surface only after exposure by prolonged
erosion e.g. the Freetown gabbros.
• Volcanic or Extrusive rocks: reach the earth’s surface in
the form of lavas and then solidify e. g. basalt.

Igneous rocks are referred to as primary rocks because

they were the first rocks on Earth and are the building
blocks of other rock types.
4.1 Igneous rock types

Source: Wikipedia (2013)

 4.2 Sedimentary Rocks
• Existing rocks are weathered, eroded, and deposited and
compacted to form sedimentary rocks.
• Sediments deposited on river floodplains and channels are
called alluvial deposits.
• Sediments deposited in the sea are called marine deposits.
• Sediments deposited on land are called continental
deposits.
• The most common sedimentary rocks are formed from
sediments transported by water and deposited in water.
• Layering is a common characteristic of sedimentary rocks.
• Sediments are laid down in layers or strata, one on top of
the other. Over several millennia the layers turn into rock as
they become hardened by compression.
4.2 Layering in sedimentary rocks

Layering in Sedimentary Rocks (Source: Thomas, 2013)

 4.2.1 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
There are three types of sedimentary rocks
depending on the origin:
• Mechanically formed or clastic sediments i.e. by
movement of water or wind e.g. clays, gravels,
sandstones
• Organically formed i.e. of plants or animal origin
e.g. coal, lignite, chalk
• Chemically formed i.e. due to chemical reactions
in the seas in which they were formed e.g. rock
salt, gypsum, certain limestones
 4.2.2 Clastic Sediments

Grain sizes:
• Gravel - 2mm to 64mm described as very small,
medium, large and very large.
• Sand - 0.06 to 2 mm described as very fine, fine,
medium, coarse and very coarse
• Silt -0.004 mm to 0.06 mm described as very fine, fine,
medium, coarse.
• Clay - <0.004mm
NB Gravel in geology is always of sedimentary origin.
Engineers sometimes use the same term for rock
aggregate of the same size. They are not the same.
 4.2.2 Clastic Sediments

Sorting and shape

• Well sorted - composed of a uniform particle sizes i.e.
• Fairly sorted – composed of a mixture particle sizes
one range predominates
• Poorly sorted – composed of a range of sizes
Shape
Well rounded, rounded, or angular or sub angular.
• The particle size, the degree of sorting and the shape
of the grains are very important in aquifer and
borehole screen slot size selection
 4.3 Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing

rocks, both igneous and sedimentary and even
some metamorphic rocks, undergoing chemical
changes due to the action of heat and pressure.
• Foliation: A texture found in metamorphic rocks
caused by pressure squeezing and stretching and
aligning new minerals that appear. It appears as
layers and colour bands.
• Examples: gneisses, migmatites, schists and
phyllites.
Foliation in a migmatite
 Quick Questions!

• Do you have any

questions or comments
on what you have heard
so far?
• Is there anything new
that you have learned?

27
 5. Rock Cycle
• The Earth’s crust is constantly
changing.
• New rocks are created, then altered
and transformed into other rocks. This
process is called the rock cycle.
• Any sedimentary or metamorphic
rock may be melted to produce
igneous rock and a previously existing
rock of any category can be affected
by the pressure and heat of Earth
movement to produce metamorphic
rocks.
• The weathered and eroded residue of
any family of rocks can be transported
by rivers or winds and deposited in the The rock cycle (Source: Fletcher, 2011)
sea and eventual conversion into
sedimentary rocks.
 6.Weathering
• Weathering is the break
down of rock to create
sediment.
• Weathering is very
important for human
existence.
• Weathering produces soil.
• Soil is the source of food,
clothing, paper, timber,
medicine, shade, oxygen
and much more.
Weathered rock overlying fresh granitic rock,
• Weathering product is a Grafton Road Freetown
source of groundwater.

29
 6. Weathering (cont.)
Weathering of rocks could be by
• Physical actions
• Chemical actions
• Biological actions
• The three work together to reduce rocks to smaller particles
until soil is formed.
• Chemical weathering is the most effective of the three
processes. It attacks all surfaces that are exposed to gases and
fluids.
• Physical and biological weathering cause rocks to fragment into
particles, increasing the surface area for chemical weathering.
 6.1 Physical Weathering

• Rock is brittle, it breaks when overlying

pressure is released. The pressure release
creates joints.
• Joints aid weathering by exposing the large
areas of rock to the elements thus increasing
the surface to weathering.
• Abrasion: Small particles of rock carried by
wind or water collide with larger rocks and
wear them down to smaller particles.
Sets of parallel joints expose the crust to weathering (Source: Fletcher, 2011)
Superficial joints in rock outcrop, Aberdeen Creek, Freetown
(Source: Adekile)
 6.2 Chemical Weathering

• Rainwater is a weak acid. It dissolves some

rock types and minerals e.g. feldspar in granite
is reduced to clay and the rock breaks down to
form a mass of clay mixed with resistant
quartz crystals and mica.
• Oxygen in the air reacts with some elements
in the rock e.g. iron which is reduced from
insoluble ferrous state to soluble ferric state
which is easily washed away.
 6.3 Biological Weathering

• Weathering by organisms could be both

physical and mechanical.
• Rocks can be fractured as a result of
burrowing by animals or the pressure from
growing roots.
• Carbon dioxide produced by animal
respiration increases the acidity of water
which then attacks and dissolves minerals and
other compounds in rock.
 6.4 Grades of Weathering in Crystalline rocks
The extent of weathering in crystalline rocks is described as grades of
weathering.

Grade Description Typical Characteristics

I Fresh Unchanged from original state
II Slightly weathered Slight discolouration, slight weakening
III Moderately Considerable weakening, penetrative
weathered discolouration
IV Highly weathered Large pieces can be broken by hand
Does not easily disaggregate (slake)
when dry sample immersed in water
V Completely Considerably weakened
weathered Slakes
Original texture apparent
VI Residual Soil Soil derived by in situ weathering but
retaining none of the original texture
or fabric
 Quick Questions!

• Do you have any

questions or comments
on what you have heard
so far?
• Is there anything new
that you have learned?

37
 7. Erosion and deposition

• Weathering creates sediments.

• Erosion is the transportation of sediments
across the landscape through the actions of
gravity, streams, rivers, ice and wind.
• Over time the sediments are deposited, and
then compacted and join the rock cycle.
8. Inselbergs (or island mountains)

• Erosion lowers highlands and other landforms

but the most resistant rocks remain.
• Resistant outcrops of granite or gneiss in West
Africa occur as steep sided little hills rising
abruptly from an extensive lowland surface
called inselbergs, meaning island mountains
• Some inselbergs are dome shaped while
others consist of a pile of massive boulders.
 8.Inselbergs

Dome shaped inselberg, Kaduna Nigeria Inselberg of massive boulders, Kaduna, Nigeria
 9. Geologic Time Scale
• Time is the most prevalent theme in geology. Geology
is sometimes called the science of time.
• Geological processes take a very long time e.g. it takes
approximately 1000 years for weathering to create 2
cm of soil (Fletcher, 2011).
• The Earth has been evolving for approximately 4700
million years.
• The Geologic Time Scale was developed to tackle the
vast expanse of time involved in geological processes.
• The Geologic Time Scale is divided into periods of time
with the Precambrian rocks as the oldest and the
Quaternary rocks the youngest.
 9 .The Geologic Time Scale
Began Years ago Notable events Epochs Periods Eras

10 thousand Modern epoch Recent or Holocene Quaternary Cenozoic

2.6 million General cooling Pleistocene

5.3 million Earliest humans Pliocene Tertiary

23 million First apes Miocene

34 million Oligocene

55.8 million Mountain Eocene

building
65 million Earliest modern mammals

Extinction of dinosaurs Cretaceous Mesozoic

251 million
First birds and lizards, dinosaurs Jurassic
abundant
First dinosaurs, first mammals Triassic
 9. The Geologic Time Scale
Began Years ago Notable events Epochs Periods Eras
Pangaea forms Permian Paleozoic
542 million
First reptiles and coal forests Pennsylvanian
First reptiles ,Early sharks Mississippian
First insects and amphibian, green Devonian
plants land
First land plants Silurian
First jawed fishes and vascular plants
First green plants and fungi on land Ordovician
First abundant fossils Cambrian
2.5 billion Oxygenated atmosphere Proterozoic
3.8 billion Earliest life (single celled algae), Archean
oldest crust
4.6 billion Oldest mineral grain , oldest asteroid Hadean
moon rocks
 Summary
• Rocks originate from the mantle.
• The first rocks are igneous rocks.
• Igneous rocks are altered into sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.
• Any rock can be altered into another form in the rock cycle.
• Weathering of rocks is very important as it is the source of
sustenance for human existence.
• Geologic processes are very slow and the Earth has been
evolving for 4.7 billion years.
• The major rock types that are likely to be encountered in the
field in Sierra Leone are clays, sands, gravels, sandstones,
mudstones, gabbros, dolerites, granites and gneisses.
 References

• Bunnet, R.B., and Okunrotifa, Olatunde, P., (2011)

General Geography in Diagrams for West Africa
Longman Group Limited
• Fletcher, Charles (2013) Physical Geology, The
Science of the Earth John Wiley and Sons, Inc
• Morel S.W. (1976) Geology and Minerals of Sierra
Leone, Fourah Bay College Bookshop Limited
• Thomas, Mustapha (2013) Hydrogeological
Overview of Sierra Leone Workshop presentation
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_the-
Earth
Thank you
 UNIT 2
Understanding Groundwater
Dotun Adekile
24th September 2013
 Unit outline
1. Water, Hygiene and Sanitation (WASH)
2. Groundwater in the water cycle and the water
budget
3. Groundwater usage
4. Advantages and disadvantages of groundwater
usage
5. Groundwater occurrence
6. Borehole design and construction
7. Effects of pumping on groundwater sources
8. Groundwater recharge
9. Groundwater quality
10.Challenges to groundwater development
11.The groundwater resources of Sierra Leone
48
1. Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH)

The importance of sanitation and hygiene (Source: Smith, 2003) 49

2. Groundwater and the water cycle
 2.1 The water budget

Water balance (or water budget) equation

P = Et + Ro + Q
Where
P = Precipitation i.e. rainfall
Et = Evapotranspiration
Ro = Runoff
Q = Groundwater recharge
 3.1 Groundwater usage

Dug holes in river channel Dug wells

Springs Boreholes 52
 3.2 Groundwater usage

• Globally - 4 billion
people (estimate based
on JMP)
• Sierra Leone – 99% of
water points mapped
are groundwater
sources

53
4. Advantages and disadvantages of groundwater

Advantages Disadvantages
• The abstraction structures • The abstraction points can be
expensive to construct
are quick to construct if the
• Sometimes expensive
equipment is available exploration methods are
• Generally free from necessary to locate the
sources
pathogens • Sometimes they contain
• Generally free from contaminants so their good
quality cannot be taken for
suspended matter granted
• Not immediately affected • If quality deteriorates
by drought remedies are costly and
difficult to implement
 5. Groundwater Occurrence
• Groundwater occurrence depends on the nature of the
rock underlying the area in which it occurs i.e. whether
igneous or sedimentary or metamorphic.
• A rock bearing usable groundwater is called an aquifer.
• An aquifers stores water and releases it when needed
e.g. sand deposits. It allows water to pass through it
and it is said to be permeable.
• Aquifers provide storage, filtration and distribution.
• A poor groundwater source may store water but does
not easily release the water e.g. clay deposits.

55
5.1 Groundwater occurrence in different rock types

• In sedimentary rocks e.g. sands, groundwater

occurs in spaces separating individual grains
of rock called pore spaces.
• In igneous and metamorphic (crystalline) rocks
e.g. granite, groundwater occurs in joints and
fractures in the rocks and in the loose
weathered material overlying the fresh rock.

56
 5.2 Groundwater occurrence in loose sediments

• In loose sedimentary
rocks e.g. sands and
gravels there are many
pore spaces for water Pore spaces between
to occupy, therefore we sand grains holding
say the porosity is high. and releasing water
• Yields can be very high
up to 30 l/s and more;
adequate for urban
water supply.

Source: MacDonald et al 2005 57

5.3 Groundwater occurrence in compacted sediments

• Sometimes individual
grains of sediments are
compacted and cemented
together to form
sandstones and
mudstones. Porosity reduced by the
presence of clays and minerals
• The pore spaces are
reduced by the cementing
material.
• The yield is also reduced
and may be adequate for
small community supply.

Source: MacDonald et al 2005

5.4 Groundwater occurrence in crystalline
rocks

• Crystalline rocks e.g.

granites have no pore
spaces.
• Water occurs in the soft
weathered material
overlying the hard rocks
or in the joints. Joints in crystalline rocks
• Yields from boreholes
are about 1-3l/s but
could be also dry if not
well located.

Source: MacDonald et al 2005

5.5 The Water table, Zone of Aeration,
Zone of Saturation
• The water table is the level at
which water stands in a well or
pond.
• The level of the water table is
not constant. It varies with the
season and rate of abstraction.
• In the zone of aeration the
pore spaces never retain
water; they just allow the
water to pass through them.
• In the zone of permanent
saturation the pore spaces in a
rock are filled with water .

60
5.6 Groundwater occurrence- aquifer types

Source: Todd et al 2005 61

 5.7 Unconfined Aquifers

• In unconfined aquifers
the water table is in
continuity with the
atmosphere.
Unconfined aquifers of
limited lateral extent
and thickness are
known as perched
aquifers
• Unconfined aquifers are
prone to contamination
from the surface e.g.
from pit latrines,
pesticides, fertilisers, Source: Todd et al 2005
urban run-off and
industrial waste.
62
 5.8 Confined aquifers
• Confined aquifers (pressure
aquifers) are covered by
impermeable material such
as clays, and hold water
under pressure.
• In a borehole tapping a
confined aquifer the water
level rises under this
pressure. In some cases
where conditions permit,
artesian flows may develop.
• The level at which water
stands in a borehole tapping
a confined aquifer, is called Source: Todd et al 2005
the piezometric level.

63
 5.9 Artesian aquifer

• In an artesian aquifer, a
layer of permeable rock lies
between two layers of
impermeable rock such that
the whole forms a shallow
depression with one or both
ends of the permeable rock
layer exposed on the
surface.
• If a well or borehole is sunk
into such an aquifer, water
may flow freely to the
surface.
• When water rises in the Source: Todd et al 2005
borehole but does not reach
the surface, it is called a sub-
artesian aquifer.
64
 5.9 Artesian aquifer

Artesian flow at Oji River Eastern Nigeria Q = 200 m3/hour

 5.10 Groundwater as springs

• Water that flows out of

the ground is known as
a spring.
• Water travels down
through soils and rocks
until it reaches a harder
layer and flows out.
• There are many modes
of occurrence of
springs.
5. 11 Groundwater in alluvial flats and
inland valley swamps
Advantages
• The aquifer is usually in hydraulic continuity with the river channel
and therefore recharged by it.
• Even in the dry season when the river may be dry there is still some
storage.
• The alluvial material acts as the filter medium for the river water
and therefore cheaper to treat than the surface water.
Limitations
• Aquifer materials could be fine.
• The aquifer may have a high clay percentage ,low permeability and
yield little water.
• Water may be turbid due to the presence of clay minerals.
• The aquifers are prone to bacterial contamination due to shallow
depth.
 Quick Questions!

• Do you have any

questions or comments
on what you have heard
so far?
• Is there anything new
that you have learned?

68
6.1 Borehole Design 1 (unconsolidated formation)

See RWSN Code of Practice for

Cost Effective Boreholes (Annex)

Available on:
http://www.rural-water-supply.net/
en/resources/details/128

69
6.1 Borehole design 2 (Consolidated Formation)

See RWSN Code of Practice for

Cost Effective Boreholes (Annex)

Available on:
http://www.rural-water-supply.net/
en/resources/details/128

70
6.1 Borehole design 3 (Consolidated Formation)

See RWSN Code of Practice for

Cost Effective Boreholes (Annex)

Available on:
http://www.rural-water-supply.net/
en/resources/details/128

71
 Quick Question!

• Why do you think that

there are different
types of borehole
designs?

72
 6.2 Borehole construction - drilling
Drilling fluid: water, air, biodegradable mud, clay
(bentonite)
Manual drilling
Machine drilling

73
 6.2 Borehole construction - drilling

Drill rods

Compressor

Drill samples

Down the hole

Drag bit 74
hammer
6.2 Borehole Construction – site safety
Drilling is a very hazardous activity. Safety precautions are absolutely
vital. Some precautions are:
• A security tape in bright colour should be
used to demarcate the drilling area and
indicate a no-go area for non drilling
personnel and on-lookers.
• The drilling crew must all wear protective
clothing; hard hats, boots and gloves.
• Drilling crew must be attentive at all times.
• There should be no drilling during a
thunderstorm.

75
6.2 Borehole construction - lining and gravel packing

Lining with UPVC casing and

screen Gravel packing

76
 6.3 Borehole Screens

UPVC screen

Stainless steel screen

Special screen for fine sand formation

77
Evaluate the photographs in relation to site safety
 6.4 Borehole completion – development and
pumping test
Development by jetting and
airlifting

Pumping test

79
6.5 Borehole completion – sanitary seal

[Source: Water Well Construction Guidelines,

Institute of Geologists of Ireland, 2007
6.11 Borehole completion – pump pad, water quality
testing

81
 Quick Question!

• What will happen if a

borehole is drilled and
is not completed
properly?

82
7.1 Effects of pumping on groundwater
7.2 Borehole and aquifer parameters
• Borehole yield = volume of
water discharged per unit of
time in liters per second. It is
the maximum pumping rate a
borehole can sustain for a
reasonable drawdown.
• Specific capacity =
yield/drawdown l/s/m of
drawdown.
84
7.2 Borehole and aquifer parameters

• Transmissivity is a measure of how easily groundwater

can flow through a rock into a borehole. It is the rate at
which groundwater will move through a unit width of
aquifer for a unit difference in hydraulic head. usually
measured in m2/day and defined.
• Storativity (or specific yield in unconfined aquifers)
quantifies the amount of water that can be removed
from an aquifer for a given lowering of water level over
an area.
• In borehole siting one should look for as high a
transmissivity as possible i.e. thick and highly
permeable aquifers (Carter et al, 2010).
7.2 Borehole and aquifer parameters
• Interference is the increased drawdown
experienced in each borehole when two
boreholes pump close together.
• Derogation is the adverse effect of the
abstraction on the yield of other wells and
springs.
 8.1 Groundwater recharge
For sustainable development water taken from the ground
has to be replaced. The replacement is called recharge.
Recharge takes place through:
• rain water infiltrating into the ground
• water from rivers and lakes infiltrating into the ground
The rate and amount of recharge depends on the
• rock types
• topography
• vegetation
• rainfall intensity
• climate
87
 8.2 Groundwater recharge
Annual recharge can be estimated from the
water budget equation
Q = (P - ET – Ro) A
Where Q is the annual volume of groundwater
recharge, P is the precipitation , ET is the actual
evapotranspiration and Ro is the total run off
and A is the area of the recharge zone.
• Where abstraction outstrips the recharge rate,
the result is groundwater mining.
• Due consideration must be given to aquifer
recharge so that the water budget does not go
into deficit.
 9. Groundwater quality
The quality of groundwater is usually good but it should not be taken
for granted. Some concerns are:
• Bacteriological
contamination
• High nitrates from fertilisers
and poorly disposed excreta
posing danger to babies
• High iron content causing
staining and toxicity
• High arsenic causing cancer
• High fluoride causing bone
diseases
 Water quality parameters and reason for concern and probable causes (Smith, 2003)
Parameter Concern Probable cause
Turbidity Rejection by consumer as unsightly; increases Suspended matter e.g. clays, silts
treatment cost organic matter
Odour Rejection by consumer as offensive; may indicate the Hydrogen sulphide from septic ,
presence of other pollutants organic matter, industrial waste
Colour Rejection by consumer as unsightly; may indicate the Metals, organic matter, industrial
presence of other pollutants waste
Conductivity Rejection by consumer; corrosion and encrustation Dissolved solids

pH Rejection by consumer; affects treatment requirement Acids or alkalis

E.coli Possible presence of pathogens Faecal contamination

Chloride May be rejected by consumer (salty taste); possible Sea water intrusion, salt deposit,
contamination by urine industrial pollution
Fluoride Health - mottled teeth, skeletal fluorosis Runoff from igneous rocks

Iron May be rejected by the consumer as unsightly; Rocks and minerals, leachates,
sewage
Manganese May be rejected by consumer due to taste and colour Rocks and minerals
Nitrates Health – reports of blue baby, indication of faecal Fertilizer, sewage, vegetation
contamination breakdown
Arsenic Health- carcinogenic Naturally occurring, weed killers,
industrial pollution
 Refresher Question!

• Explain the different

types of aquifer to your
neighbour ?

91
 10. Challenges to groundwater usage
• Non viable aquifers – poor yield,
poor water quality
• Expensive exploration methods
required
• Poor drilling practices leading to
abortive boreholes
• Wells and boreholes dry up or are
contaminated
• Pumps break down and are not
repaired
• Lack of groundwater data
• Lack of borehole and handpump
functionality monitoring
• Water users go back to using
unsafe water sources

92
10.1 Challenges to groundwater usage
Rural handpump functionality in Africa – (RWSN)

100
90
90
80 80 78
80 75 75 75
70 70 70 69 68
70 66 65 65
60
60
50
50
40 35 35 33
30
20
10
0

93
 11. The Groundwater resources of Sierra Leone

• For the purpose of groundwater occurrence,

the rocks of Sierra Leone can be classified into
4 groups.
• Precambrian Basement Complex Rocks
• Precambrian Sedimentary Rocks
• Jurassic to Triassic Intrusions
• Recent to Eocene Unconsolidated
Sedimentary Rocks
A simplified Geological map of Sierra Leone
 11. The Groundwater Resources of Sierra Leone – Precambrian
Basement Complex Rocks

Some of the Precambrian Basement Complex rocks in Sierra

Leone are the oldest in the world, being between 2000 - 3000
million years.
• They occupy about 75% of the country.
• They consist of granites and gneisses.
• The weathered overburden aquifer is the target for hand dug
wells.
• It frequently runs dry in the thick of the dry season.
• Fractured bedrock aquifer is the target for boreholes.
• Depth of drilling varies between 15 and 50m.
• Yield is of the order of 1 – 3 l/s. The water quality is usually
good.
 11.1 The Groundwater Resources of Sierra Leone –
Precambrian Sedimentary rocks

• The Precambrian sediments are consolidated.

• The sediments are ancient sand and clay deposits,
compacted into sandstones and mudstones .
• The sediments comprise the Rokel River Group
deposits.
• In the depression of the Rokel River, because the strata
are impermeable, they form lowland swamps locally
called bolilands which are flooded in the rainy season.
• Very little is known about the potential of the aquifers
as there are no borehole records.
11.2 The Groundwater Resources of Sierra Leone – Jurassic
to Triassic Intrusions

• The Basement Complex rocks and sedimentary

formation are intruded by two sets of igneous rocks.
• The first and older set is represented by the Freetown
gabbros and dolerite dykes that run parallel to the
Atlantic Ocean.
• The second set are kimberlite pipes, the source of the
diamonds in the country.
• Groundwater occurrence in the intrusions is the same
as on the Precambrian rocks.
• The Freetown gabbros are weathered and jointed. The
dolerites tend to weather into clays, with limited
porosity and transmit very little water.
11.3 The Groundwater Resources of Sierra Leone - Recent to
Eocene Unconsolidated Sedimentary Rocks

• This group comprises the Bullom Group of sediments

which consist of horizontal layers of loose gravels,
sands and clays along the coastal plain
• They are partially compacted.
• They are both confined and unconfined.
• Drilling depth has not progressed beyond 80 m.
• The aquifers are prone to saline invasion at the coast,
besides that the water quality is usually good
• Yields up to 10 l/s.
Range of some physico-chemical parameters of
groundwater from Sierra Leonean Aquifers
PARAMETER UNIT RANGE
Temp. °C 25 - 32
pH pH 5-7
EC μS/cm 10 - 400
Ca2+ mg/l 2 - 250
Mg2+ mg/l 2 - 30
Na+ mg/l 0-3
K+ mg/l 0 - 10
HCO3- mg/l 10 - 100
SO42- mg/l 0 - 10
Cl- mg/l 1 - 15
Fe2+ mg/l 0-1
F- mg/l 0-1
NO3- mg/l 0 - 10
 Summary
• Groundwater is water that percolates into the ground when
rain falls.
• It occurs in the pore spaces and fissures in unconsolidated
and partially consolidated rocks; and in the weathered
overburden and joints in crystalline rocks.
• For sustainability of the resources consideration must be
given to aquifer recharge in groundwater development.
• Groundwater quality is usually good but it must not be taken
for granted as it can be contaminated either by poor
sanitation practices or by dissolved minerals in the rock types
through which the water has passed.
• Groundwater occurs mainly in the weathered mantle aquifer
and in fractures in crystalline rocks in Sierra lone as well as in
the sedimentary aquifers of the Bullom Group.
 References
• MacDonald, Allan, Davies, Jeff, Carlow, Roger and Chilton, John
(2005) Developing Groundwater – A guide for Rural Water Supply.
ITDG Publishing, Shumacher Centre for Technology and
Development, Bourton Hall, Bourton-on-Dunsmore, Warwickshire,
UK
• Todd, David and Mays, Larry (2005) Groundwater Hydrology Third
Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Shaw, Rod ed. (1999) RUNNING WATER More technical Briefs on
health, water and sanitation. IT Publications, London, UK
• Shaw, Rod ed. (1999) RUNNING WATER More technical Briefs on
health, water and sanitation. IT Publications, London, UK
• Smith, Michael, (2003) Water and Environmental Health, A
Postgraduate Module, Loughborough University
Thank you
 Unit 3
Borehole Siting
Dotun Adekile & Mustapha Thomas
25.09.2013
 UNIT 3 BOREHOLE SITING
Unit outline
• Introduction
• Stage 1 Developing a conceptual model
• Stage 2 Defining the borehole requirement
• Stage 3 Specifying how to determine the most
suitable site
• Stage 4 Preparing tender and contract documents
• Stage 5 Procurement and Contract award
• Stage 6 Undertaking the field work and contract
management
• Stage 7 Undertake payment, follow up and
documentation
 1. Introduction

• Proper siting is fundamental for the success

and long term sustainability of a borehole.

• Determining the best site for a borehole

requires a number of inter-related aspects.
1.1 Different Aspects of Site Selection
 1.2 Work Flow for borehole siting
Government, Donor, NGO Private sector
Stages
Client Siting specialist/ adviser Siting Contractor

1. Develop a conceptual model Provide

information on
2. Define the requirements of hydrogeology and
the borehole risks
3. Specify how to determine Advise on suitable
the most suitable site siting techniques
4. Prepare tender and contract Question and
documents Advise on draft TOR
answer
Prepare bid
5. Procure and award Contract
Preparation,
6. Undertake field work and
Deskwork, Field
contact management
work, Reporting
Quality Check,
7. Undertake payment, follow Feedback
up and documentation
 Stage 1 - Conceptual model
Desk study
• Could be in the form of a map or report containing
the required information
• Define the geographical reference
• Geology
• Groundwater occurrence i.e. unconsolidated/
consolidated, fractures
• Aquifer types i.e. unconfined/confined
• Likely effects of pumping
• Sources of groundwater recharge
• Groundwater quality
 Group discussion!

• Develop a conceptual
model for a
groundwater
occurrence for Gerihun
Community, Bo District

110
Stage 2.1 – Determine the borehole requirements

• Rural water supply

• Motorised abstraction with reticulation
• Small town water supply and camps
• Urban centres
• Agricultural uses
• Multiple uses
• Industrial uses
• Abstraction requirements
Stage 2.2 – Abstraction requirements
Water use Scale Approximate Average pump rate
demand m3/day (l/sec)
Rural water supply Single well for 100- 2-6 0.1 – 0.3
300 persons

Small town water Single well for 500 - 2000 2 – 10

supply 2,000 – 10,000
persons

Urban centre Wellfield

Irrigation scheme 100 ha 5000 140

Assumptions:
Rural water supply – 20 l/person/day
Small town water supply – 40 l/person/day
Urban centres – 120 l/person/day
Irrigation scheme -50m3/ha
Stage 3.1 - Determining the most suitable site

Key factors for consideration

– Sufficient yield for the intended purpose
– Sufficient renewable water resources for the intended
purpose
– Appropriate water quality for the intended purpose
– Avoidance of potential sources of contamination
– Proximity to the point of use
– Land ownership
– Access for construction and maintenance teams
– Avoidance of interference with other groundwater sources
– Risk of drilling a dry borehole
3.1 Determining the most suitable site - minimum
distance from existing structures

Existing structures Minimum distance from

borehole (m)
Existing public water points (well/borehole) 20
Other existing water wells 10
Latrines/Septic tank/soak way 30
Streams, canals, irrigation ditches 20
Buildings 3
Approved or informal solid waste dump, 500
burial ground, lubricant depot
Coastline 100
Stage 3.1 - Determining the most suitable site

Sources of information
• Maps
• Remote sensing Satellite based images –
http://www.earth.google.com
• Existing documents
• Field visits and interviews
• Drilling records and databases and data
exchange
 Stage 3.3 Techniques for siting

• Remote sensing
• Hydrogeological field surveys – aquifer
correlation
• Geophysical survey
– Resistivity method
– Electromagnetic conductivity
• Test drilling
 Stage 3.3 Remote sensing

• Used for narrowing down targets for ground

investigation
– Aerial photographs
– Satellite imagery
– GIS
Ground truthing is always required
Stage 3.3 Hydrogeological field surveys
Field visit to
• Check the information collected from the desk study
• Check rock outcrops to confirm geology
• Check the topography - Lower grounds as areas of groundwater
accumulation and potential recharge areas
• Existing water supply – functionality, fluctuations, quality
• GPS location of existing boreholes – for aquifer correlation
• Sketch map of the location with all the information collected
• Is geophysical survey is required or the borehole can be sited on the
basis of the assessment
• On the basement complex and on the consolidated sediments
geophysics will be required
• In the unconsolidated sediments existing borehole records may be
sufficient to site boreholes except in the coastal areas where there
is a possibility of saline water at shallow depth.
• It is not always that geophysics is required to site a borehole. It
should be done only where it will provide useful information
 Stage 3.3 Aquifer correlation

Source: Todd et al 2005 119

 Stage 3.3- Geophysical methods

• Geophysical methods are used to determine the

sequence and nature of the rocks below the surface by
the measurement of certain physical properties of the
earth.
• Geophysics helps in planning an efficient or economic
drilling program. It helps to reduce the number of
abortive boreholes.
• The electrical method is mainly used in the water
industry to locate joints and zones of weathered rock.
There are two types of electrical method: the resistivity
method and electromagnetic conductivity method.
 Stage 3.3 A logical approach to
geophysical survey
• Identify the physical expression of the favourable
hydrogeological target zone to be surveyed
• Select the geophysical method most suited to
the task of locating them
• Plan the survey field work and interpretation
accordingly
• Provide adequate qualified and experienced staff
to under take the field work and interpretation
• Provide adequate funding and resources
Stage 3.3 Geophysical survey

VES 10 River Teleh

Physiography of Sanniquellie (West to east cross section from

Google earth image)

VES 7 River Teleh

Physiography of Sanniquellie (North to south cross section from

Google earth image)
 Stage 3.3 - Geophysical survey

• Community must be involved and community

preferred site must be checked first
• If this point does not indicate a potential for
successful borehole the reason must be explained
to them
• Borehole sites must be kept away from potential
pollutants and sacred ground must be respected
• It must also be kept away from overhead power
line which may be harzadous to drillers and also
affect geophysical measurement
 Stage 3.3 Resistivity method
• The electrical resistivity of a
substance is a measure of the
difficulty with which an electrical
current can be made to flow
through it. It is measured in ohm-
m.
• The resistivity of rocks depends
on the amount of conducting
materials present and the
amount of water in the pores.
• Most rocks whether porous or
non porous are practically non-
conductors but the resistivity
decreases with increasing pore
water.
• Clayey material has a lower
resistivity than materials of sandy
type.
• Unconsolidated material also has
lower resistivity than compacted
material.
 Stage 3.3 Resistivity method

Resistivity of the ground is

dominated by
• Electrical conductivity of the
rock minerals (negligible)
• Saturated porosity of the
rock (in pore spaces or
fracture)
• The salinity of the water
• The clay content of the
rocks (bound ions on the
surface of clay particles are
very conductive)
Resistivity values of different rocks
(Source: MacDonald et al, 2005)
 Stage 3.3 Resistivity method
• An electric current is passed into the ground by means of the two current
electrodes and the potential difference between the two potential
electrodes is measured.
• There are to electrode arrays : Wenner and the Schlumberger
arrangement.
• In the Schlumberger arrangement potential electrodes maintain a
constant separation while the current electrodes are moved outwards
after each reading and the length of the configuration is gradually
increased. As a result, the current penetrates deeper and deeper.
• The apparent resistivity is measured each time the current electrodes are
moved outwards. It therefore becomes affected by the resistivity
conditions at increasing depths. Hence it is called vertical electrical
sounding (VES)
• The apparent resistivity however is a measure of the effects of all the
layers between the maximum depth of penetration and the surface. For
this reason the greater the number of layers present the more difficult the
interpretation becomes. Three or four distinct layers are about the
maximum
• The result is plotted as a graph of apparent resistivity against electrode
spacing on logarithmic paper.
Stage 3.3Resistivity method – Schlumberger array

Source: Todd and Mays, 2005

 Stage 3.3Resistivity method – Tips in taking
measurements

• Try to locate the survey in fairly flat ground

• Plot the data as you do the survey and check
the curve for anomalous readings
• A broad U shaped valley usually indicates
deep weathering
• When the curve rises steeply it usually
indicates unweathered basement has been
reached
Stage 3.3 Resistivity survey - interpretation
Vertical electrical sounding provides information on the vertical succession of
different conducting zones and their individual thicknesses and resistivities. Typical
VES curves and interpretation are provided below and will be explained in the class.
Stage 3.3 Resistivity survey interpretation
Stage 3.3 Resistivity survey interpretation
Stage
Stage 3.3
3.3 Resistivity
Resistivity survey
survey interpretation
interpretation
Stage 3.3 Resistivity survey interpretation
Stage 3.3 Electromagnetic (EM) Conductivity Survey

• The conductivity of a substance is the ease

with which an electrical current will flow
through it.
• It is the opposite of resistivity.
• There is an inverse relationship between the
two i.e. as one is increasing the other is
decreasing.
Stage 3.3 Electromagnetic (EM) Conductivity Survey

EM 34 horizontal dipole EM 34 survey at vertical dipole

Stage 3.3 Electromagnetic (EM) Conductivity Survey

Intercoil Exploration Depth (m)

Spacing (m) Horizontal Dipoles Vertical Dipoles
10 7.5 15
20 15 30
40 30 60
Stage 3.3 Electromagnetic survey interpretation

• Interpretation of the conductivity measurement

is based on the difference in conductivity values
of different rock materials.
• Fresh granitic rocks have very low conductivity
while clays have high conductivity values. Porous
water bearing sands have moderately high
conductivity values.
• The conductivity readings obtained during the
survey are plotted up and the graphs interpreted
qualitatively.
An EM graph is presented below. Points in which the different coil spacings gave
moderately high values of conductivity are selected for checking with a VES,
Stage 3.3 Searching for groundwater in crystalline
rocks – why some boreholes are dry

Source: FAO Water for Animals

http://www.fao.org/docrep/R7488/r7488e07.htm#topOfPage

Particular care needs to be taken in siting boreholes and wells in crystalline

rocks Drilling beyond fracture zone is uneconomical
 3.3 Test Drilling

• Where higher yields are required

• Hydrogeology not well known or complex
• Simple manual drilling may be required
Stage 4.1 Preparing tender and Contract documents

• Establish the number of boreholes to be sited

and ultimately drilled
• Have a conceptual model of the way
groundwater occurs
• Consider the requirements of the borehole
Stage 4.2 Preparing tender and Contract documents
• The tender document should include the following
– Objective of the siting
– A description of the hydrogeological conditions in the
siting area and the challenges to be expected
– A clear description of the deliverables
– The number and approximate locations of the sites
expected
– Overall time frame of the work, deadlines, milestones
– Clear definition of roles and responsibilities
– An assessment of the risks
– The payment structure
Stage 5 Procurement and contract award

• Specify the composition of the team

• Provide the details of equipment and methods
that will be used
• Set out the experience of the enterprise
• Provide a rough risk analysis with mitigation
measures
• Set out a draft time schedule with tasks to be
completed
Stage 6 Field work and Contract Management

• Critical analysis of the data (desk study)

• Compilation of a first conceptual
hydrogeological model
• Field visits, local know how, test drilling
• Optional: refined conceptual model,
verification including water quality data
• Geophysical Surveys
Stage 7 Payment, follow up and documentation

• Payment should adhere to the signed contract

• Client should build up internal capacity and
resources to manage relevant data from the
siting assignment and submit to the relevant
authority
• The results of the siting assignment form the
basis for the procurement of a drilling
contractor
 Summary
• Available data on the terrain of the project site should be collected to
develop a conceptual model of groundwater at the project site.
• Field assessment to check the viability of the site for the proposed project
should be carried out with the involvement of the community.
• Geophysical methods used in groundwater investigation are based on the
differences in the electrical conductivity of different rock types.
• A combination of VES and EM measurements gives the best results
• It is not in all cases that geophysics is required to a site a successful
borehole.
• In some terrains boreholes can be sited without the use of geophysics .
Geophysics should only be used where it can increased the success rate.
• Client should build up internal capacity and resources to manage relevant
data from the siting assignment and submit to the relevant authority
 References

• Carter, R., Chilton, J., Danert, K.,

and Olshewski, A. (2010) Siting of
Drilled Water Wells, A guide for
Project Managers. Rural Water
Supply Network,
• Available on
http://www.rural-water-
supply.net
Thank you for listening
 Cost Effective Borehole Training
Workshop 24th-27th September 2013
(DAY 4)
Short course 1: Basic Hydrogeology and
Borehole Siting
Dotun Adekile & Mustapha Thomas
 Report Writing
Starting the report
Prepare an outline; be conscious of the reader
Structure of the report
Follow the speech making format i.e.
• say what you are about to say - Introduction
• say what you want to say - Body
• say what you have just said - Conclusion
Writing the report
• Address every aspect of the task or the terms of reference – discuss areas
that are not clear with the client or the boss before hand
• Be conscious of the sequence of narration – like a plot in a story
• Brevity and clarity – keep it (the document) as short and as simple (KISS) as
possible; avoid foggy statements
• Do not introduce into the conclusion points not discussed in the body
• Critical editing is essential – writing is rewriting, allow enough time for
several drafts and seek peer review
• A summary gives the whole story in a short form
• Good presentation is essential – a good report is obvious at a glance
Group discussion - Report Writing
Review and discuss the main components of Sanniquellie
Hydrogeological Report (Adekile, 2012) i.e.
– Title page
– Acknowledgements
– Executive Summary
– Table of Contents
– Introduction – TOR, Scope of Works, Project Location
– Method of Investigation
– Results
– Conclusion
– Recommendation
– References and Bibliography
– Appendices
 Course Review
• Day 1
– Unit 1 Basic Geology
– Unit 2 Understanding Groundwater
– Geology and groundwater resources of Sierra Leone
– Practical class – Map reading, rock identification, use of GPS, Google Earth images
• Day 2
– Review of Day 1 by Group 1
– Unit 3 Borehole siting
– Group work: Developing a conceptual model for groundwater occurrence in Gerihun

• Day 3
– Review of Day 2 by Group 2
– Field work – Hydrogeological investigation of Gerihun
– Demonstration of vertical electrical sounding
• Day 4
– Review of Day 3 by Group 3
– Computer interpretation of VES Curves
– Report writing
– Course Review - participants mention 3 things learnt during the course
– Quiz (as a revision exercise)
– Course evaluation
– Closing and award of certificates
 Course materials

Every participant was provided with

• Siting deep wells (RWSN publication)
• Sustainable Groundwater Development (RWSN
publication)
• CD of Geology; A self teaching guide by Barbara
Murck
• Printed slides of Course presentation
• A simplified geological map of Sierra Leone
• Booking sheet for Vertical Electrical Sounding
• Samples of interpreted VES curves
RWSN and Cost Effective Boreholes
• Rural Water Supply Network
www.rwsn.ch
• A global network of 3000
professionals for promoting
sound practices in rural water
supply
• Developed a generic Code of
Practice for Cost Effective
Boreholes (2010) after studies in
several African countries
• Applied in Nigeria, Sudan, Ghana,
Mozambique to develop National
Codes of Practice for Borehole
Drilling
• 6 publications in support of
different principles
Thank you