STUDY MATERIAL

CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF FASHION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous book on ‘Fashion Studies’ for Std XI, the meaning of fashion and other
aspects within its ambit has been discussed. In this book, we trace the history of clothing
down the ages and how it facilitates the understanding of contemporary fashion. At the onset
it is important to understand that though the words fashion, apparel and costume are often
used interchangeably, the terms are not identical in meaning.

Fashion is more than just clothing; it reflects the wider spectrum of aesthetics, art and design
trends in contemporary society. This makes it a multi-faceted word engaging with a range of
surrounding influences. In simple terms, fashion is a social process by which newly
introduced styles or trends become popular in a certain time with acceptability by a wider
cross-section of consumers.

Apparel refers to actual garments made of fabric, knits, leather or other wearable materials.

Costume is derived from word custom evolving from the environment and customs of
society. It refers to clothing for a specific use - be it for a ritual or performance, ethnic or
historical within a specific context of occasion and time.

To understand contemporary fashion within a context, it is essential to know its origin and
evolutionary process. The knowledge of fashion and costume history is important since they
are the inevitable outcome of the socio-cultural-political influences prevalent in society at
different points in time.

Clothes are what cover the human body, which in turn, depends on physical conditions like
climate, geographical area, available raw material, textiles etc. Clothes indicate social
significance like religious beliefs and aesthetics; exhibit individual status; proclaim alliance
with or create differentiation among a group. Items of clothing and accessories would be
included in the vocabulary of clothing.

There are several points of views regarding the origin and need for clothing. One school of
thought believes that man covered his body for protecting himself from the vagaries of
climate and nature. Psychologists and ethnologists refer to psychological reasons like the fig
leaf used by Adam and Eve as symbol of modesty referred to in the Bible. Anthropologists
cite reasons associated with taboo as well as the desire for personal adornment to please
both oneself and others. Psychologists propound the view that human like to modify their
appearance – the use of body covering is one such type of modification. Other ways for
achieving this is through varying hairstyles, alteration of shape and surface of the body
through clothes, body adornment etc. Such changes are done in order to make the self,
more acceptable to others so that there is a commonality and bonding with the others within
the same social ‘tribe’.

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Primitive men covered their body with animal skin and fur which were shaped to parts of the
human body. Different sizes, shapes and textures of skins would have necessitated varying
approaches to their use and function when applied to cover or adorn the human figure. Later
tree bark fibre was used to protect themselves against extremities of climate. However,
clothes are not merely utilitarian but have a deeper significance. The co-relation between the
belief of primitive men in magic and representation of successful hunting through cave
paintings dates back to the early Paleolithic period. Even today, certain tribes which normally
live naked also wear clothes on special occasions!

1.1.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

In prehistoric times the lifestyle of humans changed according to changes in climate, which
also influenced costume. Remnants of their clothing have been found in valleys and caves.
Tools, costumes and accessories travelled along the trade routes which were extended and
defined in the Bronze and Iron Ages. It is assumed that fur, stones etc. may have been
bartered in different societies. The predominant use of animal skins would have been
necessitated by the need for warmth. The skins were scraped and the fur was combed. The
eyed-needle of bone or horn was used for assembly of pieces threaded by long manes and
tails of horses as well as split reindeer tendons. Few vestiges of clothing from early ages
remain since cloth made of vegetable fibre like rushes (grass), linen etc. are perishable.
Archaeology uses the most scientific methods on surviving specimens of prehistoric textiles
to extract the fullest information about the materials and manufacturing techniques.

Fig 1.1 Necklace, Bronze Age, Paris, Musee des Antiquities Nationales

Fig 1.2 Roman sandals discovered in London. First century AD. The London Museum.
(Museum Photo)

1.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING CLOTHING

Sociologists, anthropologists and psychologists have tried to explain the motivation for
wearing clothes. Fashion historian James Laver, has propounded three principles of
Seduction, Utility and Hierarchy which govern clothing. Other historians have propounded 4
different explanations regarding the importance of the following factors:
i. Protection
ii. Ritualistic
iii. Identification
iv. Adornment

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1.1. 2.1 PROTECTION

Several scholars say that the need for clothing was born out of physical necessity.Men
required clothing in response to the need for protection and for shelter against extremes of
temperature, rain, dust, thorns, wild animals and insects. For activities like warfare and
hunting, extra protection was needed for the body. Eskimos wear closely fitted garments in
several layers to effectively trap and retain body warmth. They wear a fur garment which is
so suited for the freezing cold that European explorers of the Arctic have adopted similar
garments like fur-lined parkas. Pastoral people like Turkoman and Kirghiz wear three or four
bulky padded Caftan-like coats with sheepskin over jackets for protection against the bitter
Central Asian winter.

Wearing several layers of clothing is also seen in areas of high temperature whereit is
important to prevent the body from becoming dehydrated under the blazing sun. The Tuareg
of the Sahara and the Bedou of Saudi Arabia wear long robes and loose trousers in light,
cool cotton for protection and air circulation. In part of Saudi Arabia and Africa, men protect
themselves with a loose head covering which can cover their heads, mouth and nostrils for
protection against dust and sand, revealing only the eyes.

It is important to understand that the indigenous clothing in different parts of the world use
locally available materials utilizing the craft skills of the people. Examples are leather
garments made by tribes by cleaning of the leather either by scraping away excess animal fat
sticking to it and then softening it by rubbing animal fat or even by mastication (chewing).
The Ainu of North Japan & Siberian Gilayak use fish skins to make waterproof garments.

The natives who live in the cool temperate zones near on the North West coast of Canada,
wear short poncho-like rain capes of shredded cedar barks and conical wide brimmed
waterproof woven hats, for protection against heavy rainfall. Bark fibre is preferable over
animal skins in moist, tropical areas since they dry more easily.

1.1.2.2 RITUALISTIC

Primitive man believed that certain costumes could endow special attributes and would
protect him from evil. Certain parts of animals like claws, hooves and teeth worn as
accessories were believed to enhance the wearer’s strength and imbue the characteristics of
that creature. In Egypt, the lion’s tail and claws being symbolic of bravery, vigour and
shrewdness were an important part of the Pharaoh’s regalia.

Sometimes, the hunter felt that wearing hooves and horns may transmit enviable qualities of
that animal. Eventually through auspicious association, he adopted a certain animal as his
symbol and this became a family totem or crest through inheritance. This was publicized by
the use of their symbols on aprons, blankets or on totem poles.

From earliest times, articles of clothing were also worn to ward off the evil eye. To combat
malignant forces around, they believed that only magic could help. For women, the greatest
fear or curse was that of sterility. To counteract this, cowry shells which resembled a
woman’s reproductive organs, were used in clothing and accessories. It is the same belief
that caused both positive and modern men to wear amulets, rings and other adornments,
which would act as good luck charms.

Certain costumes and ornaments also identify the wearer with gods, heroes and other men.
For primitive people, this identification was actual; while in contemporary times, it is more
symbolic. Theatre, which has its origin in ancient times, ranges from simple play-acting by
children at play, home or at school, to the more sacred performances in Greco-Roman and

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Oriental / Asian plays. In theatre, costumes appear to ‘disguise’ the wearer’s individuality and
transform him into a different persona or even a ‘God’.

Some costumes are associated with religious significance. A religious head or priest can be
recognized by specific clothes, which proclaim his religious role and authority. Believers and
followers of different religions have distinctive clothes and/or accessories for reasons of
respect, actual or symbolic identification with God and the need to express such emotions in
this earthly life.

1.1.2.3 ADORNMENT

Beautification of the self through decoration of clothes or of the body itself, has been the pre-
occupation of humans since ancient times.

I. Adornment through clothes

While the prime function of clothing is self-protection, indication of social status, wealth, age
and occupation, humans also pander to their self-vanity which enhance their physical
attributes. In primitive and tribal societies, people used easily available indigenous and
natural materials as diverse as followers, seeds, sea shells, wood, precious stones, animal
parts like teeth, bone, fur, feathers etc. selected on the basis of colour, texture and shape.
They also discovered methods of crafting the materials like tanning of hides, weaving,
dyeing, and printing of fabrics for decoration in clothing.

History has instances where the desire for adornment occasionally transcends practical
concerns like comfort and wear ability. When ostentation and exaggeration dominate other
factors, the resultant look may become distinctive but impractical. An example of this is the
shoe called poulaine worn in medieval times. Originating in France, this shoe extended to
such exaggerated lengths that it had to be held in the hand while walking or else tied back to
the ankle with a ribbon until laws were passed restricting the length of the toe to 6”
commoners, 12” for gentlemen and 24” for nobility and royalty.

In 18th century England, an exaggerated mode of clothing was that of tight breeches for men
which made it difficult for them to even sit down.

The 19th century Victorian corset created the desirable tiny waist size. However, the constant
constriction of the ribcage made even the simple act of breathing very difficult.

Fig 1.3. Long-toed Poulaines, Victoria and Albert museum, London Fig 1.4 Corset

In 18th century Europe, women’s skirts expanded tremendously in width and therefore had to
be supported by layers of petticoats, which made mobility very cumbersome. The panier, a
lighter supporting frame made of graduated oblong-shaped boned hoops stitched to an
underskirt made the skirt so wide on either side of the hips that doors and stairways had to
be widened to enable the wearer to pass through.

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Fig 1.5: Panier understructure
Fig 1.6: Understructure worn under the voluminous court gown. (Moreau Le Jeune: Les
Adieux, 1777, Monument du Costume, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale)

ii. Adornment of the body

The concept of the beauty has been a variable factor in different societies and at different
periods in history. This is done through 4 different methods like Body Modification,
Scarification, Tattooing and Body painting.

a. Body modification has many examples of which one is the now-abolished practice
of Chinese foot binding. This ancient custom considered as the ultimate expression of
feminine beauty and social status by a Chinese woman, was to have a tiny ‘lotus’ foot by
tying the foot tightly in a way which, in time, would create a man-made artificial heel. Similarly
the custom of wearing large circular lip plates by the Kichepo women in Sudan is yet another
example of reshaping of the body. The women would consider themselves undressed
without their lip plates and would never be seen in public without them. The Paduang tribe
also known as Kayans, have a tradition of artificially elongating the necks of girls and women
with a series of brass rings.

Fig 1.7 Woman with brass neck rings Fig 1.8 Woman with lip plates

b. Scarification is an indication of status and tribal identification in some African cultures.

Elaborate incisions in a delicate pattern are made in certain parts of a person’s body. The
painful incisions must be endured without any signs of physical distress or pain. Natural skin
irritants are rubbed into the skin which, on healing, leave characteristic scars and raised
pattern-like marks on the face and body that identify the individual as an adult member of the
tribe.

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 Fig 1.9 Scarification

c. Body Tattooing involves a permanent change in body colour based on the insertion of an
indelible dye in the punctured skin. Tattooing was used by the Thracians to indicate rank.
Tattoos on men serve the same purpose as war uniforms by making them identifiable by their
own tribe. The Maoris of New Zealand have elaborate facial tattoos as marks of distinction
and esteem. Some Indian tribes also tattoo their body. In modern societies tattooing can be
a form of personal adornment or can indicate ones affinity/allegiance to a group. The
Japanese Yakuza have a tradition of tattooing which has symbolic meaning. In a western
society, tattooing is commonly seen among sailors, biker groups etc. Today tattooing is fairly
common among the youth across the world.

d. Body painting which includes face painting has its roots in sacred ritual. In some
Congolese tribes, girls oil themselves all over and dust on red powered camwood in order to
look more attractive. Noble ladies of some ancient Chinese dynasties as well as Japanese
‘geisha’ girls applied very heavy face make-up with the powder of ground rice and white lead.
Application of rose petal rouge on the cheeks and at the centre of the lower lip, simulated a
tiny-pursued mouth, which was considered to be very beautiful. The modern cosmetic
industry thrives and flourishes due to the interest of women for ‘painting’ their faces.

Fig 1.10 Elaborate facial make-up for Kathakali dance

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1.1.2.4 IDENTIFICATION

Clothes are the most visible index of the status of a person identifying the class, caste and
profession.

i. Identification of social status

In most societies, people and influence advertise their position and wealth through outer
trappings like the choice of clothes, colour and fabric consumption. Based on the same line
of reasoning, in some civilization complete nudity was considered a lowly condition, bereft of
status. Therefore, slaves could be nude since they were ‘non-persons’. In pre-Inca Peru, the
Mochia stripped their prisoners of clothing and therefore of rank and humanity.

In different point of time in history, rulers have attempted to maintain the status quo between
themselves and commoners through restrictive sumptuary laws. Medieval laws restricted the
use of fabrics like velvet, laces and fur while some colors like purple and gold were reserved
exclusively for royalty and nobility. In 17th century England even the length and elaborate
styles of clothes and accessories were regulated.

ii. Identification of Rank

Clothes also clearly indicate rank and power as in the case of uniforms of the armed
services:
 Intimidate or evoke obedience.
 Encourages a sense of allegiance, loyalty and identity within the ranks
 Emits clear signals indicating hierarchy through the designated number of buttons,
insignia and ribbons

iii. Identification of Profession

In contemporary times professional and administrative costumes distinguish the wearer and
imbue him/her with personal or delegated authority. Examples of this can be seen in the
robes and wigs of a judge or in the uniform of army personnel or policemen. On the other
extreme end of the spectrum, are the clothes of convicts.

iv. Identification of marital status

Dress and ornament are also indicating of the social and marital status of women. Among
the Yoruk Turkis nomads, a girl can border her silk head cloth with coins to signal that she is
ready for marriage. When betrothed she also wears a white scarf along with the headdress.
If a widow wishes to remarry, she braids her hair under her black scarf. In parts of India, the
vermillion or crimson Sindoor powder applied in the parting of the hair and the Mangalsutra
necklace are symbols of the married status of women. In Western culture, a wedding band
on the ring finger indicates marital status.

v. Identification of individual status in a tribe

Costumes also help to identity to special individuals by imposing authority and instilling a
sense of fear and awe in others. For a tribal chieftain, certain components of the costume
single him out of the crowd by expressing his power and special status. Similarly, a warrior’s
costume emphasizes his physical superiority. A tribal shaman wears special clothes, mask
and carries accessories which single him out as a person ‘apparently’ endowed with
supernatural power to cure or expel evil.

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Exercise 1

Fill in the blanks

1. Much of our knowledge about prehistoric textiles used in surviving specimens comes
from __________.
2. The belief that parts of animals like claws, hooves and teeth would enhance the
wearer’s strength and imbue the characteristics of that creature stems from the __________
factor affecting clothing.
3. Clothes are the most visible index of the _________ of a person identifying the class,
caste and profession.
4. The four factors affecting clothing are protection, modesty, adornment and
___________.
5. Beautification of the self has been the pre-occupation of humans and is achieved
through clothes and body ____________.
6. In 14th century Europe, the exaggerated length of men’s shoes called _____________
was indicative of their socio-economic status.
7. ______________ involves elaborate incisions in a delicate pattern on the skin which
on healing, leave characteristic scars and raised pattern-like marks.
8. Historically, rulers have attempted to maintain the status quo between themselves and
commoners through ___________ laws.
9. Uniforms of security forces and convicts are indicators of ____________.
10. In parts of India, the coloured powder put in the hair parting called ___________ is a
visual indicator of married status of women.

Review questions
1. What are the views regarding the origin and need for clothing?
2. According to fashion historian James Laver, what are the three principles which
govern clothing?
3. Name the material used by primitive man to cover the body.
4. The need for clothing was borne out of physical necessity. Explain this statement in
the context of clothing or Eskimos and people in Saudi Arabia.
5. What is the difference between fashion and costume?
6. Name the factors affecting clothing.
7. What are the types of Body adornment?
8. History has examples where exaggerated styles of clothing or accessories sometimes
overpower comfort in clothing. Discuss this statement with reference to the poulaine.
9. How does body adornment visually indicate the status of a person in society?
10. What does the term ‘scarification’ refer to?
i. Body-incision in delicate pattern
ii. Permanent change in body colour
iii. Rubbing rice powder in a wound
10. In what ways are clothes the most visible index of the status of a person?

Activity 1

Background: Clothes are the most visible index of the status of a person identifying the
individual, social or marital status, rank, identity, caste and profession.

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This activity is intended to encourage students to focus on uniforms as visual indicator of
rank and profession.

1. Identify the professions where uniforms are mandatory.

2. Refer to books, magazines or internet for historical or contemporary personalities
whose photographs always show them in uniform.
3. Discuss the possible reasons for their style of dressing? Is there a commonality in
their profession?

1.2. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF COSTUME

Today, clothes appear in a bewildering array of permutations and combinations ranging from
inners to outers, uppers to lowers, co-ordinates to co-wear ensembles. At different points of
time in history, costumes with different cuts, silhouettes, colours, fabrics in various
combinations developed in different parts of the world. Some costumes were integral to
civilian life while others were designed to meet the specific functional requirements of large
scale and magnitude of successive wars. It was only with time that elements of one genre of
clothing permeated into another.

Over several thousand years of history, all clothes can be broadly classified under 5
archetypes or categories.
 Draped Costume derived by the wrapping of skin or material length around the body
like the Egyptian schenti, Greek himation and the Tahitian pareo.
 Slip-on costume made from one piece of skin or material length, with a hole for the
head to pass through. Examples of this would be the Roman paenula, the Medieval huque
and the South American poncho.
 Closed stitched costume where the fabric is worn around the body with armholes
for the sleeves to be attached. This category developed into the Greek chiton, the Roman
tunic, the medieval chemise.
 Open stitched costume, worn over layers of inner clothes. Examples of these are
the Asian caftan and the European overcoat.
 Sheath costume fitted/ moulded to the body contours. This category also extended
into trousers and breeches.

1.2.1 DRAPED COSTUMES

Draping is the simplest response to wearing clothes since it has the inherent flexibility of
swathing the wearer in an individual manner. Both in Western and Asian civilization, draped
clothes have preceded cut and sewn fitted garments.

1.2.1.1 INDIAN COSTUMES

Indian ceremonies from birth, marriage to death involve the ritual use of newly woven textiles
draped around the body. Ancient Indian garments were draped rather than stitched, giving
each ensemble a distinctive look. Draped apparel was worn both by men and women. The
saris and dhotis worn today are similar to the off-the-loom fabrics worn thousands of years
ago.

The earliest references to textile production and draped garments in India date between 2500
to 2000 BC in the Indus Valley civilization in the two cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
Our knowledge of early Indian costume is based on the study of sculpted figures and
engraved seals, where both men and women are depicted wearing unstitched fabrics draped
around the body. The statuette of the 'high priest' wears a patterned shawl with a formal
drape. Other statuettes and engravings are seen in short draped sarong-like skirts, jewellery
and elaborate hairstyles. Similar garments can also be seen in the later Ajanta cave paintings

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where the figures are scantily dressed with a tight sarong around the waist accentuating the
curvaceous forms and a thin draped shawl or choli on the upper body. The unstitched
garment is no less sophisticated than the sewn garment.

While traditional Indian garments were unisex, the fabric and the manner of draping were
indicative of the profession and social status of the wearer. These were primarily of three
categories:
 Uttariya or upper garment
 Antariya or lower garment
 Kayabandh or sash

The Uttariya was the upper garment for both men and women which was rectangular in
shape. The way it was draped depended on the profession of the wearer. In the royal court,
the uttariya for men was usually of fine cotton or silk with ornamented borders and fringes. It
was often draped at the nape of neck, covering both shoulders and hanging down the front.
It could be also be draped over one shoulder with the free ends hanging down the front and
back. It could also be loosely draped across the back with the free ends hanging down both
the lower arms or wrapped around the wrist. The uttariya worn by the working classes was
often incoarse cotton.It could be wrapped around the head for protection against the sun, or
wrapped it snugly around the waist leaving the arms bare for ease of movement. Women
sometimes wore the uttariya as a draped garment wound around the upper torso. It could
also be worn as a head covering secured with a headband and hanging straight down the
back, or worn with a fitted cap under or over it.

The Antariya was the unstitched lower garment for both men and women which was
rectangular in shape and draped in different ways. The kachcha is a term used to describe a
particular way of draping the antariya which is tied and wound around the waist with one
edge passed between the legs like a loincloth, worn often by peasants. The general
population wore the knee or calf-length antariya while the ankle-length version was worn by
the higher classes. The antariya worn by women could be worn in the same style as the men
or as a wrapped skirt. It was of opaque or translucent fabric. It was usually made of cotton.
For special occasions wealthy people wore the decorative antariya embroidered with gold
thread and embellished with precious stones. A waist sash called Kayabandh was fastened
at the waist to hold up the antariya. The manner of tying and decorating this sash could be
simple or elaborate.

The Ushnisha was a turban for men. Along with the hair, it was twisted into a top knot and
the rest was wound around the head.

It should be noted that trade and invasions have always resulted in cross-cultural influences
in clothing. For example, in the Kushan period due to trade with Greece, the antariya
developed stiff, pointed fluting associated with the Greek Chiton. Kushan costume for
women showed change in draped garments resembling Greco-Roman costume. There are
similarities between the Indian sari and the draped Roman garment called Palla which is a
large square or rectangular cloth held at the shoulders with an ornamental brooch.

Unchanging in its essence, is the traditional six to nine yard sari, where the manner of
draping is indicative of the geographical location in India where the wearer resides. There are
several traditional sari drapes in India. The draped unstitched garment has a wide border on
one end called palla with the rest of garment with narrow or wide borders either woven or
sewn to the fabric. Variations in the drape are sometimes simple like wearing the palla over
the left shoulder hanging down the back or worn in the traditional Gujarati or Marwari style
with the palla brought over the right should shoulder to fan out in front. At times the fabric is
pleated in the legs and tucked at the back the waist. The free end of the palla is sometimes
used to cover the head like a veil.

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1.2.1.2 ANCIENT NEAR EAST

Between 3500 – 3000 BC, a great civilization in arose in Mesopotamia, now in present day
Iraq. Some of the different cultures of the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians who
inhabited Mesopotamia, all showed a strong commonality in their draped clothes.

i. Sumerian Costume
The most basic garment for both men and women was the simple ankle-length, wrap-around
skirt. The sculpture of a priest shows him in a long kaunakes skirt tied at the waist, where
the excess waistband forms an animal-like tail hanging at the back.

Fig 1.11. Ebikil, superintendent of the Ishtar temple at Mari, Paris, Louvre

ii. Babylonian costume

The earlier thicktufted kaunakes skirt was transformed into a draped look worn by both
sexes. Those of high rank wore elaborately draped large woven shawls edged with fringes
and tassels while lower ranks wore simple linen skirts. A typical style was of the shawl draped
under the armpits across the body with the excess fabric covering the left arm and thrown
over the left shoulder leaving the right shoulder and arm bare. The style almost prefigures
the Greek Himation and the Roman Toga two thousand years later.

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 Fig 1.12. Elamite woman in draped Babylonian garment secured with a pin on to the left shoulder,
reminiscent of the Indian sari

iii. Assyrian costume

The Assyrians wore either rectangular or semi-circular draped shawls with the short-sleeve
tunic. Another small square or rectangular shawl was worn like an apron at the back while
the semi-circular shawl was draped around the torso. The amount of fringe edging also
indicated rank.

Fig 1.13. Drawing of Assyrian king wearing draped tasseled shawls over a belted tunic

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1. 2.1.3 EGYPTIAN COSTUME

A characteristic of Egyptian costume was that it covered the lower body leaving parts of the
upper body bare, which could be covered by a cape that could be twisted, draped and
knotted in front. Egyptian clothing was mainly draped and pleated. Women also wore a
sheath-like tunic called kalasaires. The basic garment for men was the schenti which was a
single strip of linen wrapped around the hips worn by all classes except for the fact that the
Pharaoh’s schenti was much finer and often pleated. Similar to the Indian drape, the
common way of wearing it was diagonally across the hips with one end tucked in at the waist
and the other hanging free in front. Male royalty also draped a large transparent material
around the body knotted at the waist creating elaborate folds at the hips called the haik.

Religious costume was an important part of Egyptian clothing. When the shawl was not
draped but merely placed flat on the shoulder, it became a ritual garment which covered the
arms but left the hands bare.

Fig 1.14. Seti I and the Goddess Hathor, painted relief 19th dynasty, Paris, Louvre

The Pharaoh wears the Schenti under the draped transparent material around the body
creating elaborate folds at the shoulders and hips of the royal ‘haik’. The Queen wears the
Kalasaires

1.2.1.4. GREEK COSTUME

Ancient Greek and Roman costumes were traditionally draped. The draped styles were
characterized by the arrangement of large pieces of rectangular, oval or crescent-shaped
fabrics which were folded, pleated, pinned or belted around the body in different ways. This
style of dressing utilized the entire fabric ensuring there was no waste. In spite of influences
from other countries, Greek costumes did not undergo any major transformation.

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Classical Greek costumes were based on two principles:
 The first was that a unisex rectangular piece of cloth woven in varying sizes was the
basis of all draped styles, be it a tunic or a cloak.

 The second was that this cloth was always draped around the body according to
certain norms but not cut or shaped. There were vast possibilities of drapes that
could arise out of this rectangular fabric is seen in the examples of architectural
draping at different temples.

Greek costume for men

The basic costume was the Chiton, a rectangle of cloth usually wool. It formed a tunic
fastened on the left shoulder leaving the right arm free or on both shoulders. This could be
worn with one or two belts at the waist. Without a belt this tunic hung loosely and served as a
night garment. When lengthened, it became a ceremonial or festive costume. It could also
be draped around the body like the Indian shawl.

Another male garment was the enveloping cloak called Himation made of a single large (6’ x
9’) piece of cloth, swathed around the body without fixed fastenings (Fig 1.15). This cloak
was versatile in its draped style:
 It could be worn alone, baring the right arm, shoulder and upper chest
 It could also wrap the wearer up to the chin covering the arms and the head.
 It could be used as a blanket at night.

Fig 1.15. Statue of Demosthenes in draped Himation, Copenhagen, Ny Carlberg Glyptothek

(Museum photo)

Greek costume for women

All Greek women wore the Peplos which was essentially a rectangular shawl with a fibula or
brooch/ decorative pin on the shoulder and was usually open on one side. This open peplos
was usually not belted at the waist. Greek women also wore the closed peplos by seaming
the two free edges of the fabric together.

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 Fig 1.16. Statue of Dancing girl in Doric Peplos, Naples, Museo Nationale

1.2.1.5. ROMAN COSTUME

Roman costume was more class-based than that of the Greeks and reflected the society’s
formal distinctions between its own citizens and outsiders within a highly organized system of
rules. The civilian costumes of the Romans were broadly classified into two categories:
 Those which were slipped over the head
 Those which were wound around the body.

The wrapped garment was a Roman cloak called toga. Originally it was an outer garment for
both sexes which also served as a blanket at night. The draped cloak was made of a large
piece of cloth cut as a segment of a circle. Gradually the toga became extremely wide and
complicated especially when used as a ceremonial garment. The elite indicated social status
through various interesting ways of slanting or crossed drapery to which bands of specific
colours were added for distinction.

Women wore a tunic with the draped palla which was the equivalent to the male toga. It was
a large square or rectangular piece of cloth folded lengthwise and held on each shoulder with
the fibula. It could partly cover the head and partly mask the face

Fig 1.17. (L) Roman men wore draped Toga with the band along the edge of the fabric
(R) Fig 1.18. Roman women wore the draped palla in different ways

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Exercise 2: Match the columns

1 Fastening/pin to hold the ends of the Greek peplos together Antariya

2 Egyptians unisex garment Chiton
3 Only free Romans permitted to wear this garment which could be Schenti
draped in various ways to indicate social status
4 Sumerians skirt with an excess tail-like waistband Kaunakes
5 Roman counterpart of the Greek Palla Himation
6 Detail which indicated rank among Assyrians and Babylonians Fibula
7 Upper garment worn by ancient Indians Fringe
8 Garment worn by Egyptian men across all social strata Toga
9 The Greeks wore this versatile garment like a tunic which could be Kalasaires
belted, lengthened or draped like a cloak or shawl.
10 Indian draped lower garment Uttariya

Review questions
1. State the 5 broad archetypes of clothing.
2. Give two examples of draped and slip-on costumes.
3. What were the broad categories of Indian garments?
4. What was the difference in the way the basic Egyptian garment was worn by the
King and commoners?
5. How did the Roman men indicate status through clothing?
6. Explain the term Uttariya. Briefly explain the manner of draping among the different
classes of society.
7. Elaborate on the following terms:
i. Kaunakes
ii. Schenti

Activity 2

Background: Both in Western and Asian civilization, draped apparel have preceded cut and
sewn fitted garments giving each ensemble a distinctive look worn both by men and
women. The manner of draping the traditional six to nine yard sari is indicative of the
geographical location in India where the wearer resides.

This activity is intended to provide students with hands-on practice of recreating drapes of
ancient Indian garments.

1. The students shall work in pairs to perform this activity

2. Refer to books, magazines or internet and collect pictures of different sari drapes.
Are there commonalities and differences in the drape according to the geographical region?
Are the saris of the same length? Has the manner of draping the sari changed or remain
unchanged over the years?
3. Select any one Indian draped garment from the chapter (sari, antariya, uttariya)
4. Refer to books on costume from the bibliography to find out more about the way the
garment was draped.
5. Demonstrate the draping process step-by-step in class

1.3 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Prior to industrialization of fabric production in the 18th and 19th centuries, the fabric cost was

16
high which prohibited most people from possessing too many clothes. Most people had to
spin their own yarns, weave and knit their own fabrics, and then sew their own clothes in
their spare time. Lower classes wore homespun clothes since fabrics in fine weaves were
unaffordable for them.

In the mid-18th century, a general change swept Western countries. The middle class grew
stronger and began to actively participate in trade and industry. Every facet of life was
affected including textiles and costume. In England the Industrial Revolution rapidly
transformed the country. Several new inventions followed by patents, developed the
industrial spinning and weaving centres. While these speeded up the process of textile
production, they also led to riots and law considerably. Laws were passed to stop their
implementation due to the fear that increased mechanization could create widespread
unemployment, thereby adversely affecting the lives of common people.

Another contributor to this change was the opening of new markets in Spanish colonies, and
imports of Indian cotton and French silk mills. The British textile industry primarily produced
broadcloth. Manchester transformed itself from a market town to the centre of the cotton
industry while Norwich produced wool and Coventry silk. The fall in prices, as a result of
mechanization, opened up the world market for England.

Cotton revolutionized European clothing with the production of exclusive fabrics such as lawn
and batiste. The vogue for cotton garments as well as accessories in lawn, muslin and gauze
grew steadily. An unexpected effect of the use of cotton was the slave trade. Cotton cloth
was transported to Africa where it was bartered for natives, who were then taken to the new
American states. Subsequently, the ships returned with raw cotton.

1.3 Mechanical Inventions during Industrial Revolution

At the beginning of the 18th century, most of the work related to the textile spinning and
weaving was carried out in people’s homes. A chain of inventions changed the situation
completely. This caused unrest among people who feared that machines which could do the
work of several men would result in unemployment. Though sporadic attempts were made to
break machines, the process of mechanization continued.

Fig 1.31 18th century knitting machine

17
With the increased demand for cotton goods there was greater need for cleaning of cotton
which could be done normally to an approximate amount of 1 pound in a day. Eli Whitney
invented and patented an automatic Ginning machine which was a simple yet effective way
of separating cottonseed from short staple cotton fibre.

In 1804 refinement and complexity in woven textile patterns came in the form of the Jacquard
loom named after the designer Joseph Jacquard. This loom could automatically control the
warp and weft threads on a silk loom by ‘recording’ patterns of holes on a string of cards.
This relatively simple method evolved and was modified later into computer punch cards.

The invention of the domestic sewing machine by Issac Singer in 1851 met with high
commercial success. The sewing machine brought the principle of assembly-line which led
eventually to mass production, standardization of sizes and ready-to-wear clothing sold in
departmental stores.

Increasingly active scientific research made a lot of progress in colours and dyes. Sir Isaac
Newton had earlier isolated the principal colours of the spectrum - red, yellow and blue of
which the other tones were only mixtures. Johan Tobias Mayer explained the principles of
colour mixing thereby creating new possibilities of colour which provided textile
manufacturers with numerous colour combinations. In 1856 Sir William Perkin invented the
first synthetic dye.

1.3.2 Effect of Industrial Revolution on India

India was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1898. India’s economy at this juncture as
in ancient times depended largely on its textiles. Indian cotton and other specialized textiles
were unmatched quality and therefore, were used to trade in spices. During colonial rule, the
traditional royal and temple patronage declined as the British government changed Indian’s
role as the largest exporter of textiles in the world to the biggest importer of English-made
cloth. The country was systematically plagiarized as the Indian domestic market was
swamped by cheap copies of Indian textiles, industrially produced in Lancashire. Stringent
taxes were imposed on weavers who specialized in hand-made fabrics as a result of which
weavers of textile weaving centres like Surat and Murshidabad faced tremendous hardship to
the extent that some textile weaving techniques became extinct.

British women’s clothing profited from the progress made in the nation’s mills whose raw
material was provided by the East Indian colonies. Cotton was the most sought after for its
superior quality, affordability and durability. Beautiful Indian prints called chintzes (derived
from the Indian cheent meaning ‘spray of raindrops’), delicate muslins and calico fabrics were
very popular in England. France too exhibited great interest in printed, painted or dyed
calicoes called Indiennes. Shawls from Kashmir in complex designs and labour intensive
weaves called kani were regarded as luxuries in Europe. Inspired by the exotic garments of
the West Indies and the exquisite clothes of the nawabs of India and Ceylon, British clothes
were fashioned by overseas colonies. It is significant that words which are part of the modern
global textile vocabulary like chintz, muslin, calico, shawl, khakhi, kamarbandh, jodhpurs,
pyjama are of Indian origin.

Exercise 3a: Match the following

Designed loom which could create complex weaves and Eli Whitney
developed later into computerized punch-cards
Invented the first synthetic dye Isaac Singer
First commercially produced domestic sewing machine Issac Newton
Obtained several colour shades which provided textile Sir William Perkin

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 manufacturers with numerous colour combinations
Invented and patented an automatic Ginning machine for cotton Joseph Jacquard
Isolated principal colours of the spectrum Johan Tobias Mayer

Exercise 3b: Fill in the blanks

1. Indian peasants were forced to cultivate and dye cotton in indigo within an
oppressive system called ---------------.
2. ________ was a popular Indian print with small flowers used in European clothing.
3. Cotton revolutionized European clothing and accessories with the production of
exclusive fabrics like -----------, ------------ and -------------.
4. Malmal is the Indian name for ----------- fabric.
5. Stringent taxes imposed on weavers who specialized in hand-made fabrics resulted in
some textile weaving techniques becoming __________.

1.4. EVOLUTION OF MODERN INDIAN FASHION

Traditional Indian clothes have had a distinct identity not only within the country but also
globally. Moreover, Indian costumes have a unique characteristic of being indicative of a
particular geographical region. The history of 20th century Indian fashion is contextual and
co-related to the socio-economic-political environment within the country as well as changing
fashion trends abroad. It should be noted that Indian heritage and tradition has been so
deep-rooted that new influences could bring about only a limited amount of change, without
any radical metamorphosis in culture.

1900 to 1910
At the turn of the century, the socio-political scenario was that of the British Raj firmly
entrenched in India. On one hand the influence of Western fashion in menswear was seen in
baggy trousers, buttoned shirts, jackets, hats, walking sticks worn by some Indians in the
workplace. However, dhotis and pajamas with kurtas and turbans continued to be the staple
items of clothing for most people, indicative of regional or national identity.

Women wore a high collared three-quarter sleeved blouse with the sari pinned on the left
shoulder with a brooch. The wives of those working for the colonial government were the first
to step out and mingle with the British. The ladies of Brahmo Samaj of Bengal were the
earliest to adapt to Western styles. While the tradition of wearing saris with regional draping
variations continued to be firmly entrenched, women began to experiment with the sari
blouse. The stitched sari blouse echoed the latest styles of English blouses with cuffs, laces
and pleats with the sari palla pinned at the shoulder. The long ruffled skirts worn by the
English inspired the stitched petticoats worn with saris decorated with pretty borders and
dainty laces. Heavier embroidery embellished with pure silver and the resham combined
Mughal inspiration with Western influence.

1920s
In the West, the decade called 'Roaring Twenties' characterized by the 'Flapper' style
enhanced the slender columnar silhouette. In India the trend was echoed with changes in the
sari blouse where the semi-fitted rectangular shape continued in the long-sleeved blouses
with raised sedate necklines.

1930s
This trend continued into the 30s where the sari palla was draped either seedha (back to

19
front) or ulta (front to back). The Western style of padded shoulders translated into puffed
sleeved blouses. This era saw the advent of movies which transformed film stars into icons
whose every nuance of style was faithfully emulated by the masses. With the first talkies,
elegant chiffon saris became fashionable popularized by the upper echelon of society and
film stars. The first fashion show was held in Pune in 1930 when Catherine Courtney of
'Pompadour Gowns' presented western clothes on European models.

1940s
Austerity measures along with a renewed zeal in patriotism marked this decade. Mahatma
Gandhi's call for complete independence in the 1940s had the objective of uniting the entire
country and manifested itself by the burning of all foreign materials/clothes. It was a
significant gesture that 'khadi'- traditional, rough, homespun which was woven on the
'charkha' was not just a fabric but also a symbol of the Indian spirit of the times-of self-
reliance, nationalism and resistance to British rule. Khadi kurtas, pajamas and dhotis were
worn along with the simple folded Gandhi topi. This look submerged differences in religion,
creed and caste into one collective identity of being Indian. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
epitomized Indian elegance in her handwoven saris. Generally, saris were teamed with
conservative waist-length semi-fitted blouses with high neck or band collar and half-length,
half three-quarter length or full length sleeves.

Post-independence and 1950s

Post 1947, the limitations of the Indian style statement was expanded by India's first Prime
Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He exhibited inimitable style with his well-stitched
churidar-kurtas, Gandhi topi and a 'bandhgala' band-collar jacket with a red rose pinned on
the lapel. The 'Nehru jacket' as it was known, gave a new direction to menswear fashion in
India.

The post-Independence era brought about a buoyant mood which continued in the 1950s
with gradual evolution of design of traditional apparel. The sari blouse showed distinct signs
of innovation in pattern. The length of the blouse became shorter. The 'cup' could now be cut
as a separate piece with darts and seams. Embellishment techniques such as embroidery,
mirror work, beads and sequins made the blouses more decorative.

Indian women now had the dual responsibility of balancing the household and work outside
the home. Optimizing time, she found the 'salwar-kameez' very convenient. Originating from
Punjab, this ensemble was adopted as a natural choice irrespective of local and provincial
influences. It was initially worn with a short jacket or 'bundi' and 'dupatta'.

1960s
This decade was the beginning of street wear bubbling up to high fashion, the ethnic look to
hit the runway as well as for hippies to run free. In the West, the mini skirt/dress, shot up
above the knees often teamed with knee-high boots. Correspondingly the 'salwar-kameez'
lengths grew shorter. 'Tights' worn with skin-fitting knit tops and pullovers wasan integral part
of the look. Hindi films held up a true mirror of fashion in society of the time. Heroines wore
extremely tight kameez with churidar which were replaced by nylon stretch pants and
'dupatta' of sheer materials like chiffon, net or nylon.

With sari blouses the craze for curvaceous toned midriffs continued. The back neckline
plunged or could be knotted in a bow on a sleeveless blouse worn with sari with rather short
'palla' seemingly carelessly thrown over the shoulder. Worn below the navel, saris were
draped versions of low waisted 'hipster' skirts and pants. Another variation was the mini-sari
draped above the knee which was perhaps too risqué to become a widespread style
statement. Hindi films gave the first stitched sari, figure-hugging with pleats and 'palla' in
place which just needed to be zipped up. This zip-on sari became a party-wear favourite

20
because of the convenience of wearing it. Sensuous fabrics like chiffon, crepe and georgette
were conducive to this sari drape. Bouffant hair with occasional hints of a fringe, heavy lidded
eyes and pale lips completed the look.

This decade was synonymous with trousers called the Bell Bottoms, deriving its name from
the flared hem. This style continued into the next decade. Loose, straight-leg trousers named
'Parallels' pre-dating the modern wide-legged Palazzo pants were also fashionable. Indian
kameez of hip length or mid-thigh length were also teamed with these pants.

The kurta also called the kameez was also teamed with the lungi a wrap-around skirt either
as a rectangle or as a large cylinder that could be draped on any body size. This was
essentially a sarong-like wrap which was seen not only in the Orient but was also a
traditional draped with regional variations seen in Saurashtra in the West, Kerala in the South
and Punjab in the North.

Lucknow sharara and gharara worn with the kameez and dupatta became part of the formal
dress code. Another ensemble that became popular was the Rajasthani, ghagra-choli
ensemble adopted by socialites at weddings and other traditional ceremonies. The long or
short ghagra skirt was worn with stylized choli and kurti.

With the fashion magazine Femina acquiring the franchise to several international beauty
pageants like Miss Universe, Miss World and Miss Asia in 1965, beauty competitions and
fashion shows were held in Delhi, Bangalore, Calcutta and Madras.

1970s
This was a time when the clash of lifestyles and aesthetic values resulted from the
widespread use of new materials and techniques. Plastics replaced natural materials, factory
produced goods replaced handcrafted ones and nylon replaced hand-woven silks and
cottons. Yet against all odds, a strong revivalist movement revitalized the legacy of textile
crafts largely through the efforts of visionaries like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Pupul
Jayakar who set up several institutes and organizationsto energize the textile industry and to
encourage the continuance of traditional handicrafted skills of artisans. The cottage industry
found a strong Government supported infrastructure. Revival through recognition of national
cultural roots came from fabrics, clothes and accessories designers. Ritu Kumar was one of
the earliest pioneers of fashion with extensive research into block prints and innovative
application of the technique of zardozi embroidery.

Radical options in draping the sari in the Coorgi style, leaving the shoulders bare, the
butterfly style and the lungi style were seen. Backless embroidered blouses teamed with
cotton saris. Both the churidar-kurta and the salwar-kameez were equally popular with the
paunchaor stiffened hemline of the latter becoming extremely wide with the occasionally
hazard of getting stuck in the 'platform' heels. Dupattas were either in a contrasting colour or
else of the same print and colour as the 'suit' itself.

1980s
Globally, ‘Power dressing' with padded shoulders, a tightly belted waist and a hip length
peplum was the characteristic silhouette. Indians responded with the kameez and tops with
shoulder pads and leg o’ mutton or puffed sleeves tapering to be wrist. The visual emphasis
on the shoulder width was thus created. The waist was emphasized with a belt or sash or
was tucked into the waistband of the lower garment. Trousers comprised the ‘dhoti’ pants,
cowl pants, harem pants, or ‘Patiala salwar’.

The revivalist movement continued its momentum with independent as well as government
sponsored research projects and exhibitions both in India and abroad by stalwarts like

21
Martand Singh, to showcase and promote India’s varied textile tradition and crafts. Talented
designers like Asha Sarabhai, Archana Shah, David Abraham and Rakesh Thakore
(Abraham and Thakore) from National Institute of Design who created labels with a
distinctive globally relevant look based on their deep knowledge of textiles. Satya Paul,
Hemant Trivedi, James Ferriera, Pallavi Jaikishan, Abu Jani and Sandeep Khosla (Abu
Sandeep), Monapali, late Rohit Khosla, Tarun Tahiliani, Suneet Varma, Ravi Bajaj, Rohit
Bal, Rina Dhaka were among the designers who commanded a more impressive following
than even the models who wore their clothes.

1990s
This decade saw a multitude of influences, an eclectic mix with the return of chic, glamour
and high-fashion. With rapid strides in communication, fashion shows in any part of the
globe could be transmitted instantaneously by satellite. In India, TV channels like ‘FTV’ and
‘Trends’ along with programmes like ‘MTV House of Style, ‘CNN Style with Elsa Klensch’
brought the latest fashion to living rooms. On one hand, therefore, for the urban consumer
was the awareness and acceptability of western clothes to look ‘cool’ as dictated by style
icons on MTV and be among the elite who wore Gucci and carried Louis Vuitton bags. On
the other hand, was the need for ethnic clothing for semi-formal and traditional occasions like
weddings and festivals. These high-priced ‘haute couture’ (high fashion) garments were
expensive not only for their ‘designer’ label but also for the high level of skills of the
embroiderer and the quality of materials used. In the context of the masses, grew a parallel
prêt-a-porter (ready to wear) industry catering to the middle class by its volume in sales and
affordability in prices. This decade saw the beginning of branding and the emergence of
departmental stores and large single brand stores. To entice more customers to patronize
the label/ brand, there was widespread advertising from press releases, catalogues,
magazines, hoardings to video ads. Fashion shows became a very effective mode for
publicity both for designers and brand promotions. Talented designers like Raghuvendra
Rathore, Wendell Rodericks, Anamika Khannna, Aki Narula, Rohit Gandhi and Rahul
Khanna, Meera and Muzzafar Ali also established their labels with distinct signature styles.

To tap the purchasing power of the Indian consumer, designers like Zandra Rhodes (UK),
Pierre Cardin (France), Ichiro Kimijima and Kansai Yamamoto (Japan) held promotional
shows in India. Some brands like Pierre Cardin and Ted Lapidus launched their labels in
India but could not sustain long term success.

The establishment of the Fashion Design Council of India (FDCI) in 1998 provided
designers an organized forum for discussion and decision-making pertaining to the business.
In Delhi, FDCI organizes bi-annual Fashion Weeks for ready-to-wear, Couture Week and the
Mens Fashion Week. The bi-annual Lakme India Fashion Week (LIFW) which started in
2000 also provided the participating designers with the opportunity to showcase their
creations to a wider audience including national and international buyers. Today LIFW is
considered to be a forum showcasing Bollywood fashion. There are some other regular or
occasional fashion weeks in Bangalore, Rajasthan, North East and Kolkata. In addition,
Bridal Asia, Vivaha, The Wedding Show etc. showcases the exclusive creations in
wedding trousseau wear in the metros and tier II cities.

With the establishment of National Institute of Fashion Technology in 1986, a new wave of
designers began to create designs which put India firmly on the global map. Ritu Beri, JJ
Valaya, Ashish Soni, Narendra Kumar Ahmad, Ashima Singh (Ashima-Leena), Ranna,
Rajesh Pratap Singh, Manish Arora, Namrata Joshipura, Sabyasachi Mukherjee,
Gaurav Gupta, Gaurav Jai Gupta (Akaaro), Nida Mahmood, Pankaj and Nidhi, Shalini-
Paras (Geisha Designs) and others are synonymous with contemporary Indian fashion. Each
fashion designer label has distinctive design aesthetics and style recognizable by the fashion
fraternity. Each label is associated primarily with either Indian or western styles, women or
men’s clothing, elaborate surface embellishment or pattern-making oriented, minimalist or

22
flamboyant etc.Some focus on textile development and revival notably Sanjay Garg (Raw
Mango) and Anavila Mishra (Anavila).

Ashish N. Soni Ritu Beri J J Valaya

Ranna Rajesh Pratap Singh Sabyasachi Mukherjee

23
 Namrata Joshipura Rabbani and Rakha Gaurav Gupta

Sanskar by Sonam Dubal Nida Mahmood Joy Mitra

24
Geisha Designs by Shalini and Paras Tanvi Kedia Shantanu Goenka

The next generation of designers is striking a balance between creativity and commercial
viability with keen business acumen. Some like Amit Aggarwal, Rimzim Dadu, Alpana-
Neeraj work with modern technology and experimenting with structure, materials and
techniques. ShivanNarresh have created a niche in swimwear and resortwear. Aneeth
Arora (Pero), Rahul Mishra have created their signature styles through the re-interpretation
of Indian textile heritage and handcrafting traditions, balancing social commitment with
ethical business practices. Samant Chauhan works predominantly with fabrics from
Bhagalpur. Uma Prajapati (Upasana Design Studio) involves community participation in
design with an abiding commitment to sustainable fashion practices.

Payal Pratap Singh Alpana Neeraj Amit Agarwal

25
 Pero by Aneeth Arora Shivan Narresh

The waves of liberalization and lowering of international trade barriers are sweeping the
world. Opening up of the Indian market has heightened the awareness that design has to
play a more significant role than ever before. Other countries are looking at India as a
market that because of its large population and potential customer base with purchasing
power. With the entry of several international brands of apparel, accessories, jewellery,
furniture and other lifestyle products, the Indian fashion market scenario is competitive,
challenging and exciting. The rise of the luxury market is indicative of the increasing numbers
of billionaires in India. The co-existence of foreign labels with domestic corporate brands,
mass-produced labels with handcrafted one-of-a-kind ensembles implies that there is a
requirement for designers, textile and clothing technologists and merchandisers with talent,
in-depth understanding of the industry, skills and a professional attitude related to the fashion
business.

Indian Designers on the Global Runway

New York Fashion Week: Ashish Soni, Sabyasachi Mukherjee

Paris Fashion Week: Rajesh Pratap Singh, Anamika Khanna, Manish Arora

Milan Fashion Week: Sabyasachi Mukherjee, Rocky S., Tarun Tahiliani

London Fashion Week: Manish Arora

Exercise 6.1 Fill in the blanks

1. Amazon India Fashion Week in Delhi is organized by

_______________________________.
2. Lakme Fashion Week is organized in the city of _____________________.
3. A show which showcases wedding wear is ______________________.
4. Wedding wear is also called _______________.

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 Review questions
1. What was the role of Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay in terms of textile and crafts revival
in the 1970s?

Activity
Background: Contemporary Indian fashion showcases and promotes India’s varied
textile traditions and crafts with distinctive design aesthetics recognizable by the fashion
fraternity through FDCI or LIFW. Each label is associated with Indian or western styles,
women or men’s clothing, elaborate surface embellishment or pattern-making oriented,
minimalist or flamboyant etc.

This activity will enable students to know more about Indian designers.
1. Create a Power Point Presentation on any one of the following Indian designers:
i. Ritu Kumar
ii. Manish Arora
iii. Sabyasachi Mukherjee
iv. Rohit Bal
v. Manish Malhotra
vi. Anita Dongre
vii. Rajesh Pratap Singh
viii.Tarun Tahiliani
ix. Wendell Rodericks

The PPT should include the name(s) of the designer / label, date of establishment,
location, stores where the label is retailed, participation in shows/ fashion weeks,
significant achievements, awards ( if any), unique characteristics.

Show the development of the label and the designs through visuals tracing its history
since inception to the latest collection.

1.5 FILMS AND FASHION

India is the producer of largest number of feature films in the world with centres for film-
making such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Hyderabad. However, it is Bollywood
(originating from the original name of Bombay) in Mumbai which, in particular, produces
hundreds of films annually based on fantasy and inspire dreams among many. In India, Hindi
films have a tremendous reach into the homes and hearts of millions.

Movie actors are celebrities whose star status gives them credibility. This is the reason why
product endorsements by the cine-stars are so effective. Advertising practitioners rely on a
celebrity face to stand out among innumerable ads and expect the likeability of the star to
transfer to the product. Media performers create the illusion of interpersonal relationships
with viewers. The artificial social world consists of celebrities and the characters they play.
Even though the relationship is imaginary, people identify with them. Social behaviour and
consumer purchasing is thus influenced by media personalities because they are perceived
as reliable advisors and role models.

Costumes in movies are very influential in creating distinctive styles and looks which
stimulate fashion trends across the nation. The screen image of Amitabh Bachchan in formal
sherwanis in Mohabatein, Aamir Khan in stylish formals in Ghajini, Salman Khan in khakis
and aviator shades in Dabangg, Shahrukh Khan in chic casualwear in Kal Ho Na Ho, Rekha
in flowing Anarkali-like kurtas in Umrao Jaan, Bhagyashri in handpainted kurta-churidar in

27
Maine Pyar Kiya, Madhuri Dixit in the purple sari in Hum Apke Hain Kaun, Kareena Kapoor in
short kurtis and T-shirts with salwars in Jab We Met and others have influenced many other
commercial designers and manufacturers to capitalize on the ‘style wave’.

Costume designers are those who design and accessorize the clothes worn by actors
onscreen. Bhanu Athaiya who has designed for several movies including Lagaan,
conducted prior in-depth research to establish historical authenticity before finalizing the
costumes for Sir Richard Attenborough’s Gandhi. She won the Academy award for Best
Costume Design for this movie in 1983. Shama Zaidi designed costumes for several award
winning films including the Satyajit Ray’s National award winning Shatranj Ke Khiladi.
However in many period films based on historical events and characters, the costumes may
or may not be credible in their interpretation; sometimes the lavish production, elaborate sets
and a glossy look may merely require correspondingly glamorous costumes.

Some more examples of designers/ costume designers and a few of their most recognizable
movies are:
 Aki Narula - Bunty and Babli, Don
 Ameira Punwani - Guru
 Arjun Bhasin - Dil Chahta Hai, Lakshya, The Namesake, The life of Pi
 Dolly Ahluwalia - Omkara, Bhaag Milkha Bhaag, Water, Bandit Queen (National
award for Best Costume)
 Leena Daru - Tezaab
 Lovleen Bains Rang De Basanti
 Niharika Khan - Band Baaja Baaraat, Rock On, Delhi Belly, The Dirty Picture
(National award for Best Costume)
 Neeta Lulla - Jodha Akbar, Devdas (President award)
 Priyanjali Lahiri - Tare Zameen Par
 Sabyasachi Mukherjee - Black (National award for Best Costume), English Vinglish

Today designers for movie stars, both on-screen and off-screen have a celebrity status of
their own. Moreover film-making has become more organized as an industry with the entry of
professional fashion designers as costume designers designing for stars both on-screen and
off it. The relationship between designer and actor was best exemplified by designer
Givenchy with actress Audrey Hepburn as his inspiration or ‘muse’ in the 1950s. In Hindi
films there are similar examples such as Manish Malhotra who designs and styles Karishma
and Kareena Kapoor, Sabyasachi Mukherjee who designs for several stars including Rani
Mukherjee and Vidya Balan, Neeta Lulla for Aishwarya Rai and so on. Designers like Rocky
S, Vikram Phadnis, Surily Goel, Anna Singh, Arjun Bhasin also design for movies.
Anaita Shroff Adjania, fashion editor for Vogue India has designed the costumes and styled
the look in Dhoom, Dhoom 2 and Love Aaj Kal. Muzaffar Ali director of Umrao Jaan is also a
fashion designer. The two movies entitled Fashion and Heroine directed by Madhur
Bhandarkar showed a wide range of glamorous clothes on-screen which are associated with
fashion and costume designers.

Both movies and television are significant in creating and showcasing new styles that have
become iconic, spreading like wildfire, capturing the imagination of the masses. These on-
screen costumes have started trends resulting in mass buying of similar styles at affordable
price points. The actors, the screen characters and the clothes they wear in commercially
successful movies and serials, become influential factors in the clothing and lifestyle choices
for the masses and create market demand for the same styles.

28
Exercise 7: Name the costume designer of the following movies

1 Black
2 Gandhi
3 Life of Pi
4 Taare Zameeen Par
5 Umrao Jaan
6 Devdas

Activity 7

The costumes worn by screen characters in successful movies and television serials, are
influential in creating market demand for similar styles at affordable price points.

This activity encourages students to understand the impact of reel-life movies and costumes
on real-life markets and trends.

1. Identify a commercially successful movie which has won award(s) for best costume.
2. Analyze the costumes of the lead characters in terms of elements and principles of
design
3. Refer to magazines and newspapers to find out the extent to which the styles have
trickled across different consumer segments.

GLOSSARY

Antariya Draped lower garment for both sexes in India

Chintz Small print derived from Indian word cheent

Chiton Draped rectangle of fabric which could be belted to form a tunic or draped
like a shawl fastened on one or both shoulders worn by Greek men.
Fibula Decorative pin or brooch used to hold ends of the garment at the
shoulder by Greeks and Romans
Haik Large transparent material around the body knotted at the waist creating
elaborate folds at the hips worn by Egyptian male royalty
Haute Couture French term for exclusive, one-of-a-kind ‘high fashion’
Himation Large fabric worn by Greek men swathed around the body without fixed
fastenings with or without inner garment
Unstitched piece of fabric draped the hips draped loincloth for men
Kachcha passed between the legs with the end tucked at the centre frontwaist
worn in India.
Kalasaires Egyptian unisex sheath-like tunic

Kaunakes Ankle-length, wrap-around skirt tied at the waist with the excess
waistband hanging loosely at the back worn by the Sumerians.
Kayabandh Indian sash fastened at the waist knotted at the front in simple or
elaborate ways.
Mauli Turban made of a twisted roll of cloth worn by the Kushans

29
Palla Draped garment worn by Roman women as the equivalent to the male
toga
Peplos Shawl worn by Greek women fastened at the shoulder either as Open
peplos or Closed peplos
Schenti Linen fabric wrapped around the hips worn by all classes in Egypt
Toga Worn only by free Roman citizens, it was initially worn outdoors and later
became a ceremonial garment
Ushnisa Turban twisted with the hair into a top knot and wound around the head
for men worn in ancient India
Uttariya Traditional Indian unisex upper garment, versatile both as formal and
casual clothing whose drape indicated the profession of the wearer

References

Gini Stephens Frings, ‘Concept to Consumer’. Prentice Hall

John Hopkins, ‘Fashion Design: The complete guide’ Ava Publishing
Ted Polhemus. ‘Streetstyle: From Sidewalk to Catwalk’ Thames and Hudson

30
 CHAPTER 2: BASIC PATTERN DEVELOPMENT

2.1. Pattern Making

2.1.1 Introduction: Pattern Development & its origin

Pattern Designing is an extensive subject that covers principles of constructions and

techniques in a wider perspective rather than style details. It opens opportunities for
creating infinite styles. Pattern construction can be divided in two parts:

i. Measuring correctly
ii. Knowledge of technique with which they are applied.

Learning pattern making by trial and error is like learning to play music by ear. The
earlier methods of pattern making generally used shapes by copying and constructing
them.

Several systems of pattern constructions were devised in the early days of tailoring,
long before clothing industry came in existence. They served the needs of a busy tailor
who generally required a guide for drafting garments directly on the cloth. As each
garment was cut individually according to varying measurements, pattern drafting had
to be simple and speedy in operation. Since speed was an important factor, systems
were devised to include necessary seam allowances. The system now used for pattern
development is called Block Method where seam allowances are calculated at the
time of cutting the final pattern.

The human form comprises complex geometric shapes and presents problems in
pattern construction. The accuracy of any cutting system depends largely on relevant
and correct measurements. On the other hand, Proportionate Systems seem to offer a
ready solution to the problem of unreliable or incorrect measurements. The
Proportionate Systems work on the principles that the whole body is divided into
eight heads and the girth measurements are in proportion to each other. Pattern makers
generally tried to find an ideal system and did not realize that a system laid down by
one method may not fully satisfy the needs of another human figure since no two
human forms can be identical.

Pattern construction systems are largely dependent and influenced by the particular
fashion of their period. Seam placement and suppression are an integral part of a draft
wherein design cannot be altered without disturbing the garment balance. However
experienced pattern makers invariably took the precaution of adding sufficient inlays
or allowance in the main seam of garment as a safeguard against error of judgment.
31
Pattern construction systems are largely dependent and influenced by the particular
fashion of their period. Seam placement and suppression are an integral part of a draft
wherein design cannot be altered without disturbing the garment balance. However
experienced pattern makers invariably took the precaution of adding sufficient inlays
or allowance in the main seam of garment as a safeguard against error of judgment.

Lack of reliable data on body measurements has, to a large extent, has been
responsible for the continued used of systems based on theoretical proportional
measurements. W. H. Hulme in his book The Practice of Garment Pattern Making
wrote:
“The clothing industry has been prolific in systematic methods of applying
descriptive data and it is fair to say that in many of these pattern systems the
principles involved have not been too obvious, or even clearly stated.
Several years of study of English, American and European pattern systems
suggest that method may be unrelated to, or divorced from, principles. The
widest variations exist in that large group of systems which not only do not
state the principles applied, but which seem to proceed on the assumption
that none exists, and that the whole operation is empirical…At the
beginning let it be said that the word system connotes something soundly
based and rooted in reason, capable of being demonstrated and the results
applied. If a point is fixed, or a part located for a sound reason, that reason
can and should be given. If the working of a law is detected in a number of
similar instances, that law should be capable of statement and proof”.

Philip Kunick in his book Modern Sizing and Pattern Making for Womens and
Children’s Garments writes that it is still a common practice to teach pattern
construction for the wholesale trade by means of a drafting scale based on a girth
measurement, not only for fixing points or locating parts, but also for drafting a
garment of any size. This is rarely done in the wholesale trade, where it is the general
practice to cut a pattern in a standard size indication that the exact dimensions are not
known and proportionate measurements must be used as substitutes; with the result
that extreme sizes, drafted to a hypothetical scale, rarely give a satisfactory fit.

Due to unreliability of cutting systems, many pattern designers started draping their
patterns on a dress form. A skillful designer can achieve good results but this method
is inefficient and time-consuming for the ready to wear market. The modern methods
base their foundations on principles of draping in the two-dimension form balance.
Balance is the underlying objective while manipulating pattern balance is a vertical
relationship between the front and back. If the balance of a pattern is faulty it means
that accuracy of all vertical measurements is lost.

32
There were just 18 pattern cutting books including that of Alcega published from the
16th century to the 19th century in Europe. This can be attributed largely to lack of
literacy and numeracy prevalent amongst pattern makers, tailors and dress makers at
that time. Traditionally the skills were passed to the apprentices through
demonstration and verbal instructions.

2.1.2 Pattern Making

Pattern making is the process of transforming a design into its constituent flat pattern
pieces and then drafting them out. The job of a pattern-maker is to interpret the
designs into sample pattern pieces and then drafting them. Armstrong Pattern making
covers principles of constructions and techniques in a wider sense rather than style
details in a narrow sense (Armstrong, 2000). It opens scope for infinite variety of
styles both for regular designs and innovative patterns. Pattern making can be divided
in two parts namely measuring correctly & knowledge of technique devised to include
necessary seam allowances. Measuring the human body is the precursor to developing
garments to fit the body. Measuring scales range from simple measuring tape to
complex body scanners and low to high tech.

Pattern for a garment is the blue print on the basis of which the fabric is cut and the
same is achieved by two methods:
• Flat Pattern Method
• Draping Method

Flat Pattern Method is a method wherein body or dress form measurements are taken
for developing a pattern. Following a logical stepwise procedure, the measurements
are then converted into a pattern. In other words this system depends on accurate
measurements to complete the paper pattern. There are limitless designs, which can be
achieved for workable garments. Flat pattern making should be done in conjunction
with a dress form so that as the design evolves, proportion and balance in the garment
can be checked side by side. It is important to transfer the pattern on to a muslin (toile
pronounced as „twall’) to test the fit, on a dress form or a human figure.

Flat Pattern Method is a system of creating patterns by manipulating a basic block. It

is widely used for the following reasons:
1. The basic block includes ease allowance which allows the body to perform a variety
of normal body functions requiring movement of various body parts.
2. The method is logical and easy to understand.
3. It brings consistency and accuracy of both size and fit of mass-produced garments

33
4. It is also the fastest and most efficient pattern design method even for complicated
designs.

Draping method is the oldest patternmaking method and is generally regarded as a

creative approach. In this method a piece of two-dimensional fabric is draped directly
on a dress form or figure and made to fit on the dress form to achieve the desired look
or shape. The fabric may conform to the basic shape of the form or arranged
artistically in folds for a specific design. This muslin pattern is then transferred on the
paper, and corrections are made, if any. The same is converted into a final pattern.

2.1.3 TERMINOLOGY

i. Block/Sloper
The Block or the Sloper is a term given to a basic set of pattern pieces used to make
additional patterns of any style. It refers to paper cutting of basic bodice, skirt, sleeve
or any such basic pattern from which all the other designs are developed. The Block
normally represents the dimensions of a specific form or figure. It has darts to fit to the
contours of the body but has neither any design features nor seam allowances. It is the
foundation used to make the pattern of a design.

It is important that the correct block is chosen for the design; this not only saves time
during adaptation but can affect the final shape. The basic blocks can be drafted to fit
individual figures by using personal measurements instead of the standard
measurements listed in the size chart.

The block should carry the following information:

34
· Name of the block e.g. skirts front, bodice back etc.
· Grain line is a line drawn from end to end on each pattern piece to indicate how the
pattern should align with the lengthwise grain of the fabric.
· Size e.g. 32, 34, 36 or S, M, L

ii. Pattern
Pattern is developed from the block that includes all the information needed for
cutting and production of the garment including seam allowance.

35
The following should be included on a pattern:
• Grain line
• Centre Front or Centre Back
• Style number or Code number of the pattern set may be evolved e.g. AB 01 here
AB identify type of the garment and 01 identify the piece number of complete set. If
there are 5 pattern pieces in a garment, the pieces will be numbered as AB 01, AB 02,
AB 03, AB 04 and AB 05.
• Pattern piece e.g. skirt front, skirt back, side front etc.
• Size as 32, 34, 36, or S, M, L etc.
• Cutting information - It should be clearly mentioned as to how many pieces are to
be cut e.g. Cut 1, Cut 2, Cut on fold.
• Notches - Marks that are needed to help assemble garment sections correctly.
• Directional Fabrics - For fabrics which have designs in one direction such as floral
print, stripes, plaid, velvet, fur etc. A symbol “cut one way” or ( ) is indicated on the
pattern.
• Date - Indicated as a reference point.

36
• Seam Allowances

iii. Seam Allowances

The amount of seam allowance required for each seam line may vary depending on the
location and end purpose. Generally these are the measurements followedon the
following:
¼” For sharp curves
½” For neckline, armhole, waistline, style line.
1” For side seam, centre line, shoulder, plackets.
2” For straight hemline.

iv. Muslin
Muslin is used for making test fits. This is basically an unbleached plain woven cotton
fabric available in light, medium and heavy weight. Medium quality muslin is
generally used for test fitting and draping.

v. Grain line
Grain line is a line drawn from end to end on each pattern piece to indicate how the
pattern should align with the lengthwise grain of the fabric. Whichever be the direction

37
in which the grain line is drawn on the pattern, it will always be placed parallel to the
selvedge on the fabric.

vi. Balance Refers to hang and also proportions in garments. Fashion dictates balance
to a certain extent, for example long tops over short skirts. Where flat pattern cutting is
concerned it is often difficult to judge correct balance until the garment is actually
made in fabric.

vii. Balance marks: These are marks made on edges of pattern pieces that show
where they are to be matched. They are a useful construction guide on all seams but
where edges of different shapes are to be joined or where one edge is fuller than
another, balance marks are vital. In pattern cutting make short pencil marks at the edge
of the paper, copying them through all stages to the final pattern. On bought paper
patterns balance marks are indicated by indicated by triangles and are referred to as
notches

viii. Dart
Dart is a wedge-shape or triangular shape marked on the pattern that controls the fit of
the garment.
Dart legs - The two sides of the triangular shape & should be of the same length.
Dart point - The point at which the dart ends.
Dart intake - It is the amount of suppression taken between the dart legs.
Apex - The highest point on the bust.

Darts radiate from the highest point of a mount on a body, these mounts are generally
rounded. If the darts on front bodice are stitched till the apex they would create a
point on the apex and strain the garment. The body is rounded and not pointed hence
to avoid these strains or pulls on the garment the darts need to be finished away from
apex.

38
Single Dart Pattern
In this a single dart is there for entire suppression required. The dart ends ½” away
from the bust point.

Two Dart Pattern

Waist dart is ¾” to 1” away from the bust point.
Other dart is ¾” to 1 ½” away from the bust point.

2.1.4 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Centre Front - CF
Centre Back - CB
Notches - ┬∏ <ц
Buttons -
Button hole -
Front - F
Back - B
Waist line - Wl
Arm hole - Ah
39
Side Seam - SS
Neck line - Nl
Shoulder - Sh
Grain line - ↕↔
Grain line on fold -

Gathers -

Pleat (arrows indicates direction of fold) -

Activity

Collect pictures of womenswear garments and create a folder/ style file.

Identify the type of darts and seams used in the garments.

Fill in the blanks

a. A pattern can be cut by ____________ method and ____________ method.

b. Pattern is a ______________ of a garment.
c. The author of the book „Modern Sizing and Pattern Making for Womens and
Childrens Garments‟ is _____________________.
d. The dart is a _________ wedge that gives ______ to the flat piece of _______.
e. Waist dart is _______inch away from the bust and side seam dart is ______
away.
f. Balance refers to ________ and __________ in a garment.
g. Muslin is used for __________ a pattern and is also called a ____________.
h. Pattern is placed ____________ on the ___________ ___________ of the fabric.
i. _________ is a term given to ______ set of pattern piece used to make patterns of
________ style.
j. ___________ method is the oldest patternmaking method and is regarded as a
__________ approach.

Review Questions
1. What is Pattern Making?
2. Describe 2 methods of Patternmaking
3. Why is it important to choose a correct block for design development?

40
2.2 MEASUREMENTS

2.2.1 How to take Measurements

Care should be taken to take accurate measurements in order to achieve a good fit. It
is extremely important to understand the dress form before starting to take dress form
measurements. One should carefully observe the shape of the body, where it is
hollow, how the shoulder slopes etc.

41
 Shoulder Length
necklin e

Arm Plate
Centre Point

Centre Back
Side Seam

Waist Line

Hip Line

Side seam

Cag e

Measurements

1. Front length - Shoulder neck intersection to waistline over the bust, take care to
measure with a hand under the bust.

2. Centre front length - Centre front neck intersection to centre front waist
intersection.

42
3. Shoulder to waistline - Shoulder tip to side seam waistline intersection
(over the sides)
4. Underarm seam- From a point X, 1” below the armhole to waistline intersection
at the side seam.

4
1 2 3

5. Shoulder length- From shoulder neck intersection to princess line and from
princess line to shoulder tip.

6. Width of bust - Width of bust measurement is from centre front over the bust
to point X on side seam.

7. Front waistline -From the Center Front waistline intersection to side seam
waistlineintersection.

8. Front hipline-Place a pin at 7” below the waistline on the Centre Front line.
Using this measurement as a guide, from the floor, mark horizontally on the dress
form, starting at the Center Front and continue to side seam (keeping it uniform
throughout). Put a style tape for reference and this is the hip line. On this line marked
by style tape, take measurement from center front intersection to side seam
intersection.

9. Apex measurement- From the Centre Front to the High Bust point keeping the
tape parallel to the floor.

10. Centre Front to the Princess line- From Centre Front intersection to Princess
line intersection at waistline.

43
11. Shoulder blade - Mark a point Y on Centre Back such that the Centre Back
neck intersection to point Y is equal to 1/4th of the Centre Back length. Shoulder blade
measurement is taken from point Y to the armhole ridge keeping the tape parallel to
the floor.

12. Width of back - From point X to the Centre Back keeping the tape parallel to
the floor.

13. Back waistline - From the Centre Back waistline intersection to side seam
waistline intersection.

14. Back hip line - From the Centre Back intersection to side seam intersection
on hipline marked by style tape.

15. Centre Back length - From the Centre Back neck intersection to the Centre
Back waistline intersection.

16. Centre back to princess line - From the Centre Back intersection to the
Princess Line intersection at the Princess Line
waistline.

44
 11

12 15

13
16

14

17. Centre Front length for lower garment-From the Centre Front waistline
intersection at the Centre front down to the desired length.

18. Centre Back length for lower garment - From the Centre back waistline
intersection at the Centre back down to the desired length.

19. Side Seam Length - From the waistline intersection at side seam over the hip to
ankle.

45
20. Crotch depth
a. On dress form - Place an L-square between legs of form and note the measurement
at waistline. This measurement includes 1¼” ease as the L-square is generally 1 ¼”
wide.
(b) On body - In seated position, measure from waistline intersection at side seam over
the figure to the seat of the chair. (Ease will need to be added here.)

21. Knee Circumference - Round measurement over the knee bone.

22. Ankle Circumference - Round measurement over the ankle bone.

23. Cap height -Tie a tape around the biceps of arm close to the armpit. Cap height is
from shoulder intersection to the top of the tape.

24. Sleeve length-From shoulder intersection over the bent elbow to the wrist.

25. Bicep Circumference - Round measurement to be taken over the fullest part of the
arm.

46
26. Elbow Circumference - Round measurement over the elbow.

27. Wrist Circumference - Round measurement over the wrist bone.

Activity

Measure a dress form in the class.

Measure your classmate whose body proportion resembles the dress form.
What are the differences in the two measuring methods you use?

Fill in the blanks

a. Center Front is the line that divides the front ________ in two ________.
b. Ankle should be measured around the _______.
c. Correct sleeve length is taken by measuring over a _______ _______.
d. Bodice length is measured by measuring from neck ____ to apex and waist by
placing a _________ _______ _________.
e. Crotch depth on a body is measured by making the ________ sit on a _______
surface and it is measured from ___________ to ____________.
f. Apex is measured by taking the measurement from shoulder ________
__________ to the apex point.
g. Distance between the apex and center ________ is measured by ________the
distance between _________ points in ________.
h. Shoulder blade level is measured at _______ of __________ ___________.

47
Review Questions
1. What are the 2 ways of measuring the Crotch Length?
2. How do you measure bust and shoulder length on the dress?

2.2.2STANDARD DRESS FORM MEASUREMENT CHART FOR BODICE & SKIRT

POINTS OF MEASUREMENTS SIZES (in inches)

32 34 36 38 40 42 44
FRONT LENGTH 171/4 171/2 17 3/4 18 181/4 181/2 183/4
WIDTH OF BUST 91/2 10 101/2 11 111/2 12 121/2
(1” below arm plate includes an ease of ½‟‟)
CENTRE FRONT LENGTH 143/8 141/2 145/8 143/4 147/8 15 151/8
APEX 35/8 33/4 37/8 4 41/8 41/4 43/8
UNDER ARM SEAM 77/8 8 81/8 81/4 83/8 81/2 85/8
FRONT WAISTLINE 63/8 63/4 71/8 71/2 77/8 81/4 85/8
(includes an ease of ¼‟‟)
WAISTLINE TO SHOULDER 143/4 147/8 15 151/8 151/4 153/8 151/2
(includes an ease of ¾‟‟)
SHOULDER LENGTH 47/8 5 51/8 51/4 53/8 51/2 55/8
CENTRE FRONT TOPRINCESS LINE 25/8 23/4 27/8 3 31/8 31/4 33/8
WIDTH OF BACK 81/2 9 91/2 10 101/2 11 111/2
(1” below arm plate includes an ease of ½‟‟)
CENTRE BACK LENGTH 161/2 163/4 17 171/4 171/2 173/4 18
BACK WAIST LINE 55/8 6 63/8 63/4 71/8 71/2 77/8
(includes an ease of ¼‟‟)
SHOULDER BLADE 67/8 7 71/8 71/4 73/8 71/2 75/8
CENTRE BACK TO 21/2 25/8 23/4 27/8 3 31/8 31/4
PRINCESS LINE
FRONT HIPLINE 91/8 93/8 95/8 97/8 101/8 103/8 105/8
(7” below waistline)
(includes an ease of ¼‟‟)
BACK HIPLINE 91/8 93/8 95/8 97/8 101/8 103/8 105/8
(7” below waistline)
(includes an ease of ¼‟‟)
CAP HEIGHT 6 6 6 6 61/8 61/8 61/8
SHORT SLEEVE LENGTH 9 91/4 91/2 93/4 10 101/2 103/4
SLEEVE LENGTH 23 231/2 24 241/2 241/2 25 25

2.2.3 Sizes and Measurement

48
After learning how to measure a body and dress form, 2 questions come to the mind:
i. What is the size of an individual or dress form based on the measurements, and
ii. What size of the garment should be made that would fit the person correctly.

A general sizing system for apparel for a country is based ideally on the body
measurements taken from a cross section of the population.

Earlier one would go to a tailor to get clothes made to one‟s measurements. Now the
changing lifestyle and economy has created a growing demand for ready-to-wear
apparel (RTW) which has made standardized sizing systems very important.

Sizing systems are generally developed by the government or standardization

organizations that need to work out the standard sizes for the country. A large cross
section of the population is measured to establish the standardized sizing system for
the country. For example, British Specification for size designation of women's wear
is indicated by BS3666. This is the established sizing system for the British clothing
industry that is used by all the garment manufacturers and retailers in UK. The size is
suffixed with S or T which denotes whether it is for a short or tall person. Buyers in
UK can easily buy clothes in their size if they know their own size with certainty as
generally all the garments of that particular size would fit the person. A good sizing
system incorporates the variations in figure shapes of a country to meet the
requirement of its population.

There is wide variation in women‟s body shapes and sizes; two women with equal hip
girth can have a difference of as much as 12” in their bust measurement. On the other
hand, two women of equal bust girth may have completely different bodies. The sizing
systems for women are based on their bust measurement for an upper garment or hip
girth measurement for a lower garment.

Apart from the bust and hip girth variation another factor that influences the size is the
wearer‟s height. Most small manufacturers tend to ignore the difference in height and
produce garments for women who are taller than average so that most of the shorter
women can reduce the length as desired.

The number of available sizes in a sizing system depends on the variation in body
structures among the population. USA has maximum size variation available in the
market. In a country like India and USA the body types of people in various parts (in
India) and different ethnic groups (in USA) is so varied that the number of sizes in the
sizing system need to be expand more than three basic ones i.e. Small (S), Medium
(M) and Large (L). Sometimes Extra Small (XS) and Extra Large (XL) and
sometimes even XXL are developed. But in a country like USA, the women‟s sizes

49
begin with 2,4,6 etc. increasing to 26. There are also „Missy‟ and „Petite‟ which cater
to the medium and shorter women and „Tall and Big‟ for taller and bigger sizes.

In India currently there is no single standard measurement chart available. Individual

companies or businesses work out their own set of measurement charts based on their
customers or on the demand of the stores in which they sell their products. This
sometimes leads to confusion among customers as to which size they should buy.
Several agencies have been trying to work out the sizing and measurements.

Activity

Visit the market and check various womenswear brands. Check the following:
i. What are the different sizes you can identify.
ii. Try out garments in different styles and brands. Does the same size of different
brands/labelsfit the same way or is there a difference?

Fill in the blanks

a. Standard measurements are ________ in a ________ chart.
b. Country that has the most elaborate _________ ____is ______.
c. Sizing systems are ___________ by the __________ or standardization
organization for a country.
d. The standard sizes for the country are established by _________a ________ cross
section of the__________.
e. In UK British standards was established by ________ ______for the ________
Industry.
f. All garments manufacturers in UK market adhere to the___________.
g. The size is suffixed with S denotes _______and T for a ______ person.
h. Countries have different sizes and __________.
i. Two women with ________ hip girth can have a difference of ________ in their
bust measurement.
j. Generally _____ systems are based on _______ measurements for women.

Review Questions

1. What is a General Sizing System?

2. Who is responsible for developing the Sizing System?

50
2.3 TOOLS

2.3.1

51
52
Activity

Visit the school library and refer to books on pattern making.

 See the different kinds of pattern making tools you can identify.
 Try to find the tools on internet also.
 In your scrap book, state the uses of various tools

Fill in the blanks

a. Grading ruler is used for drawing ________ ______ & _____ _____ in making a
pattern.
b. The _________ curve is used for drawing the ________seam in a pattern.
c. _______ ___________is used for marking a seam line on a pattern.
d. The pattern is made on _________ paper and test fitted on ____________.
e. __________is used for marking notches on ______________.

Review Questions

1. Explain the use of French Curve as a Patternmaking tool

2. Explain the use of Tracing Wheel as a Patternmaking tool

1.4 Fit

2.4.1 Garment Fit

Apparel fit is the relationship between the size and contour of garment and those of the
human body. A well fitted garment is a garment that hangs smoothly and evenly on the
body with pleasing proportions, with no pulls or distortion of the fabric, even seams
with no gaping, no constriction of the body and adequate ease for movement. Hems
are parallel to the floor unless otherwise intended, and the garment armscye and crotch
seam do not constrict the body. Fit can be defined as a simple matter of length and
width in each part of the pattern that is correct for the human figure.

Fit refers to how a garment conforms to the three-dimensional human body. Good fit is
crucial for customer satisfaction. However, it is often easier to find clothes in the right
colours, prices and style than with good fit. The effect of a beautiful design in a
gorgeous fabric and exquisite workmanship is minimized if the finished garment does
not fit the wearer well. Fit problems may be caused due to weak design, or poor

53
quality of construction or the particular characteristics of the person‟s body. No two
bodies are alike; sometimes even the left and right halves of the same body are not
mirror images of each other.

New technology can overcome these problems. Three-dimensional optical

measurement of an individual‟s body can be done by advanced computer systems after
which the measurements can be converted into a computerized, individual pattern. A
man‟s suit designed by this method is ready to be cut and sewn within 7 minutes of
receipt of the measurements. The resulting garments fit accurately as the computerized
scanner detects subtle nuances in the shape of the body that ordinary measurement
systems are unable to read. These machines are very expensive and procurement takes
time.

There are varying opinions on what comprises a good fit. Personal preferences
regarding fit are governed by current fashion trends, cultural influences, age, sex,
figure type, and lifestyle. The intended end use of the garment also affects the desired
fit. For example, a person needs more ease in a tracksuit as active sportswear than for
spectator sports or sporty casuals as in the category of „Athleisure‟.

The relation between the size charts and body dimensions is not constant because of
the changes that occur in the population. Recent body surveys in UK, US, China,
Germany and other countries prove that a garment sizing system may not cover more
than the 25 per cent of the target population. Correct sizing is a prerequisite to good fit
and customer satisfaction. Fit is a function of sizing and it affects comfort, durability
of a garment.

2.4.1.1 Elements of Fit

Evaluation of Fit is based on five elements:

Grain:For a good fit the garment should be cut on graini.e. The right grain of the
fabric. An „ongrain’ garment hangs evenlywhen worn and appears balanced; if the
garment is offgrain, it will not hang evenly if each half of the garment behaves
differently wherethe seamlines may twist or hang unevenly. Deviation in the grain line
can be a result ofincorrect cutting or stitching or even due to a poor posture of the
wearer or figure irregularities that may interfere with the grain of the garment as it
hangs on the body.

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Set: This refers to a smooth fit without undesirable wrinkles. Wrinkles caused by a
poor set cannot be ironed out, but result from the way the garment fits the wearer. Set
wrinkles usually occur because the garment is too large or too small for the wearer and
the garment hangs or sags when worn.

Line: This refers to the alignment of the structural lines of the garment with the
natural lines of the body. Side seams of the garment should hang like a plumb line
down the centre of the side of the body i.e. should be perpendicular to the floor.
Similarly, the Centre front and Centre back should be at the centre of the front and
back of the body respectively, and be perpendicular to the floor. Darts and seams –
side seams/ shoulder seams should visually appear to be straight lines or follow the
body contour. Other seam lines such as necklines, waistlines, hiplines and armholes
should be gradually curving lines should be gradually curving lines. Poor design or
construction can result in an out of line garment. Even figure irregularities can distort
the lines of the garment.

Balance: When the garment is balanced, it is in equilibrium. The right and left side of
the garment appear evenly balanced or symmetrical when viewed from the front, back
or side. A skirt is balanced when the legs of the wearer are at the centre of the garment
without touching the front or the back hemline. Balance relates to the grain and line in
the garment. A garment is out of balance when it is cut off grain, causing it to hang
unevenly. Also, if the line of the garment does not follow the line of the body, its fall
will seem out of balance. Poor posture or lack of symmetry in the wearer‟s body are
other likely causes of imbalanced fall of the garment.

Ease: This refers to the amount of „roominess‟ in a garment. Ease is the difference
between the measurements of the body of the wearer and the measurements of the
garment. There are two kinds of ease:
 Fitting ease
 Design ease

Fitting ease of a garment is related to direct contact with the body and is responsible
for the comfort factor; design ease is for aesthetic appearance. A garment must contain
adequate ease beyond the actual measurements of the wearer to allow room for regular
movements of walking, sitting, reaching out and even breathing. Ease in this context is
called Fitting ease. Design ease is the extra fullness added to garment over and above
the wearing ease to create a certain silhouette or style. In other words, all garments
have fitting ease but design ease is optional as it is added purely for the appearance
and style of the garment.

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2.4.2 Evaluating fit

In evaluating the fit of the garment, all the sides of the garment must be examined. The
fitting should start from the top and move downwards. The analysis of fit is a complex
process and remains a challenge for both industry and customers. Apparel fit is a
complex issue but of great importance for judging perfect clothing appearance. The
use of technology such as a 3D simulated form, may lead to more efficient decision-
making in the process of product development and quality control.

The following body parts should appear as follows:

Shoulders: The shoulders should appear smooth and feel comfortable. Seam should
lie on top of the shoulder. In regular styles the arm scye seam should fall on edge of
the wearer‟s shoulder. The shoulders of the garment should be wide enough to let the
sleeves hang smoothly. If the shoulders are too narrow, the sleeves will pull across the
upper arm and cause wrinkles. If fashion trends require the shoulders to be narrow or
wider, the pattern still should allow sufficient ease of movement. The shoulder slope
of the garment should match the shoulder slope of the wearer.

Bust/Chest: If the garment is too small, the seams or closures at the centre front or
entre back will „pull‟ and gape open. A larger bust or highly developed chest often
causes the button closure to gape open at the centre front or back. A garment may ride
up because the larger bust curves takes up more length. A well-fitted dart always
points towards the fullest part of the of the body curve it is intended to fit. The tip of
the dart should end about an inch away from the fullest part of the curve. Darts that are
too short or darts that extend beyond the fullest part of the curve will result in a bubble
at the dart tip. Darts occurring anywhere in the garment follow the same principle. The
practice of eliminating darts to speed upgarment construction creates diagonal
wrinkles on the bodice front.

Neckline: Necklines should be large enough to fit without pulling or chafing but not
so large that it doesn‟t lie flat against the body in front and back. The front of the basic
neckline should always be lower than that of the back.

Collar: The most important factor affecting the fit of the collar is the neck
circumference. The circumference of the collar should be at least 1/4th of an inch
bigger than that of the neckline or just large enough for one to insert two fingers
between the neck and collar. A properly fitted collar should be smooth and stays in
place when the wearer moves. It should not be so tight that it pulls. A tight collar is
uncomfortable and makes the neck look large. Neither should it be so loose that it
gapes.

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Armscye: The armscye must fit well for the garment to be comfortable and attractive.
The circumference of the armscye should be large enough so they do not pull at the
front and back of the garment, but not so large that it gapes. In a well-fitted armscye,
the base of the armscye is cut close to the armpit, but not so close that it bites into the
armpit. It should be cut about an inch below the armpit. This provides adequate
comfort, room for movement, and close fit without wrinkles. If the armscye is too
tight, it becomes very uncomfortable. The front arm scye should be cut be more deeply
than at the back as most arm movements are towards the front direction.

Sleeves: Well-fitting sleeves are comfortable and look attractive. The circumference of
the basic sleeve should be loose enough so that it does not bind nor has wrinkles
horizontally around the arm. A tight sleeve apart from being uncomfortable makes
normal arm movements very difficult. Sleeves can be as loose as one wants. However,
the problem would be to wear the garment under a fitted jacket. A well-set jacket
sleeve hangs with a slight angle towards the front. The crosswise grain at the bicep
should lie parallel to the floor.

Waistline: Fit is essential for comfort. The waistline of the garment should not be so
tight that it binds and rolls. There should be ease for breathing and expansion after
eating; it should return to its position after the arms are raised or lowered. It should not
be so loose that it stands away from the body, droops, or adds bulk when a top or shirt
is tucked in or worn under another garment. The narrowest part of the garment should
fall at the wearer‟s waist. If there are buttons at the waist the garment should not pull
or strain at the closure. A jacket should be big enough at the waist so that a person can
sit even when it is buttoned.

Hips: The fit of the hip area is critical when fitting skirts or trousers. If there is
adequate room in the hip area other parts of the garment can easily be altered to fit.
Garments with enough room in the hip, thigh and abdomen area fit smoothly without
pulling, wrinkling or riding up. Pocket, pleats or vents that open up indicate that
garment is tight in the hip or abdomen area. If the garment has excess ease in hip or
thigh area it will result in vertical folds.

Crotch/seat: Bifurcated garments/ trousers require a well-fitted crotch for comfort. A

properly fitted crotch seam will not cut or constrict the wearer between the legs and
will conform to the shape of the buttocks. There should be slight but not excessive
ease in the crotch area. The crotch length generally has one inch of ease. The back of
the crotch seam should be longer and more deeply curved than the front as the
buttocks are fuller and more curved than the stomach. Bigger sizes require longer and
deeper curved crotch lengths at the back. Diagonal wrinkles radiating from the crotch

57
area are the result of the crotch curve not being long enough to accommodate the
fullness of the buttocks. Diagonal wrinkles in the front may also be due to a bigger
abdomen. Wrinkles emanating upward from the crotch area indicate that the crotch
length is too short and therefore too tight, resulting in chafing and discomfort.
Wrinkles emanating downwards from the crotch area indicate a low and loose crotch;
it bags and sags, restricts walking and has increased probability of ripping from the
strain of movement. If the rise may be lengthened or shortened, the waistband should
also correspondingly be raised or lowered. The rise should not be lengthened or
shortened in the crotch length as the same may lead to new problems.

Another important rule of the fit apart from knowing how to fit is when not to fit.
Clothes must not only fit but need to flatter as well. There is absolutely no need to fit a
garment so close to the body that it looks bad, also there is no need to stick to the
design if it does not flatter the body. The real expertise lies in the fact that there should
be a balance between the lines of the design and the lines of the figure. The ability to
do this is a skill that one learns by training the eye to see and judge what flatters the
body.

Fitting is like sculpturing it creates a three-dimensional form. To a frequently asked

question of how many times one should check the fit, the answer is as many times as it
takes to fit well.

2.4.3 Need to fit

Mathematical calculations and pattern corrections alone cannot guarantee the fine fit
of the garment. They can only provide an approximation of the needs of the figure.
The other points to be considered are:
 Suitability of the garment style for the wearer;
 Sufficient ease in the garment; and
 Body shape and posture of the wearer.

These criteria canbe evaluated only through a test fit. When in doubt, test fitting is a
must. As only minor changes can be made once the garment has been cut on the final
fabric, a test fit can save on wastage. Test fit is not necessary when:
 The design is basic or is a repeat of a style that has been made earlier,
 The designer or manufacturer has the experience of adjusting the pattern,
 There is sufficient material to re-cut the fabric, if necessary,
 There is sufficient seam allowance to increase the size, if required.

The most common fabric used for a test fit is muslin. Whether bleached or unbleached,
the test fabric should be of solid colour or muslin that is similar in weight to that of the
58
final fabric. Any other plain weave fabric like poplin in a similar weight to final fabric
would also do. A plain surface is recommended as the seams, darts and other style
details can be seen clearly. It is essential that the layout of the pattern, cutting and
marking of the test fit fabric with the same amount of care as you would your final
garment fabric.

Put the trial muslin together. The quickest way to get the effect of the finished garment
without actual stitching is to overlap and pin all the seams lines. Pinning gives the
same result and information, that one wants without going to the machine. It is faster
and easier to unpin and then re-pin than to rip the stitches and to re-stitch.

Pins should be placed at right angle to the seams as this not only puts the least amount
of strain or pull on the seam, but also does not let the seam gape. While test-fitting
trousers remember to use basting stitch at the crotch seam instead of pinning.

Check the test fit muslin and make necessary corrections till completely satisfied.
Mark the required corrections and transfer the same on the paper pattern because the
paper pattern is used to cut the final fabric and not the test fit muslin. Mark new
notches as the old ones may not hold good after the alterations. Check the lengths of
both the matching seams to ensure that the alterations have not created more problems,
e.g. if you have corrected the dart intake of side seam dart in the front, check to ensure
that both the side seams are still equal or not, and if required make the necessary
changes.

2.4.4 Methods of fit

There are two kinds of fits:

1. The first test fit is made on muslin at the time when the pattern is made. A basic
test fit is done to check the pattern fit wherein the pattern is cut with relevant seam
allowances and pinned in place for test fitting. Make sure that seams and darts are
in place. This fitting is always done from the right side of the garment, as it is
easier to make changes and corrections. These corrections become the new seam
lines for the garment. Check the garment for ease and fullness. It is important to
mark buttons and buttonholes at right places in this fit.

2. The second is after the garment has been stitched but before final finishing.
Stitch the garment with relevant interfacing or underlining in place. Press it well
and test fit to check the position of darts, seams, puckers if any, and locate the
position of outer seams. This type of fitting refines and perfects the fit of the
garment.

59
Refitting also becomes necessary when a garment is purchased and some alterations
are required to fit an individual‟s size and also if there are changes in the body size,
due to weight loss or gain, or if a younger person has gained height. The method of
refitting of a pattern, or a seam that needs alteration, depends on the type of the fitting
defect.

Activity1

Check your own wardrobe to identify various fit issues. Try out garments and see if
you can decide the methods of correcting them.

Activity 2

Collect pictures of various figure types from newspaper and magazines

Fill in the blanks

a. Fitting is like ____________it creates a _____ form.
b. Five elements of fit are _________, ________, ________,
_________& __________.
c. Ease is of _____ kinds, i.e. _______ & _________ ease.
d. ____________ occurs when _________ is in equilibrium.
e. The garment is called _______ grain if it is not cut on the
________ grain of the fabric and it would not _______ well.
f. The side seam of the garment should ____________ straight on the
_______ of the ______ _______ .
g. There are ________ methods of evaluating the ____ of the
garment.
h. Pins should be placed ______ to the ____ line, as there is _______
_______ of strain or pull on the ________.
i. Check the ______ muslin and make corrections till ______
satisfied, ______ all the __________corrections and ________ on the pattern.
j. _______ pulls in a garment indicate that the garment is
__________ and _______ folds indicate that it is _________.

Review Questions
1. Define Fit and identify elements of Fit
2. Differentiate between Test Fit and Garment Fit.

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2.5 Pattern Development

2.5.1 Basic Bodice

To develop pattern for basic Bodice for women wear use measurements from the given
chart or measure a dress form or a body. Take a paper, whose length is centre front
length plus 3” and width is half of the bust width plus 4”. Fold the paper lengthwise
and with fold on the left-hand side (away from you) mark a guideline 1” down from
the top edge, mark A as illustrated.
A to B = front length
A to C = B to D = front width (+1/2”ease to be added if measured on dress
form/body)
Join C to D
Mark D to E = centre front length
CE is front neck depth.
For neck width mark
CF = CE-1/8”
Square out lines from E &F.
Draw the neckline curves as illustrated, using a French curve.
G = mid-point of DE
GH = apex measurement
Square a line from H to I
Mark DJ = Centre front to princess line measurement
IK = I J, Join J and K to H
KL = Front waist line measurement minus DJ (+1/8”ease to be added if
measured on dress form/body)
LM = under arm seam length where M is on the fold line. Join as
illustrated
M to M1 = M1 to M2 = 2½” square out for guideline, as illustrated
B to N = Shoulder to waistline measurement (+3/4”ease to be added if
measured on dress form/body)
where N is on the fold line.
N to N1 = ½”

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Draw the front armhole curve as illustrated
Join F to N1
Mark F to F1 and N1 to O = ½ shoulder measurement

Join F1 to H and O to H.
Trace BD line, L M line and M M1 line on the other half of the paper.
Extend M M1 line on the second half of the paper.
Mark B to Z = Back width (+1/2”ease to be added if measured on dress
form/body)
Z to Y = Centre Back Length
Y to X = CF
X to W = 7/8”, draw the back neck line curve as illustrated.

62
Measures Z to L1 and from this measurement subtract back waistline measurement
(+1/8”ease to be added if measured on dress form/body). The difference is dart intake
at U.
Z to U = Centre back to princess line measurement.
Mark U to V = Dart intake, T is mid-point of U and V
Square out from T to S, Join S to U and V.
Mark Y R = ¼ Centre back length
RQ = Back shoulder blade measurement.
QQ1 = Draw 1” guideline, as illustrated.

Join W to N1 in front
W to P = ½ shoulder + 1/8”
P to P1 = ¾”
P1 to P2 = W to P (½ shoulder + 1/8”)
Joint P to S.
Join P1 to P3 such that P3 is 1”above the shoulder blade line (RQ).
Draw the armhole as illustrated.

63
Truing or correcting the lines or darts to conform to body shape or aligning the dart
legs and seams.

Front shoulder
Fold the shoulder dart at the apex, matching the two dart legs keeping the folded edge
towards the neckline. Join the neck edge with the armhole edge with the straight line
at the dart ends. Use a tracing wheel to trace out the folded edge.

Back shoulder
64
Fold the shoulder dart matching the two dart legs keeping the folded edge towards the
neckline. Draw the shoulder line with the help of the French curve as illustrated,
dropping 1/8” on the armhole edge.

Waist line
Fold both the waist line darts (by matching the dart legs) and also close the side seam,
keeping the pattern folded at the apex line. True the waist with help of a French curve,
blending the waist line darts and side seams. The side seam should be dropped ¼”at
the side seam, as illustrated.

2.5.2 Sleeveless bodice

For a sleeveless bodice, trace the basic bodice block is used. Change the armhole as
follows:
Go up ½" on the armhole level i.e. E and F and redraw the curves, as illustrated.

65
Activity

Collect pictures of garments which have been made using a basic bodice block, how
many have two darts and how many are without any dart. Maintain this information in
your scrap book.

Fill in the blanks

a. The waist of the bodice is ________ by closing _____ darts and then a ________
is drawn using a French curve.
b. The back shoulder line is drawn with help of ________ _______ by dropping
_____ on the _____ line.
c. The apex is marked at _____ of _______ ________.
d. Waist dart at the back is calculated by ________ the _______ _________
measurement from _______ _________.
e. Front waist dart is obtained by _________ out a line from _____ to ______ and the
distance between this point and center front to _______ is half of the dart.
f. For sleeveless garment go ½”_______ on the _____________ level.

2.6 Neckline

2.6.1 Neckline& its variations

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 There are number of variation in necklines that are possible to make once the basic
block has been drafted.
The measurement required for any neckline is the depth of the neck measured from
the nape of the neck point to the center front diagonally. (Neckline measurement A)

In case of necklines like square, glass neck, sweet heart measure in a straight line on
the body for the length and for the width of the neckline at that point to the center front
is also measured. (Neckline measurement B)

Points to be kept in mind for Necklines

1. If a neckline is made wider in the front, the same needs to be done for the back.
2. Try avoiding deeper neckline for both front and back at the same time. In case one
decide to keep the neckline deeper in both front and back then an ease of about ½"
needs to be taken out on the centre front neck.
3. The measurement which is taken diagonally should be marked diagonally on the
pattern and a measurement taken straight should be marked straight.
4. For curved neckline, always square out ¼" either side at center back and center front
and on shoulder level.

67
68
V-Neckline
Trace the neckline of bodice block with dotted line as illustrated.
Extend the Centre front line up to A.
From point A square out lines so that it touches the shoulder and neckline intersection
at B.
From B, mark BC = 7" down or as required diagonally.
BC is the new V neckline join with a slight curve.

Broad V-Neckline
In case, one needs a wider neckline mark BB' =1" or as desired and join B'C for front
neck with a slight curve.
If you want a deeper neck at the back mark BB' = 1 or as desired and draw B'C' as the
new back neck.
The neckline can be finished with either piping or facing.

U- Neckline
Trace the neckline of bodice block with dotted line as illustrated.
Mark the points AB as for V neckline.
From B measure diagonally down for the neck depth at centre front as required and
mark it as C.
From point C square out ¼".
From point B square down ¼". Join BC for a U neck as illustrated.
Finish the neckline as desired.

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Round Neckline
Round neck is a variation of U neck. It is cut wider at the shoulder and deeper at the
back.
Trace the front or back neck of the bodice as illustrated.
Mark the points AB as for V neckline.
For the front neckline, from B measure the neck depth as required and mark it as C.
From point B go out 2" or as desired to B'.
For the back neckline, from A mark C as desired for the neck depth. B B' is same as
front.
Square ¼" down from B' and square ¼" in from C.
Join B'C for the round back and front neckline as illustrated. Finish the neckline as
desired.

Square Neckline
Trace the neckline of bodice block with dotted line as illustrated.
Mark the points AB as for V neckline.
Square down from B to D as the side depth of the neck required or 5½". Square out
from D to C on the center front.
This is a basic square neck.
Finish the neckline as desired.
The neck can be widened as in the round neck.
If one feels that neckline is too wide, reduce CD as shown.
CD should be taken as ½ of the neckline width desired.

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Glass Neckline
Trace the neckline of bodice block with dotted line as illustrated.
Mark the points AB as for V neckline.
Square out 1" or as desired from C to D.
Join BD and DC with a straight line for the Glass neckline.
Finish the neckline as desired.

Sweet Heart Neckline

Trace the neckline of bodice block with dotted line as illustrated.
Mark the points AB as for V neckline.
From point B square down to D for the side depth of the neck required or 5".
Mark E on centre front, where CE = 3½" or as desired.
Join BD and DE with straight lines, for basic sweet heart neck.

Variation of Sweet Heart Neckline

Square a line at D about 1" on either side as shown.
Join BD' and D'E with curved lines for a curved variation.

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2.6.2 Finishing of neckline

Piping is a bias strip of fabric 1¼" wide and is attached to the neckline on the seam
line after stretching. The piping is finished either by hemming or machine stitch. It is
finished to about 1/8" - 1/4" wide ready on the right side of the garment. It is a
popular finish for blouses and other Indian garments.

Facings are of two kinds - bias facing and shaped facing.

Bias facing is a similar strip of fabric like piping but is attached to the neckline
without stretching. The same is finished completely on the wrong side.

Shaped facing – A shaped facing is cut following the shape of the neckline and is
attached on the right side and then is completely turned in. The width of this facing
varies for each design but is generally 1½" wide.

Activity

Collect pictures of various necklines and maintain this information in your scrap book.
Try making patterns of these necklines.

Activity

Draft a Sweetheart Neckline

Fill in the blanks

a. To ensure that the neckline doesn‟t end in a point go out _____ on _______
____________ of the bodice.
b. While making a neckline deeper in front it is ________ not to make the neckline
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 _____ and ________at back.
c. A _______neckline is drawn using a French curve.
d. The __________ facing is cut keeping the pattern of the _________ of the desired
piece.
e. The measurement required for any neckline is the depth of the neck measured
from the ______ of the _____ point to the center front of the ____________.

Review Questions

1. What are the measurements required to draft a neckline?

2. What are the different necklines that can be finished with Bias Facing?

2.7 Dart Manipulation

2.7.1 Introduction
Dart manipulation is a useful and interesting tool for pattern maker for creating
interesting, innovative dart placements and style lines. The change in the position of
the darts creates interest in the garments in different dart positions. The same can be
magnified by using similar technology on striped fabric where a dart gives a new
dimension to the striped pattern. The darts can be stitched as new darts, as style lines,
can be converted into tucks, pleats, gathers, yokes, etc. The basic fit of the garment is
not altered by these manipulations.

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There are two methods of dart manipulation
1. Pivot Method
2. Slash and spread method

Pivot Method
In the pivot method, the dart is pivoted on apex and dart is closed and pattern/sloper
opens on new desired line, the pattern itself spreads on the new position, to create the
new design.

2.7.2 Slash and Spread Method

In the slash and spread method, as the name implies the pattern/sloper is slashed or cut
on the desired line and as the old dart or excess or is closed, the pattern itself spreads
on the new position, to create the new design. Some of the new dart positions are
illustrated here.

Shoulder dart to waist

Take two dart basic block, slash the new dart position i.e. the waist dart. Fold and
close the shoulder dart. Trace the new pattern on separate sheet.

74
Waist dart to Centre Front

Take one dart bodice block. Slash the new dart position, close the old dart. Trace the
pattern on separate sheet.

75
76
Shoulder dart to side seam intersection

Take two darted basic bodice block. Slash the new dart position, close the old dart.
Trace the pattern on separate sheet.

Activity

Collect pictures of blouses with different darts and seam lines and maintain this
information in your scrap book. Try making patterns of at least five designs.

Fill in the blanks

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a. Dart manipulation is _________ _________ for pattern maker to create
____________ and ___________ designs for ___________ ___________.
b. A Dart is named after the __________________ it __________________.
c. A waist dart is a dart that starts from ____________ _________________.
d. Two methods of dart manipulation are _____________ & _____________.
e. In this method the old dart is ___________ and its suppression folded and the new
dart position is _________ and opened.

Review Questions

1. What is Dart Manipulation? Why is it important?

2. What are the different methods of Dart Manipulation?

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2.8 Skirt

2.8.1 Basic Skirt

To develop pattern for basic skirt for women wear use measurements from the given
chart or measure a dress form or a body. Take a paper, whose length is desired length
of the skirt plus 3” and width is half of the hip plus 4”.
Make a block A B C D E F where
A to B = back hip (+1/4”ease to be added if measured on dress form/body)
B to C = front hip (+1/4”ease to be added if measured on dress form/body)
A to D and C to F = Desired length, e.g. 21”.
A to G = C to H = 7”, hip level
Joint G to H. Mark I at side seam
B to B1 and B to B2 = ¾”
Mark I1, 2” above I.
Passing through B2 and B1, join I1 J and I1 K extending it 3/8” above the waistline, as
illustrated using hip curve.
A to A1 = ¼”
Join J to C, K to A1 as illustrated, using the hip curve ruler.
Measure J to C, K to A1 and note the measurement on paper, from this measurement
subtract the front and back waistline measurement respectively. The difference is the
dart intake for both front and back.

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Divide this excess into two darts for both front and back.
Draw a guide line parallel to the waist line at a distance of 3½” for front and 5 ½” for
the back,
Mark C to L = Centre front to princess line measurement
st
L to L1 = 1 dart (½ of the total dart intake for front)
L2 is midpoint of L, L1.
L1 to M = 1 ½”
nd
M M1, = 2 dart (½ of the total dart intake)
Mark A1 N = Centre back to princess line measurement
st
N to N1 = 1 dart (½ of the total dart intake for the back)
N1 O = 1 ½”
nd
O to O1 = 2 dart (½ of the total dart intake)

Find the midpoint of all the darts and draw a perpendicular line till the guideline. Join
these points to the dart point to form the dart legs.

Trueing
Fold the dart at vanishing point and true the waistline as illustrated raising the
waistline by ¼” -½” (when you true the waistline with the help of French curve it
automatically goes up) at the side seams. Drop back waist line by 1/8” at Centre back.

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2.8.2 One dart basic skirt

Use a basic skirt sloper that has two darts. Measure the dart towards the side seam and
st
add the measurement to the 1 dart i.e. towards the Centre Front or Back and eliminate
nd
the 2 dart. Note that the length of new waistline dart in the front is 5 ½” which is the
same as the back dart length. Find the mid-point of the new dart and mark the Centre
and true the waistline. This method is called measurement method and can only be
used in skirts/trousers, as there is no apex in lower half of the body.

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2.8.3 A-Line skirt

Take a one dart skirt sloper, and draw a slash line as illustrated (fig.2). Slash the line
and close a part of the waist dart, so that the ease is shifted to the hem. Add 1” - 1 ½”
on the side seam at hem line for A-line shape in the skirt as illustrated. Blend till the
hip level for both front and back and also blend the hem line.

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Activity

Collect pictures of skirts with different hemlines and maintain this information in your
scrap book. Try making patterns of at least five designs.

Fill in the blanks

a. A- line skirt has ________ fullness added to the _____ ______ of the skirt.
b. A single dart skirt is made by combining the _______ of the _____ dart skirt.
c. The length of the dart in the front in a single dart skirt pattern _______is in a two
dart skirt pattern is __________________
The difference in ________ of dart in a single and two dart skirts is because if a
dart is ________and bigger it will result in a __________________ at the dart
point.

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2.10 Collar

2.10.1 Principles of Collar Development

Collars are an added feature on the neckline which frame the face. It is one of the most
important details of the garment as it draws maximum attention. There are three
categories of collars:
• Stand collar
• Flat collar
• Roll collar

Stand collar
A Stand collar stands around the neck like Chinese or mandarin collar. It is cut after
measuring the neck edge of the pattern.

Flat collar
Flat collar lies nearly flat on the shoulder like the Peter Pan collar. Itis cut by tracing
around the neck edge of the basic bodice.

Roll collar
Roll collar is the variation of Stand and Fall collars where the collar stands around
the neck and the roll over to frame the face, like turtle neck.

Collars are always cut double. The collar that comes on the top is called Top collar
and the collar that comes under it is called Under collar. The Under collar is always
cut smaller, instructions are given later in the chapter.

Terminology for Collars

• Neckline Edge - Edge of the collar that is stitched to the neckline.

• Collar Edge - Outer edge of the collar and it is also called leaf edge.
• Collar Stand - Part of the collar that stands especially at the center back.
• Roll Line - Line of the collar on which the collar folds or rolls.

Activity
Collect pictures of blouses and dresses with different collars and necklines and
maintain this information in your scrap book. Try to make patterns of at least five
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designs of collars.

Review Questions

1. How is the Neckline Edge different from a Collar Edge?

2. Give an example each of Flat and Stand Collar.

Activity

Collect pictures of blouses and dresses with different collars and necklines and
maintain this information in your scrap book. Try making patterns of at least five
designs of collars.

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FASHION: DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW

Fashion is an ever changing and influential force that impacts our everyday lives. Our
lifestyle i.e. the way we live, what we eat, what we wear, and the activities we indulge in
and how we spend our leisure time are all manifestations of this dynamic force. Iconic
designer Coco Chanel famously said, ―Fashion is not something that exists in dresses
only. Fashion is in the sky, in the street, fashion has to do with ideas, the way we live,
what is happening.‖ Webster defines fashion as ―prevailing custom, usage or style‖.1
Fashion reflects a society‘s prevailing customs as well as its political, economic and
cultural state at any given point of time.

Fig 3.1 Women and home magazine September 1959 issue reflecting the
social lifestyle of the time

Fashion is much more than just clothes and accessories. Fashion is also the spirit and
creativity which goes into their creation, the economic aspect of manufacturing and
marketing, and the socio-cultural and psychology of wearing fashion.

3.1 CATEGORIES OF CLOTHING

The global clothing market is worth several trillion USD and employs millions of people
in different segments of design, manufacturing, technology and marketing. Fashion
producers fall into three basic categories: haute couture, ready-to-wear designer labels,
and mass-produced ready-to-wear. Haute couture producers are the established design

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houses that make very expensive garments customized for individual customers. Ready-
to-wear or pret a porter labels are designed by the in-house design team for large
corporate organizations or labels and manufactured with attention to style and quality in
standardized sizes. Mass-produced, ready-to-wear garments may be outsourced to
developing countries where the primary objective is per piece production at competitive
prices.

3.1.1 Haute Couture

Fashion leadership in customized, fine dressmaking started with a small group of French
fashion producers known as the ‗couturiers‘ (French for high-quality dressmaking or
high fashion) is the creation of exclusive, custom-fitted clothing.

When the numbers of haute couture designers grew, a trade association was formed to
determine the qualifications of a couture house and to deal with their common interests.
Consequently, La Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne was established in 1868.
Membership was, and still is, limited to couturiers who meet specified qualifications.
Members are required to abide by a set of rules laid down by the Chambre to control the
schedules of fashion shows, issues of originality, shipping dates and so on. French
nationality is not a qualification for membership to the Chambre. Several couturiers in
Paris are not French. NIFT alumnus Manish Arora is a member of La Chambre Syndicale
de la Couture Parisienne and presents his collections regularly at Paris Fashion Week.
Members show their exclusive collections twice a year in January for the Spring/Summer
and in July for the Autumn/Winter seasons. Paris haute couture continues to hold its pre-
eminent position and is an industry unto itself, not as profitable as pret a porter i.e.
ready-to-wear but very important from the prestige point of view.

The other important couture industry is in Italy. Italian couture was organized after World
War II along the same lines as Paris but on a much smaller scale. The Italian counterpart
of the governing organization is the Camera Nazionale dell’ Alta Moda Italiana. The
Italian houses are not congregated in a single city but are located in three cities—Rome,
Florence and Milan. The experience of Italian couture has been similar to that of the
Paris. As couture prices are prohibitively high for most potential customers, this has
resulted in a dwindling clientele and largely unprofitable couture operations. A
substantial share of the income for these design houses comes from their ready-to-wear
sections, franchised boutiques, and the licensing fees from perfumes, accessories and
other goods to which the designer name adds prestige. The exclusivity of couture makes
it both special and very expensive. The daily use items, on the other hand, are more
accessible; they satisfy the aspiration of the general customer who wishes to possess a
quality brand name product at an affordable price.

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3.1.2 High Fashion Ready-to-Wear

Garments in varied sizes ready to be purchased off the rack, were originally a
supplementary line of a few couture houses. However, this segment has steadily grown
into a full-fledged industry for designers and brands across the world. Contributing to its
development are the ready-to-wear labels who began to attract the attention of local and
foreign buyers by developing distinctive signature styles that were different and,
certainly, lower in price than the couture. Gradually couture designers expanded their
range to prêt a porter. Some high fashion ready-to-wear labels are labels such as DKNY
by Donna Karan, Miu Miu by Prada, Pleats Please by Issey Miyake and others. Each
designer has a distinctive style and creates two or more collections every year. These
designers may have their own manufacturing facility or arrangements with manufacturers
of high quality apparel. Many of these ready-to-wear designers have been designated as
‗createurs’ by the Chambre Syndicale and have been admitted as members.

The ready-to-wear industry developed in other fashion cities too. Promotional activities,
such as trade shows and trade fairs are organized at least twice a year for Spring/Summer
in August September and Autumn/Winter in February March in key cities across the
continents which attract buyers and visitors for trends for the upcoming seasons. There
are many RTW trade fairs each season across many countries.

3.1.3 Mass-produced, Ready-to-wear garments: Off-Shore Manufacturing

Ready-to-wear garments are produced in large quantities in low wage countries at very
low costs. As skilled labour and infrastructure are very expensive in Europe, UK, Japan
and the USA, the apparel industry outsources its manufacturing to other countries where
the labour force is highly skilled but their wages are low.

Asian countries such as China, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand,
Mauritius and Malaysia are the centres for mass production. In South America, Mexico is
the prime centre; in Europe, Poland, Portugal and Turkey are important clothing
manufacturing countries. These countries mass produce low cost ready-to-wear garments
and accessories for Western markets. The clothes are sold at very affordable prices to the
buyers of departmental stores in different countries.

Mass-manufactured garments are usually simplified knock-offs of the upmarket brands.

Every effort is made by the producers to cut down on the costs of manufacture so as to
produce in large quantities to bring down the per unit cost, making inexpensive apparel
for the masses. In the recent past, China has emerged as a mega-production giant, selling
producing and selling merchandise at unbeatable, competitive prices.

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3.2 FASHION CAPITALS

History shows that fashion emerged from the courts and royal patronage. Cities such as
Milan, Rome, Venice, London, Paris, New York, Madrid and Barcelona became fashion
capitals due to the cultural power that these places exerted at certain points of time. The
aura and allure of Paris as the fulcrum of couture and high fashion continues to reinforce
its pre-eminent position as a fashion capital and draws international designers to present
their collections. A fashion capital, therefore, is a city that is important for the fashion
industry in which the activities of production, retail of fashion goods, hosting of fashion
events and business-related trade fairs take place. A fashion capital has a distinctive
culture that inspires not only the fashion professionals but also the citizens of the country.
The principal ‗Big four‘ fashion capitals of the world are London, Milan, New York and
Paris. However, the reach of the internet and global connectivity at the click of the button
have been instrumental in sharing information which has led to the emergence of other
fashion centres around the globe which include Tokyo (Japan), Shanghai (China),
Mumbai and Delhi (India), Toronto (Canada), Dubai (UAE), and Düsseldorf (Germany).

3.2.1 London

British fashion is synonymous with traditional styles with impeccable tailoring as well as
Bespoke (custom) tailoring for men. Simultaneously, British fashion is also known for its
unconventional creativity and expression of individuality through Street fashion. British
ready-to-wear fashion began in Carnaby Street, London and reached high popularity in
the 1960s.

Fig. 3.2 The Strand Building, London. Venue of London Fashion Week 2018

The unprecedented, uninhibited and colourful styles of the decade began with the Mod
style followed by Hippie fashion in London. The trendy ‗mini length‘ created by fashion

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designer Mary Quant represented the free-spirited attitude of the times. Short dresses
with prints ranging from floral and paisley to geometric and black/white graphics,
culottes, PVC raincoats with high boots were worn by the trendy young generation on the
streets. These styles filled the stores and boutiques throughout London and other parts of
UK. The fashion influencers in the past and present include supermodel Twiggy, late
Princess Diana, Kate Middleton - Duchess of Cambridge, Editor-in-chief of Vogue Anna
Wintour. Designers such as Zandra Rhodes, Vivienne Westwood, John Galliano,
Alexander McQueen, Stella McCartney have made indelible impressions on fashion
followers across the world.

3.2.2. Milan
Italian style is characterized by classical aesthetic appeal with practicality, as seen in their
lifestyle product design and fashion. Italy‘s strength and competitive advantage in fashion
derives from its high-quality fabric, fine workmanship and the elegant styling of
knitwear, sportswear and accessories particularly leather shoes and bags.
The Italian ready-to-wear fashion industry developed along with its couture industry, but
the former started exporting earlier than the couture. Italian goods command a very high
value in the country and in foreign markets because of their product quality based on the
excellent standard of their design aesthetics and the high quality of Italian textiles. Even
today, the fashion industry thrives on the support of the Italian government. Milan has
become the major staging ground for Italian ready-to-wear shows. In fact, many ready-
to-wear companies in Florence have relocated to the north, and they show both in Milan
as well as in their home-base, Florence.

Fig. 3.3 Spazio Cavallirizze inside the Leonardo da Vinci National Museum of Science
and Technology. Venue of Milan Fashion Week 2018

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3.2.3 New York
American fashion is practical and wearable, aimed at the average consumer. The
American design approach has always been to address the needs of the customers who
need clothes that make them look good, feel comfortable and appropriate for their
lifestyles. In doing so, the U.S. earned the reputation of being the first country to create
active and casual sportswear. The contribution of Claire McCardell, Donna Karan and
Anne Klein to the ready-to-wear fashion of sporty casuals include jeans, wrap skirts,
jogging pants, sweatshirts, body suits and track suits, is widely recognized.

The New York fashion district is the business capital of fashion where most leading
fashion designers have their offices. Twice a year, the members of the international
fashion industry come together in midtown Manhattan to conduct business worth billions
of dollars. They scout for new ideas, new designers and, above all, are alert to a unique
commodity—the reality factor. American fashion designers are also excellent marketers
who sense the pulse of customers and proactively cater to their desires and lifestyle
choices. The American textile industry has through its research and development
initiatives, created several innovative fibers and fabrics that have revolutionized the
fashion scene. Nylon, polyester and lycra have become household terms across the world.

Fig. 3.4 Spring Studios, New York. Venue of New York Fashion Week 2018

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3.2.4 Paris

The style of the French royalty has been admired and emulated for many centuries. In the
18th century Rose Bertin, dressmaker to the Queen Marie Antoinette, was named the
Minister for Fashion. The position was retained even in the Napoleonic era.

The idea of fashion where the royal and rich families telling the designers what they
wanted to wear, changed in the 19th century. It was, surprisingly, Charles Fredrick Worth
an Englishman working in Paris who became the father of modern fashion design when
he created a line of couture gowns based on his original ideas and put his name on them,
thus starting the first design label. He went a step further, by displaying these gowns on
live models so that potential customers could see and then decide. This novel idea was a
success and designers began to increasingly create fashionable clothes in advance.

From then on, it was understood that any designer who wanted to be a success had to be
in Paris and become part of a couture house or establish their own. For women
throughout the western world, Paris was the epicentre of fashion presented through
fashion shows. All fashion magazines were either based in, or looked at Paris for design
directions. Paris has been home for the most influential designers like Chanel, Dior, Saint
Laurent who changed the perception of not how just women looked but the way world
viewed them. A designer, in order to cement the hold on the customer base, progressively
adapts to shifts in the customer profile. Hence the obvious extension to couture was
introduction of designer RTW labels, licensing of perfumes, accessories and other
products.

Fig. 3.5 Eiffel Tower. Venue of Saint Laurent S/S 2018 show at Paris Fashion Week

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3.2.5 Tokyo

Until quite recently, Japan had been associated with traditional clothes. The Japanese
production industry has transformed by developing a unique style that blends traditional
Japanese aesthetics and garment making interpreted through modern design approach.
Today, the fashion industry in Japan is at the top of the list of growth industries including
fashion. Some Japanese designer labels are famous for their conceptual approach. For
example, the Comme des Garçons label by Rei Kawakubo and Y’s label by Yohji
Yamamoto are known for their unique designs. In order to capture the world market,
Japan lays emphasis both on its textile and apparel industries. The Japanese designers
participate in international trade shows and have offices in Europe and in New York.

Fig 3.6 Shibuya Hikarie, Omotesando Hills. A venue of Tokyo Fashion Week 2018

The bi-annual couture and prêt a porter shows held in Paris, London, Milan and New
York are the sources of fashion trends. At the time of the shows all the partners in the
fashion value chain—the fabric manufacturers, garment manufacturers, buyers, retailers
and fashion editors attend the shows or trade fairs to preview the new styles.

After the shows, the fashion editors select the styles that they consider to be prophetic,
and feature the stories with glossy pictures in fashion magazines and newspapers as the
upcoming trends. This is how consumers become aware of the latest trends. The retailers
and manufacturers rely on professional trend analysis by trend analysts and agencies.
Based on their experience of trade analysis, the forecasters are able to corelate the
changing lifestyles of the consumers to the sub-trends for various market segments. The

87
preferences and aesthetics of the American consumer, for example, are different from the
Italian or British consumers. The trend forecast books predict the colour palette, fabric
trends, surface treatments, silhouettes and design details for the next season.

3.2.6 Emergence of India as a Fashion Centre

India‘s emergence as an economically strong country in the last decade is attributed to its
colossal Information Technology industry, back office operations for the international
market and opening of its markets to foreign companies and brands. The increase in the
annual income of the average household led to an increase in the purchasing power of its
population.

In terms of fashion, there has been a rise in the requirement for formal office wear, casual
wear, club wear, and formal ethnic wear. The access to global fashion through the
internet and social, has surrounded the Indian consumer with the influence of
heterogeneous cultures, within which emerges the need to establish an individual identity.
India‘s history is associated with heritage weaves, artisanal crafts and skilled labour. This
has led to establishing design labels that leverage these strengths that are sought by
Indian consumers, the Indian diaspora and global buyers. Fashion labels like Sabyasachi
Mukherjee, Manish Arora, Rahul Mishra, péro etc. have global presence. In India,
fashion weeks produced by FDCI in Delhi and Lakmé in Mumbai, give a platform to
emerging and established designers to showcase their talent. The fashion market, though
nascent in India, has grown over the years as it allows entry to international retail brands.
These business opportunities and challenges are changing the organizational structure and
working of the Indian fashion industry.

GLOSSARY

 Fashion Capital: A city which is a major centre for the fashion industry for
activities of production, retail of fashion goods, hosting of fashion events and fashion
trade fairs for generating significant business generation.
 Avant garde: Styles that are designed to be ahead of their time
 Haute Couture: French word for high-class dressmaking
 High-end Ready-to-Wear labels: Labels and products created by designers known
for their creative designs, fine quality and availability in standardized sizes.
 Mass-Produced, Ready-to-Wear: Garments that are manufactured in factories that
often pay low wages to lower production costs. The primary objective is per piece
production at a competitive price.
 Off-shore manufacturing: Production of goods in countries beyond the geographic
boundary of the retailing company

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 Boutique: An exclusive retail outlet specializing in high/ elite fashion and lifestyle
products such as clothing and jewelry
 Street fashion: Offbeat fashion inspired by contemporary culture rising from urban
streets

Exercise 3.1
Fill in the blanks:

1. ................................ is a French word for high-class dressmaking.

2. ................................ is a French word for ready-to-wear garments.
3. ..................., ......................, ......................... and ........................ are the four
most important fashion capitals of the world.
4. .............................. is the oldest fashion capital.
5. ………………….. is the business capital of fashion.
6. ………………………… was named the Minister of Fashion in 18th century
France.
7. Production of goods in countries beyond the geographic boundary of the
retailing company is called ......................................
8. ................... is a small shopping outlet, that specializes in elite and
fashionable items which are sold at higher prices.
9. ..................... and .......................... are two reasons which offer Indian
designers extra mileage to create their exclusive collections.
10. Introduction of mini-skirts to women's wardrobe can be credited to the
designer named ...........................
11. ......................... is the country which can be credited for introducing casual
and sportswear garments in the fashion industry.
12. Fashion products fall into basic categories of ..................., .................. and
..................
11 ................... refers to those styles/ fashion that are designed to be ahead of
their time

Review Questions

1. Name the ‗Big Four‘ fashion capitals of the world

2. Write short notes on any two fashion capitals of the world and their
contribution to the fashion industry.
3. How has France sustained its position as the centre of couture fashion?
4. Name a few emerging fashion centres around the globe.
5. What are the reasons which have contributed to the emergence of India as a

89
 fashion centre?
6. State the difference between haute couture and high-fashion ready-to-wear
apparel.
7. Who are the Haute Couture producers?
8. Why was the French Trade Association formed?
9. Name the 3 cities where Italian fashion houses are located.
10. Why do Italian garments command a high price?
11. What is British fashion famous for? Name the British fashion designers and
fashion icons who were influential in the 1960s.
12. What are the reasons for outsourcing the manufacturing of garments?

Activity

Fashion reflects a society's customs prevailing at a particular point of time. This

exercise is designed to enable the students to explore popular fashions from 1950s to
1980s, thus helping them understand the prevalent political- economic - cultural
state during the mentioned decades.

From the internet, magazines or newspapers collect pictures of the decades from
1950s to 1980s in the categories of:
a. Women‘s fashion
b. Interior décor/fashion

Place them in your scrap book and write 10 bulleted points for each.

3.3 INTRODUCTION TO MENSWEAR

‗Women are fashionable but men are not‘ is a popular, though erroneous notion which
stems from the presumption that men dress only for the comfort and functionality, not for
the style or fashion, as is presumed for women. It is inaccurate to assume that fashionable
men are frivolous. Certain professional fields such as advertising, theatre, architecture
and fashion are perceived to be more creative than banking, law, medicine and corporate
business. These latter professionals are, on the other hand, more highly placed and
valued in society than those in the ‗creative‘ fields. This has led to the categorization of
those in the scientific and pragmatic professions as intellectual and serious, and the
creative vocations as more idiosyncratic, and therefore less ‗serious‘.

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In the Western world until the mid-twentieth century, the average man‘s wardrobe had
limited options with dark suits with matching waistcoats, several white shirts and a
selection of ties in sombre colours. After World War II there was a change as men
wanted to live life to its fullest, preferring fewer working hours and more time for family-
oriented leisure activities. This led to the need for sports and leisure wear. By the 1960s,
the popularity of music groups such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Supremes,
and The Doors sparked demand for greater variety, faster change and new opportunities
to express individuality. Menswear continued to experience dramatic changes throughout
the 1970s and 1980s influenced by the corporate culture of multinational companies in
Information Technology, banking and service provider sectors that emphasize on the
professional appearance of the employee. The characteristic corporate look was the
formal suit accessorized with a necktie. In the late 1980s, the concept of Friday dressing
was introduced to the corporate sector in USA which suggested a relaxed dress code in
offices on Fridays. This led to an attitudinal shift in appropriate office wear for men.

Periodically, functional military uniforms and industrial workwear have also inspired
brands. An example is denim jeans, originally worn by the gold miners of California in
the 1850s as they needed clothes made from strong, durable fabric. Over time, jeans have
transformed from their workwear status to a staple, must-have item that is extremely
versatile in style and cutting across the socio-economic divide. Menswear now offers
more scope for individuality while catering to differences in preferences based on
consumer lifestyles and personalities. For example, the junior men‘s fashion is influenced
by and reflective of attitudes towards sports, music channels and fashion icons.

3.4.1 Categories of Menswear Clothing

Menswear clothing can be divided into the following categories:

 Casual wear clothing can be worn during leisure activities or informal occasions.
Examples of such clothes are T- shirts, jeans, cargo pants, shorts etc.
 Sportswear clothing is worn either while playing a sport or may be inspired from
any sports activity. These are informal, interchangeable separates. These clothes may
not necessarily be worn only while playing a sport but may be flaunted even while
watching it. Basketball T- shirts, tennis skirts, jogging pants etc are examples of
sportswear garments.
 Active sportswear clothing is worn specifically while participating in a sports
activity like swimming, scuba diving, hiking, skiing etc. Examples of such garments
are swimming costumes, hiking pants, ski jackets etc.
 Outer wear clothing is designed to be worn over other garments, when outdoors.
Overcoats, cloaks, jackets, raincoats, robes etc. are some examples of outerwear

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 garments.
 Formal wear clothing is worn during formal office situations or specific formal
occasions. They can be ethnic or western. Ethnic category may include sherwani,
kurta, churidar, dhoti and pyjama. Western category may include formal or dress-
shirts, trousers, jackets and suits. However, with globalization the distinction
between ethnic and western is being blurred with versatile garments like Jodhpur
pants and Nehru jackets that bridge these categories.

Fig 3.7 A contemporary menswear collection demonstrating variation in

traditional Jodhpuri trouser and bandhgala jacket

3.3.1.1 Classic Shirt and its types

The shirt is a very important garment in the menswear wardrobe. Shirts cover the upper
half of the body. Shirts are styled to emphasize the neck, shoulders, chest, biceps and
waist. A shirt may be cut so as to be body hugging or cut straight from the arms to the tail
or in a number of styles.

 The collar is a very important detail in the shirt as it adds to the personality of the
wearer. There are a variety of collar designs, such as the band collar, shirt collar,
wing collar, buttoned – down collar etc. The width of the collar can also be styled to
create different looks.
 Shoulder details like epaulets and a shoulder yoke can create the impression of
broad shoulders.

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 Shirt sleeves can be short or long. A variety of cuff designs can also be added to the
sleeve edge. Shirts without sleeves are also available. The shirt hem can be straight
or curved. The front placket of the shirt can be visible or concealed, single or double
stitched.

Some examples of shirt types are:

A Dress shirt is usually of a light colour, and is designed specifically to be worn with
ties and suits.

The Oxford buttoned-down shirt is suitable for a crisp formal look. The Oxford is
usually made in solid colours, typically pastel or mid-tones, in pin stripes and small
checks.

The Hawaiian shirt is loose and airy and half sleeved, made of large foliage prints in
bright, cheerful coloured cotton fabrics.

A T-shirt is a casual shirt with or without a collar and made of knit fabric.

Fig 3.8 Parts of a shirt

3.3.1.2 Bottom wear - Trousers

Trousers are bifurcated garments for the lower half of the body. They may be cut to be
straight legged, flared or pegged, with hemlines that may be narrow or wide, flared, or
cuffed. In general, straight leg trousers are designed to fit the body comfortably, but not

93
tightly. Pants can be flat front or pleated to give different looks and fits. The waist may
be cut high or low, with a button or zipper. The fabrics used for trousers may have the
property of stretchability by combining elastic yarn with cotton yarn during weaving.

For casual slacks, chino fabrics are more popular than denim. Pockets and stitch details
are prominent.

Dress trousers are made of fine wools and blends. Both pleats and cuff details are
optional. Popular pocket styles are cross, slit and welt pockets that are understated.

Baggy trousers are loose around the hips narrowing down at the bottom. They usually
have deep pleats at the waist for additional volume and ease.

Cargo pants are inspired by military uniforms with large utility pockets. They are
characterized by camouflage – inspired prints.

Jeans are the most popular casual bottoms made of denim, worn by men and women.

Shorts

Shorts are informal bottoms that reach the mid-thigh or knees. They started in Europe
and were known as Knee breeches. Originally developed for use by the military, shorter
pants were a way to keep heavily packed and armed soldiers cool while serving in
tropical climates. The style spread to the civilians who began to wear these so-called knee
trousers as casual wear. Many prep schools and public schools adopted it as a standard
uniform for their students, a tradition that still continues today throughout much of the
world. Some style variations of shorts are:

Tennis Shorts were originally worn during tennis matches. These shorts are usually
above the knee with pleated waist detail for maximum ease of movement

Running shorts are short, yet somewhat loose fitting. Made of flexible, lightweight
materials allow the wearer to run effortlessly.

Bermuda shorts taper down to reach the knee caps. They generally have minimal
extraneous detail.

Cargo Shorts also known as Safari shorts, are khaki shorts that have more than four
pockets, often with flapped pockets on the sides of the leg. They are practical for

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camping and wilderness activities where tools such as a compass, pocket knife are
required.

3.3.1.3 Suit

The suit is often a two-piece ensemble worn with a shirt. A suit with an added waistcoat
makes it a tuxedo. The suit can be styled to give a formal, executive or evening look or a
casual, sporty look. A suit may be single breasted or double breasted depending on the
extent of the overlap of the front panel and position of the buttons.

When made in suiting fabrics, the suit looks formal. If double-breasted, it can look
casually elegant. A dress shirt and accessories such as an elegant tie and cuff links,
further enhance the formal style.

When coordinated with a polo neck knit or a T- shirt, the suit takes on a sporty look.
Lightweight, summer fabrics in lighter hues give, the suit a less formal look. Coordinated
with a stripe or check shirt, a suit looks decidedly casual.

Fig 3.9 Two piece suit Fig 3.10 Three piece suit

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3.3.2 Colour in Menswear

Colour is the most important design element in menswear. The preferred colours by men
are in the cool range of blues and greens with neutrals such as off-whites, browns, and
greys that are perceived as ‗masculine‘ and ‗objective‘. (On the other hand, the
‗feminine‘ colours are considered to be mostly from the warm spectrum and are thus
classified as ‗subjective‘.)

Colour is often inseparable from pattern. Even solid colours can appear patterned when
combined with other solid colours that create striped and checked patterns. Plaids and
stripes, though not exclusively masculine, have stronger male identification than floral or
dots which are generally perceived to be more feminine.

3.3.3 Fabrics in Menswear

Fabrics for menswear are usually stable (non-stretchable), ‗masculine‘ and formal as
compared to womenswear. Traditionally, fabric manufacturers producing fabric for
menswear did not venture into womenswear because the needs of the two markets were
very diverse, though occasionally they seem to take ideas from each other.

Lightweight shirting fabrics are usually in pure cottons, cotton blends, linen, silk, wool
and wool blends. Suiting and trouser fabrics are heavier, usually blended for desired
quality and comfort. With quality upgradation through technology, fabrics have become
lighter and more supple, with possibility of different types of surface finishes to make
them wrinkle free, stain resistant, waterproof and anti-static.

3.4 Indian menswear fashion market today

The menswear market includes casual wear, active wear, formal wear and outer wear.
The awareness of good quality among the consumers has led international and national
brands to focus on not only on metros but also on smaller cities referred to as Tier II and
Tier III cities. The increase in disposable income and willingness to spend more has also
expanded the menswear market. Some of the key players of the indigenous menswear
market are Madura Fashion and Apparel, Arvind Ltd., Raymond, Provogue India Ltd.,
Indian Terrain Fashions Ltd. etc.

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 Fig 3.11 Indian interpretation of a Suit made of tussar silk

GLOSSARY
 Shirts: A garment to cover the upper torso.
 T - Shirt: A casual shirt with or without a collar, made of knit fabric.
 Trousers: Bifurcated garment for the lower half of the body.
 Suit: A two-piece garment worn with a tailored shirt

Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks:

1. The menswear apparel category can be divided into..........., ................, ............,

................. and .....................
2. ................................was a popular group of music band which had mass fan
following in the decade of 60s bringing a dramatic change in the menswear
dressing.
3. .............. and ............... are examples of garments fusing ethnic and western
sensibility.
4. ................... added to a two piece suit makes it a three piece suit.
5. .................., ..................., and .................. are three commonly used fabrics for
menswear casual pants.
6. ................., .................... and .................... are commonly used patterned fabrics for
menswear shirting, created by the combination of colours.
7. Three collar variations for menswear shirts are .............., ............... and ...............
8. ........................ are buttoned flaps in a shirt on either side of the shoulder.
9. ............... is a look marked by wearing suits, shirts and trousers, accessorized with

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 ties.
10. The concept of ...............was introduced by corporate industry in the US to relax
the uptight dress code in offices.
11. A ........... is a casual shirt with or without a collar and made of knit fabric.

Review Questions:
1. In the 20th century, menswear experienced dramatic changes in their wardrobe.
Give reasons for these changes
2. Write short notes on the different categories of men‘s clothing.
3. Write a short note on ethnic clothing for men.
4. Write a short note on the factors that have influenced menswear clothing.
5. Name the fabrics preferred for men‘s clothing.
6. Name the types of shirts
7. Differentiate between a shirt and T-shirt
8. What fabric can achieve good fit and comfort fir trousers?
9. What are the categories of the menswear market?

Activity:

In order to cater to the specific needs of menswear apparel market the clothing is divided
into casual wear, sportswear, active sportswear, formal wear and outer wear categories.
Since clothing is specific to an occasion, the understanding of these categorizations is
important. The activity is designed to enhance the student's ability to analyze the clothing
and objectively place them under the defined heads.

Collect pictures from internet, magazines or newspapers of:

a. Casual wear
b. Sports wear
c. Active sportswear
d. Outerwear
e. Formal wear

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3.5 INTRODUCTION TO WOMENSWEAR

Chanel also proclaimed, ―Dress shabbily and they remember the dress; dress impeccably
and they remember the woman.‖ Womenswear has always been at the centre stage of
fashion.

3.5.1 Society and Development of Womenswear

Fashionable clothing in the past was custom-made by local tailors and dressmakers. Most
women could cut and sew garments for the family. To help women engaged in sewing at
their homes, several womenswear magazines began to include sewing instructions.
Gradually paper patterns for fashionable styles in graded sizes became available. The
introduction of the domestic sewing machine revolutionized domestic manufacturing of
clothes by substantially reducing the long hours of laborious hand sewing. Home
dressmaking continued for a long time.

At the turn of the 20th century, women began to emerge outside their homes and began to
work as governesses, teachers and typists. With the increase in scope of their activities,
the need for ready-to-wear clothing arose. This social change naturally led to a gradual
shift away from the elaborate clothing and hair styles of the past towards simpler
silhouettes. The experience of mass manufacturing of uniforms for men and women
during the two world wars facilitated the preparation of size charts. This coincided with
the development of manufacturing facilities for large scale production of ready-to-wear
garments. The fact that new clothing was much easier to produce and was therefore, more
affordable contributed to its wide acceptance in society. In the post-World War period,
women began to excel in multi-tasking, handling their official work with responsibilities
of their home and children simultaneously. Appropriate dressing for the workplace with
hectic schedules led to the need for easy-to-wear, comfortable clothing.

Trends in Womenswear

The development of trend forecasting where future trends are predicted for a particular
season enables the designer, fabric manufacturer, garment manufacturer and retailer to
plan the design and production of garments at least 18 months in advance of the target
season. The general trends are analyzed by individual companies to create a collection
suitable for their company and target clients. In India, brands like Van Heusen Woman,
Allen Solly etc. offer fashionable workwear collections for all sizes. The introduction of
fashionable apparel for ‗plus size‘ women and maternity wear has addressed the need and
therefore has acquired wide acceptance.

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3.5.2 Indian Womenswear

Indian womenswear continues to be largely driven by Indian aesthetics infused with

influences from history, textile and handcrafting heritage, or from western influences. In
several Indian regions, the women have traditionally worn draped styles. It is in the last
200 years that sari of 51/2 yards to 8 yards, is draped in its present avatar and worn with a
stitched ‗choli‘ or blouse.

During the Mughal rule, stitched garments such as salwar kameez, kalidar kurta, pyjama,
sharara and gharara were introduced. The karigar who could be a weaver, tailor or
embroiderer, was specially brought in from other countries to make garments for the
Mughal royalty. They settled down in India for several generations and never went back,
which also explains the reason for the finest tailors and embroiderers belonging to the
Muslim community today. The Moghul style is very feminine, elegant and dignified. The
beautiful embroideries done by muslim karigars such as chikankari, aari, kashidakari etc
further enhance the beauty and richness of the style and in the process influenced the
Indian saris.

Fig 3.12 A contemporized variation in traditional Kalidar Kurta and Churidar for women

Another influence on dressing style of Indian women was of the British. Indian tailors
learnt to stitch garments with design details adopted from the clothes worn by the wives
of the British officers stationed in India. An example is of the saree blouse that was cut
like a shirt with a band collar or small Peter Pan collar worn by the saree-clad Indian
women. Another example is of the handmade lace attached at the hemlines of saree

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petticoats that resembled the white on white embroidered skirts of the British ladies.
However, it must be noted that the British influence on women‘s clothing was relatively
limited as compared to that of menswear.

Modern Indian womenswear expresses the seamless co-existence of indigenous Indian,

Mughal and western styles.

3.5.3 Elements of Design in Womenswear

The three key elements that comprise a garment are its colour, silhouette and fabric.

Colour

Colour prediction in womenswear is very important. Every season the palette has four
groups—pastel, neutral, bright, and deep colours. It starts with the overall mood, and it is
this that determines the colours, tones, the texture of the colour, the accents in the four
stories, for example, whether it will be a vintage washed-out palette for one season or
fresh and soft colours for the next. Emphasis on metallic and shine impacts significantly
on the colour quality; these elements are very different in their effect from natural or
rustic colours and textures.

Fig 3.13 Swatch board with floral prints and stripes for womenswear

In womenswear, printed and woven designs, embellishments and trim details are
important elements of the overall design.

Prints and woven designs can be in a variety of patterns: small, delicate florals like Laura
Ashley prints; large floral in bold colours or soft water colours; geometric designs, such

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as mini geometrics; stripes, both broad and thin; checks, like gingham, tom-tom and
Scottish plaid.

Embellishments include appliqués, embroideries and other decorative techniques applied

on fabrics and garments in tune with the fashion trends for the season.

Trims are types of closures, including buttons, zips, etc., as well as piping and
interlinings used in the garment.

Fabric

Fabric is the most crucial element of a garment and is responsible for 50%-80% of the
cost of the garment. Texture, handle and surface qualities of a fabric play an important
role in achieving the total effect of the style. Apart from the natural fibers—cotton, linen,
silk and wool—there is a large variety of man-made fabrics to choose from.

Technological developments have led to the creation of excellent quality in fabrics,

which are also soft, fluid, stretchable, user-friendly, easy-to-care for and much more.
Blended fabrics give the desired qualities with a natural feel and comfort. Each season,
fabric manufacturers present their new collections of fabric in tune with the forecasted
trends.

Silhouette

The basic shapes or silhouettes of each season can change suddenly or evolve slowly.
Different combinations of shapes made by separate garments worn together lends to the
overall shape or silhouette of the outfit.

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 Fig 3.14 Different silhouettes for women‘s dresses

3.5.4 Garment Collections and Categories

Garment collections are designed as a group of coordinated pieces that can be made from
fabrics and colour palette suited for the target season. Each collection may have about 10-
15 pieces. Some brands offer collections in different categories such as eveningwear,
sportswear, casualwear, formal wear, festive wear, nightwear and maternity wear
categories. Products may be designed for the target customer category in different sizes
such as Women, Missy, Petite and Junior.

The following are the items of clothing common to most categories in womenswear.

Dresses: Variations in dresses may be achieved through manipulation of waist line

(Empire line, low waist, normal waist), silhouette (e.g. shift, flare, fit and flare, princess)
length (e.g. above knee. knee level, below knee, calf level, ankle level), necklines,
sleeves. pockets etc. Empire line dresses, Princess dresses, shift dresses are some of the
examples of dress variations. These design variations created with these elements will
determine the ultimate fit of the dress.

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Fig 3.15 Traditional embroidery on dress Fig 3.16 Dress with seam and silhouette
variation

Blouses: Blouses cover the upper half of a woman‘s body. Different styles in blouses can
be achieved through variations in bodice, collar, sleeves and placket.

Skirts: Skirts cover the lower half of a woman‘s body. Different styles of skirts such as
straight, flared, gathered, pleated, tiered, paneled can be achieved by pattern variations.

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 Fig 3.17 Contemporary interpretation of Ghagra -choli

Trousers: Trousers also called Pants, are bifurcated garments for lower half of the body.
Some styles of trousers are Straight leg, Capri, Bell bottom/ Flared, riding pants also
called Jodhpurs.

Fig 3.18 Capri length trouser

Kurta Salwar: This is a paired ensemble worn widely in India. The Kurta covers the
upper half of the body and the salwar which is a bifurcated garment covers the lower half.
Some of the variations in kurta styling are kalidar, kurta with yoke, A- line and straight
kurta. Similarly, the Patiala salwar is a variation of the basic salwar.
Kalidar kurta, kurta with yoke, plain kurta. Basic Salwar, churidar, Patiala salwar.

Sari blouse: Sari blouses are stitched tops worn with saris. There can be several design
and pattern variations of the sari blouse which can be Plain or choli cut.

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 Fig 3.19 Variations of Choli blouse

GLOSSARY

 Women wear: Range of apparel in all product categories for women

 Fashion Show: Professional presentations on the runway to showcase designers‘
interpretations of fashion trends for the next fashion season. Fashion shows held in
the four fashion capitals of the world are a source of forecasting key trends.
 Trend Forecasting: Analysis based prediction by trade professionals about colour
palette, yarn and fabric development, surface treatments on fabric, silhouettes and
design details
 Embellishment: Decorative techniques on fabrics for value addition on apparel
 Colour palette: Range of colours suggested for apparel or other product range
 Casual wear: Everyday clothing for informal use
 Ensemble: A complete look comprising a coordinated set of items of clothing
including upper, lower, inner and outer garments
 Women Size: Cut of a garment to fit the shape and proportion of a mature woman‘s
body
 Missy: Cut of a garment for a more curvaceous body of a woman
 Petite: Clothing size for a shorter, slender woman
 Junior: Cut of a garment to fit a younger person with developing body and
therefore, less curves.
 Ethnic wear: Traditional dress of a community
 Formal Wear: Clothing designed and worn on formal occasions
 Indo-Western wear: Combination of Indian and Western silhouettes and details

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Exercises 3

Fill in the blanks:

1. The womenswear apparel category can be divided into..........., ................, ............,

.................,.................., ............. and .....................
2. .................., ..................., and .................. are the elements of design in
womenswear apparel.
3. ................ refers to the clothing size for short slender women.
4. ............ and ................. are the events held in fashion capitals like Paris, London,
Milan and New York for showcasing the fashion trends for womenswear.
5. An ............... is a complete set of apparel co-coordinated from top to bottom.
6. Garment collections designed as a group of coordinated pieces have similar
................... and .................
7. The trend forecast information indicates the ................, .............., .................,
................. and ............. details.
8. Trims are types of ................. which includes buttons, zipper, piping and
interlinings in the garment.

Review Questions:
1. State the reasons which led to the requirement for easy-to-wear clothing for women
2. Write a short note on the various categories in womenswear clothing.
3. What are the three primary elements of design in women‘s garments?
4. Write a short note on the influence of fashion forecasting and trends on womenswear.
5. Explain the role of fashion editors after fashion shows
6. Name some variations of women‘s kurtas.

Activity:
In order to cater to meet the aesthetic needs and body measurements of a consumer, design
variations are created in the garment. These variations enable the achievement of different
looks.
The given activity helps the student to understand the variations in a garment.
Collect pictures of womenswear dresses from the internet, magazines or newspapers.
Identify the variations in the following aspects:
a. Length
b. Waistline
c. Seam
Place them in your scrap book and discuss the same in class.

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3.6 INTRODUCTION TO CHILDRENSWEAR

Children‘s wear, till recently, was not under the purview of fashion. Historically, there
are examples of children wearing miniature versions of clothing for adults which
restricted their movements. However, today the global market for children‘s wear is
determined by the increasing purchasing power and requirements of growing children.
Having recognized the potential of the market in children‘s wear, manufacturers and
retailers are offering extensive variety in seasonal ranges for children of all ages.

With the changing socio-economic scenario, children are more aware of the external
environment where design, technology and marketing are targeted at them, as compared
to the previous generation. Some of the major influences on children‘s wear can be
attributed to cartoon characters, films, bestseller novels for children, toys, sports icons
etc. The media, social network sites like Facebook and Twitter, play stations, ease of
online shopping and peer groups influences have also increased their awareness and
familiarity with current fashion trends. Every year many new products and brands are
launched catering to the kids wear segment. The growth in the financial status of the
families with double income and more disposable income, the branded apparel market in
children‘s wear is doing extremely well. With smaller families, there is higher
willingness of the parents to spend on expensive labels for their children. There is high
demand for branded clothing as gifts for children for every occasion.

Children‘s wear is different from that of adult men and women for the simple reason that
children continue to grow. The changing body and height of the child and the clothing
requirements at different stages of growth must be understood before designing for
children.

3.6.1 Clothing for the Newborn

Newborn refers to children from their birth to a few months. As the newborn sleeps or
lies on the back, the garments are designed mainly keeping in mind their safety and
comfort. No buttons are attached at the back, there are no protrusions of buttons at the
back to avoid abrasion and discomfort to the child. Therefore, snap buttons and Velcro
tapes are preferred. Fabrics like flannel, cotton and knits which are very soft and
lightweight are used in newborn‘s clothing. There is a distinct preference for buying pink
colour apparel for the girl and blue for the boy child.

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3.6.2 Clothing for the Infant

Infants are children from the age of 3 months to 1 year. While selecting a garment for
infants, the important considerations are weight, age and size of the head. The head size
of a small child is one fifth of its height, as contrasted with an adult whose head is one
eighth of the body size. Fabrics like flannel, cottons, jersey knits, polar fleece are
selected for infants, which are very soft in feel so as to provide comfort to the soft, supple
and sensitive skin of the child. Pastel colours with polka dots, cartoon characters, and
nursery prints are preferred. Trims such as Velcro, snap buttons, and ribbon ties are often
used in children garments as they are easy to handle.

3.6.3 Clothing for the Toddler

Toddlers are children in the age group of 1 year to 4 years. At this age the child develops
basic motor skills and becomes physically more active. Looking at their energy and
rapidly growing body, the fabrics preferred for their garments should be easy to maintain.
Cambric, poplin, corduroy, denim, jersey knits in summer and polar fleece in winter are
suitable. Bright colour palette for printed fabrics with stripes, polka dots and popular
themes like cartoon characters, as well as woven gingham checks are very popular for
toddler‘s clothing. At this age, there is very little difference between boys and girls in
terms of their body size and shape.

3.6.4 Clothing for the Preteen and Teenager

Preteen refers to the children‘s age group from 5 years to 12 years, and Teens refers to
the age group from 13 years to 18 years. However, the adolescence stage is also from the
age of 15 years to 18 years, which becomes a part of the Teenage group.
Preteens and teens age groups are characterized by the onset of puberty in boys and girls
at slightly different ages. On an average, the onset of puberty is at 10 or 11 years for girls
and 11 or 12 years for boys. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development
involve distinctive physiological changes in individuals' height, weight, and body
composition. The bust development in girls leads to dramatic change in their body shape.
The size of the bust may vary from one girl to another even if they weigh equally and
have same height.

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 Fig 3.20 Pre-teens

Manufacturers and retailers are targeting a large market of licensed product for apparels
specially undergarments and nightwear sections of preteens and teens. This segment has
character licensed clothing is closely associated to adventure, sports and star icons mainly
in sports, music, or performing arts.

Exercises 4
Fill in the blanks:

1. Some of the major influences for childrenswear can be attributed to...................,

.................. and ................. for children.
2. Childrenswear is different from menswear and womenswear for the reason that
children continue to ................
3. Newborns are children aged between ................ to .................
4. The reasons for using fabrics like flannel and knits for clothing for a newborn, are
that these are ............ and ........................
5. Infants are children from the age of ................ to .................
6. The head size of a small child is ............... of his height, while an adult has ............
of his height.
7. Toddlers are children belonging to the age group of ................ to ..................
8. In the ............ stage, a child develops basic motor skills and becomes physically
more active.

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 9. Change in the body shape occurs in the ............ age group.
10.The changes in the body shapes of teens requires different ............ and variations in
garments to fit in the .............

Review Questions:

1. Write short notes about the factors influencing the expansion of childrenswear market.
2. State the differences between the newborn and an infant clothing.
3. Explain the elements of design for Preteens and Teens clothing.
4. Give 3 reasons for the growth of the childrenswear industry
5. What creates awareness of latest fashion trends among children?
6. What are criteria for designing infants clothing?
7. Name 2 preferred trims for infants
8. Why are easy-to-maintain fabrics preferred for toddlers?

Activity:

In order to cater to the specific needs of childrenswear market, the clothing is divided into
various age-related categories.

The understanding of these categorizations with their specific needs is important. The
activity is designed to enhance the student's ability to analyze the customer‘s clothing
need and objectively place them under the defined heads.

Draw a table as illustrated.

Collect pictures from the internet, magazines or newspapers as per the described headings
in the table.

Place them in the drawn table and fill in the details.

Categories Age Needs Paste Pictures of relevant
of the child in the clothing best suited to the
age category needs described in
defined in Column 2 Column 3
Infants
Toddlers
Preteens

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GLOSSARY

 Newborns: Newborns are children from birth to few months.

 Infants: Infants are children from the age category of 3 months to 1 year.
 Toddlers: Toddlers are children belonging to an age group of 1 year to 4 years.
 Preteen: Preteen is the age group of children from 5 years to 12 years
 Teen: Teens is the age group from 13 years to 18 years

3.7 INTRODUCTION TO TRIMS

Trims are functional and decorative details applied on a garment. Appliqué, topstitching,
ribbons, laces and fastenings, like buttons, zips, Velcro tape etc. are added to the garment.
Appropriate trims can enhance the overall look of the garment and increase its salability.
Trims are viewed as a value addition to a basic garment that would increase its price.
However, unplanned trim application may not only increase the cost of the garment it
may also affect the aesthetic appeal of the garment.

Some points to be kept in mind for application of trims on a garment:

1. Trims should complement the design of the garment;

2. Cost of the trim should be within the framework of the garment price;
3. Material used for the trim should be compatible with the fabric of the garment.

Two design areas that use trims frequently are children‘s wear and lingerie. Appliqué
work and laces are often used on children‘s clothing as decorative details, adding value to
the garment. Lingerie is a French word for women‘s innerwear garments which is
highlighted with lace, appliqué and special machine edging to give a delicate, feminine
detail.

3.7.1 Trim Classifications

3.7.1.1 Fastenings

The earliest functional buttons were found in the tombs of Hungarian tribes in the 9th
century. Ian McNeil in The Encyclopedia of the History of Technology (1990) holds that
the button was ‗originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest
known being found at Mohenjo Daro in the Indus Valley.‘ For centuries people who used

112
buttons were considered morally loose because they could undress much faster than those
who wore clothing with lacings and straps. Later, buttons became the preference of
people and were used both for ornamentation and functionality. Today, buttons are
available in a variety of sizes, shapes, material, colours and designs that combine
functionality with decoration.

Fig 3.21 Buttons Fig 3.22 Buttonhole

Buttonholes are slits made in one of the two parts of a placket through which the buttons
slip to close the placket. Buttonholes can be machine-made, hand-made or bound.
Accurate positioning of button and buttonholes is important for efficient functionality.

3.7.1.2 Hardware

Hardware refers to the metal fastenings used in luggage and for closures, such as the dog
leash clip, hardware snap, buckles and locks. Casual wear trousers, jackets and outer
wear apparel often use hardware fastenings as trendy details.

3.7.1.3 Zippers

The zipper is a sliding closure applied on straight plackets. It can be used as a functional
or decorative element. The zipper is available in several lengths and colours, and can be
dyed in almost any shade. Heavy-duty industrial zippers with contrasting tape and a
novelty puller are a popular design detail for children‘s wear. Delicate, concealed zippers
with transparent tape are ideal for formal clothes such as evening gowns and dresses.

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 Fig 3.23 Metallic Zipper

3.7.1.4 Lacings

Lacings, like cords or spaghetti straps, can be threaded through metal eyelets set on both
sides of a placket. Lacings are used as a design detail to create a cowboy or peasant look.
Fabric loops are an alternative to eyelets.

Ties are like braids used to secure the opening in a garment. It is adaptable to both casual
and dressy styles. Ties made of matching fabric as the garment are popular on ethnic
clothes.

3.7.1.5 Linear Trims

Linear trims are decorative stitches applied to seamlines and garment edges. These
stitches can be created on domestic sewing machines and are usually the least expensive
trims. The following are examples of linear trims.
- The corded edge outlines and defines the edge it is stitched on.
- The corded seam gives a raised effect.
- Faggoting-openwork is most effective for straight lines.
- Multi-needle topstitching can be used with novelty threads and colours to highlight the
seams.

3.7.1.6 Shaped Edges

Shaped edges are essentially decorative, but are used sparingly because they pose
technical problems. For example, decorative effects on the hemlines of skirts and pants
prevent length alterations. If the hem is raised or lowered, the design impact is lost.

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Some examples of shaped edges are:
Scallop edge: Curved stitches on the edges of a garment hem, sleeve or collar.
Lettuce edge: Straight stitches on pleated frills and ruffles, resembles the edges of lettuce
leaves.
Crochet edging: Lace made by hand with a crochet needle and applied on the edges of a
garment hem, sleeve or collar.
Picot edge: Rolled stitches on the edge of light fabrics.

Fig, 3.24 Scalloped edge lace Fig 3.25 Picot edge crochet lace

3.7.1.7 Frills or Ruffles

Frills or ruffles are strips or bands of straight or circular shaped fabric gathered along one
edge and attached at the hem edge of the garment, or as an area trim.
There are several types of ruffles:

 Basic straight ruffle

 Straight ruffle variation
 Lace ruffle
 Circular ruffle
 Pleated ruffle
 Area ruffle

3.7.1.8 Circular Ruffle

The circular ruffle usually has no gathers. One smooth edge of the ruffle is attached to the
seam and the other edge makes a graceful curve.

There are several variations of the circular ruffle.

 Cascade
 Large ruffle at hem

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  Circular ruffle with wired edge

3.7.1.9 Braids, Ribbons, Rick rack

Ribbons and braids are available in a wide variety of colours, widths, weaves and styles.
They range from very wide fancy metallic version to the classic narrow military braids.
The braid or ribbon should be stitched on a garment in a straight line. Rick rack is a
undulating zigzag braid usually used in children‘s garments.

Fig 3.26 Rick rack

3.7.1.10 Appliqués and Patches

Appliqué is a shaped piece of fabric sewn to a garment with decorative stitches. Usually,
appliqués are simple or decorative graphic shapes applied flat on the surface of the base
fabric or are stuffed to give a three-dimensional effect. This type of trim is particularly
suitable for children‘s wear, though fashion history has examples of patchwork as the
preferred trim on fashion for men and women.

3.7.1.11 Studs

Studs were first used by Levi Strauss as a means of reinforcing the seams on workpants
designed for miners during the Gold Rush in California in the 1850s. The rivet-fastened
pockets and seams are very durable. Modern studs are decorative as well as functional.
Variations of studs include rivet-like nail heads and rhinestones.

3.7.1.12 Heat–Transfer Prints

These trims are heat set on garments by a machine that applies heat on paper and fabric.

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Glossary

 Appliqué: It is a shaped piece of fabric sewn to a garment with decorative stitches.

 Lingerie: A French word for women‘s inner wear.
 Button: A common trim used for the purpose of closure of the garment.
 Buttonholes: Slits made in one of the two parts of a placket through which the
buttons slip in to fasten the placket.
 Hardware: Refers to the metal fastenings used in luggage and for closures.
 Zipper: A sliding closure applied on straight plackets.
 Lacings: Cords, Straps, Braids that can be threaded through eyelets, used to either
secure a garment or create a decorative detail.
 Linear Trims: Decorative stitches applied to seamlines and garment edges.
 Shaped Edges: Decorative edgings normally shaped in a curve attached to a fabric
edge.
 Frills: Straight grain or circular shaped fabric gathered along the edge at the hem of
a garment, or as an area trim.

Exercise 5

Fill in the blanks:

1. Trims have .............. and ............... purpose in a garment.

2. Two design areas that use lace trims most frequently are ............. and womenswear
.......................
3. .......... and ................ are often used on children‘s clothing as a decorative detail,
adding value to the overall look of the garment.
4. ......................... is a French word for women‘s inner wear and at home garments.
5. The size of the button is governed by its ....................
6. ................ are slits made in one of the two parts of a placket through which the
buttons slip to close the placket.
7. Metal fastenings used in luggage and for closures, such as the dog leash clips,
snaps, buckles and locks are referred to as .............
8. The ......................... is a sliding closure applied on straight plackets.
9. ......................... are an alternative to eyelets.
10. ......................... are like braids used to secure the opening in a garment.
11. .......................... trims are decorative stitches applied to seam lines and garment
edges.
12. ........................ or ........................ are straight or circular shaped fabric gathered
along the edge at the hem, on the edge of the garment, or as an area trim.
13. ............................. is shaped pieces of fabric sewn to a garment with decorative

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 stitches.
14. Studs were first used by ............................. as a means of reinforcing the seams on
work pants designed for miners in the Californian gold fields.
15. ………………………... and …………………………. are 2 product categories
where trims could be extensively used

Review Questions:

1. Define trims
2. Write short notes on the application of trims in various forms in a garment.
3. How are trims classified?
4. What are linear trims? Explain their usage in a garment with examples.
5. What the 3 points to be kept in mind before application of trims in a garment?
6. Why should Scallop edges be avoided on skirt hemlines?

7. Explain the following terms:

 Applique
 Picot edge
 Zippers
 Buttonholes

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Activity:

Trims add an important attribute to the garments. They are added in a garment to serve
functional or non-functional purpose. Based on the requirement, there are mass varieties
of trims and laces available in today's market for clothing.

The activity is designed to help the student to understand the applications and
importance of different kinds trims.
Collect pictures from the internet, magazines or newspapers and make a folder of
fastners in the three categories of:
a. Functional fasteners
b. Non Functional or Decorative fasteners
c. Trims and laces

Place them in your scrap book and discuss in class.

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Chapter IV: BASIC GARMENT CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Fibres and Fabrics

Fibres are the basic components of textile fabrics. Each fibre has a unique characteristic that it
lends to the fabrics made from it. Although the fabric character can be altered by the yarn
structure, the type of weave and finish given to the fabric, the original personality is still evident
in the final fabric and is important to its use and care.

While fabrics were initially made from natural sources, the rapid technological development in
mechanization has led to new techno-textiles. In recent years a plethora of new fabrics have
come into the market, which is product of chemical laboratory or in other words are man- made.
There is a variety of fabrics available in the market; these can be broadly divided into three
major categories

4.1.1 Categories of Fabrics

i. Natural
ii. Man made
iii. Blend of natural and man made

Fig 4.1 Natural fabric (Cotton jute) Fig 4.2 Man-made fabric (Viscose)

Fabric 4.3 Blend of Natural and man-made (Poly-wool blend)

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Natural fabrics are further categorized into fabrics that are procured from animals and those,
which originate from plants.

The commonly available and used fabrics where the yarns are sourced from animals are silk,
wool, fur, leather etc. However, some experts do not include fur and leather in textile fabrics
technically, as they are skins of animals. On the other hand, some include them, as they are
widely used as an alternative to textile fabrics both for garments and household products. The
most commonly available and used plant based fabrics are cotton and linen.

4.1.2 Characteristics of Fabrics

Natural fibres have the irregularities and sensitivity inherent in natural things. These contribute
to the beauty of natural fabrics. Advantages: These fibres due to their natural character have
common qualities of being absorbent and are breathable due to the porous structure. Thus, they
are more responsive to climatic changes in temperature and humidity and are hence more
comfortable to wear in a variety of climatic conditions. The disadvantage of natural fabrics
especially for cotton and linen, which is also an inherent quality, is that due to less elasticity they
tend to wrinkle. This is also being overcome with a variety of wrinkle-resistant finishes, though
at the cost of some comfort. Mercerized cotton is a common example of wrinkle-resistant finish
without the application of chemicals, where cotton fibre is spun at very high tension to produce
sheen in the yarn and make it more supple thus making it wrinkle-resistant.

Characteristics: All synthetic fabrics have their beginnings in chemical solutions that are
forced through tiny holes into chemical bath or air chamber; these harden into long ropes of
fibres that are later woven into fabrics. Advantages: All synthetic fibres are elastic; hence they
are wrinkle-resistant. Disadvantage: On the other hand, almost all manmade fibres are less
porous hence they are uncomfortable in hot and humid weather. Certain synthetics like Nylon are
thermoplastic and hence can be moulded at controlled temperature and pressure to create
interesting textures and design variations; they are called heat-set designs. An all time favourite
of this design is heat set pleats. Japanese designers have explored a lot in this technique and have
mastered the art of heat set pleating. This pleating can be done at any stage in fabric production
at fibre stage, yarn stage or on the final fabric.

Blended Fabrics are combinations of two or more different fabrics. Usually the fibre present in
higher percentage dominates the characteristics of the final fabric, but a successful blend will
have desirable qualities of all fabrics. One such successful and popular fabric is Terry cot®
which is a blend of 65% Cotton and 35% Terylene.

A common problem with the synthetics is the large number of terms used to identify them. For
example, Acrylic may be called Orlon® & Acrilan® as they are the registered trademarks of some

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companies which generally confuse the consumers. In India, the consumer generally recognises
the fabrics by the trade names or the common group terms by which a shopkeeper might be
referring to them. Second problem is of the common consumer being misled by the shopkeepers
selling polyester blended silk as Khadi silk and claiming it to be pure silk. Hence the consumer
needs to learn to identify the commonly used fabrics as most of the fabrics cannot be identified
only by their appearance. The information on the fabric bolt can be read, as it is compulsory for
the manufacturer to print it on the fabric

4.1.3 Underlying fabrics

Underlining
Underlining is a lightweight fabric that is applied to the wrong side of the garment fabric
primarily to give additional strength, support, and durability to the garment. Underlining also
helps to maintain the shape of the garment and to reinforce its seams. An additional benefit of
underlining; it will give a degree of opaqueness to the garment fabric. This keeps the inner
construction details and stitching from showing through to the outside the garment. Underlining
fabrics are made from various fibres, finished in several different hands (soft, medium, and
crisp), and available in a wide range of colours. There are also other fabrics, such as organza,
tricot, and lightweight blouse and lining fabrics that are not classified as underlining but can
serve the same purposes.

Interfacings
An interfacing is a special type of fabric applied to the inside of a garment to give it shape,
body, and support. Since it is usually a sturdier fabric than is used for underlining, its effect on
the garment fabric is more apparent and definite. An interfacing can be applied to the entire
garment but is usually applied only to parts, such as collars, front or back openings, lapels, and
hems, and to such details as pocket flaps.

Interfacings are made from many different fibres in several weights and degrees of crispness;
they may be woven or non-woven. A comparatively new category of interfacings, fusible
interfacings, instead of being stitched to the garment fabric, are ironed onto it. Fusible, too, may
be woven or non- woven. The wide range makes it possible to choose an interfacing that will be
compatible with any type of garment fabric. Two considerations are critical in selecting
interfacing: (1) it should complement and reinforce the garment fabric without overpowering it;
(2) though the two fabrics need not be identical in fibre content, it is always best that they should
have the same care requirements.

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Interlining
Interlining is a layer of fabric inserted between the face or shell and the lining of the garment.
It is similar to batting, a thick layer of fibre designed to provide insulation to heavy winter
jackets. Depending on the application, the materials in this layer can be woven, knitted, or
created by fusing fibres together. Silk, wool, and artificial fibres with good insulating qualities
are common choices for interlining.

Interlinings can be soft, thick, or flexible. Some are designed to be fused, while others are
intended to be sewn to one or both layers of the textile. As an inner lining within textiles, it is
used in a number of applications. Though the consumer never sees it, it is the difference between
a good winter coat and a great one. Interlining is applied to a garment to supply warmth during
wear.

Linings
A lining is applied to the inside of a garment to finish it and to hide the garment‘s inner
construction. No matter what type of garment it is used in-dress, coat, jacket, pants- a lining is a
luxurious as well as functional finishing touch. Most often made from a relatively slippery fabric,
a lining can match or contrast with the colour of the garment. It can even be made of a printed
fabric, so long as it will not show through to the outside of the garment. Lining will add some
degree of warmth to a garment as well as making it easier to put the garment on and take it off.
Though lining fabrics are made from many different fibres, any specific choice should be limited
to fabrics that are compatible with the care requirements of the rest of the garment. Also, a lining
should be sufficiently opaque to conceal the garment‘s inner construction. Its qualities should be
appropriate to the type of garment it is being applied to.

4.1.4 Selection of Underlying Fabric

In considering which of the underlying fabrics are advisable or necessary for the garment being
constructed, it is much easier to decide about a lining or interlining than about underlining and
interfacing. Lining and interlinings are, in effect, extras added to a garment for comfort and, in
the case of lining to conceal the inside of a garment. Neither of these helps in any way, however,
to build in or maintain the shape of the garment.
This is done by Underlining and interfacing.

There are two determining factors with underlining of interfacing:

(1) The shape or body intended by the garment design
(2) The support needed in order to achieve that design in the desired fabric.

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Generally speaking, the more structured and detailed a design or style is, there is greater need for
an underlining and interfacing. The weight of the garment fabric is a factor too. Lighter in weight
or softer the fabric, the more support it needs.

Activity

Collect swatches of fabrics. Create a folder and identify the fabrics collected, also list the fabric
content, commercial name and price of the fabrics. This will become a resource guide for you for
fabrics.

Fill in the blanks

1. The fabrics can be characterized into ___________, _____________ and ________fabrics.

2. The inter lining in the garment is for providing __________ and _________ to the garment.
3. Underlying fabrics are __________& __________
4. A lining should be sufficiently ___________ to conceal the garment‘s ______ construction
5. Interlining is added in between the ________ and ___________ of the garment.

Review Questions
1. Define Fibres. Explain various types of fibres based on their origin?
2. Define advantages and disadvantages of natural fibres
3. Name 2 fabrics that serve the purpose of underlining

4.2 Cutting Preliminaries

4.2.1 Fabric preparation

An essential step before starting to construct the garment is fabric preparation, is to prepare
fabric before cutting it out in order to achieve a better fit and professional look. Different fabrics
will need different care and the labels on the fabric bolt will provide information like, whether
the fabric is washable, dry-cleanable, or if it will shrink. The label should carry information
whether the fabric has been pre-shrunk by the manufacturer or if it will shrink, and how much it
will shrink. To preshrink washable fabric, simply soak, wash and dry in the same manner as one
would after the garment is finished.

To preshrink dry-cleanable fabrics use a steam iron and move the iron horizontally or vertically
across the grain of the fabric (never press fabric diagonally as this may distort the fabric). After
steaming the fabric allow it to dry on a smooth, flat surface until completely dry (about 4-6
hours).Trims such as zippers and laces etc may also need preshrinking.

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Proper fabric preparation is an essential preliminary to cutting. Understanding of the fabric and
its properties is a must since fabric is the most important component of any garment. In weaving,
warp or fixed yarns are interlaced at right angles by filler or weft yarns.
.
Selvedge: The lengthwise finished edges of a woven fabric. Selvedge (self edge of a fabric) is a
narrow, firmly woven strip along the length of the fabric.

Grain: The direction in which the yarns are woven. The lengthwise and crosswise threads of a
woven fabric are used in its construction. The lengthwise grain runs parallel to the selvedge of
the fabric; this has the least amount of stretch. The crosswise grain runs perpendicular to the
selvedge and has a little more stretch than the lengthwise grain. Crosswise grain is used
vertically only to achieve a certain design effect, as in border print placement.The Bias grainis
the diagonal of a woven fabric in which a true 45degree angle is formed. The bias has the
greatest amount of stretch. A bias-cut garment usually drapes softly. It also tends to be unstable
at the hemline.

4.2.2 Preshrinking

Some fabrics have inherent character of being prone to shrinking like cotton. It is advisable that
when sewing these fabrics, care should be taken to check the fabric shrinkage. There is no fixed
percentage that can be attributed, as to how much a given fabric would shrink. The fabric
characteristics are also determined by the yarn and fabric construction. Hence no one formula
can be given for determining the exact percentage of shrinkage.

To preshrink washable fabrics, launder and dry it. It is recommended to soak cotton fabric in
cold water overnight before cutting. Also iron fabric well before cutting as any folds retained in
the fabric will create a fitting problem later. This technique will take care of shrinkage and also
of colour bleeding if required. In case, the colour of the fabric runs, put colour fixer, (a number
of brands are available in the market or can be fixed with a home mix of a table spoon of salt and
half a cup of vinegar in half a bucket of water) in the same water in which fabric is soaked. This
is only required for unblended cotton fabric. Woollens should be dry cleaned if one is not sure
that they can be hand washed. Silks too should be dry cleaned until one is absolutely sure about
the wash ability of the fabric. All synthetic fabrics should be pre-soaked in cold water and well
ironed to remove all folds and creases before cutting.

If both shrinking and grain adjustment are necessary, preshrink first, and then re-align grain.
Steam iron fabrics that are wrinkled or have crease lines.

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Blocking off-grain fabric

First thing one need to ensure is that fabric is on grain. Fold the fabric in half lengthwise lining
up the ends and selvages. If the fabric is on grain it will lay flat. If it bubbles it is off-grain it
needs to be straightened. If it is not, then one needs to straighten the crosswise ends of the fabric.

For correction of ‗off-grain fabric‘, pull it diagonally at the opposite ends. First in one direction
then in the other, this process is also known as blocking. For all other woven fabrics cut into the
selvage and gently pull one or two crosswise threads pushing fabric along the threads till the
opposite selvage. Then cut the fabric along the pulled thread. Repeat these methods on both ends
of the fabric. All fabrics can be straightened except for permanent-finish fabrics.

To straighten slightly off-grain fabric leave fabric folded lengthwise and pin together the
selvages and both ends making sure they line up, then using a steam iron press from the selvedge
to the fold.

Different fabrics require different methods. For knit fabrics simply cut along a crosswise rib. On
striped, plaid, or checked fabric simply cut along a straight crosswise line.

4.2.3 Identifying Right Side of Fabric

Right side or face of fabric should be identified before cutting. Often it is obvious, but sometimes
careful examination is needed to identify the right side from inside of the fabric. One method of
identification is the way fabric is folded - cottons and linens are right side out, wools wrong side

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out. If fabric is rolled on a tube, face is to the inside. Others are Smooth fabrics are shinier,
slicker, or softer on the right side. Textured fabrics are more distinct on the face. For example
slubs may be more outstanding on the right side. Twill fabric is better defined on the right side.
Such fabrics often have small irregularities such as extra thick nubs, on the wrong side. Fancy
weaves, such as brocade, are smoother on the right side, floats usually loose and uneven on the
back. Printed designs are sharper on the right side, more blurred on the back. The selvage is
smoother on the right side. Some knits roll toward the right side when stretched crosswise.

The fabric face is generally more resistant to soil and abrasion but you can use the wrong side
out if you prefer its look. When there is not visible difference between sides, mark on the back
with chalk to avoid confusion.

Pinning
For pinning pattern to fabric, the general order is left to right and fold to selvage, for each pattern
piece. Pin fold on grain line arrow first, then corners, and finally edges, smoothing pattern as you
pin. Place pieces as close together as possible, overlapping tissue margins where necessary. Even
small changes may result in the pieces not fitting into the space apportioned to them.

The efficient way to place pins is diagonally at corners and perpendicular to edges, with points
toward and inside cutting lines. (For delicate fabrics, leather and vinyl, in which pins could leave
holes, take care to pin within seam allowances.) Use only enough pins to secure fold lines, grain
line arrows, corners, and notches. Use of too many pins can sometimes distort fabric, making it
difficult to cut accurately. A few pins more than generally used to pin a pattern piece in place
may be needed for slippery or soft fabrics. A firm hand is required to be placed on the pattern to
hold it in place, while cutting the fabric; this provides adequate control and ensures that fabric
doesn‘t slip.

4.2.4 Fabric cutting

Cutting of Fabric: There are three methods for cutting different kinds of fabric:

Tearing is the fastest, but appropriate only for firmly woven fabrics: other types may snag or
stretch. Drawing a thread is slower, but the most suitable for loosely woven, soft, or stretchy
fabrics.
Cutting on a prominent line is a quick, simple method for any fabric that has a strong woven
linear design.
Checking fabric alignment comes next. During manufacture, the fabric may have been pulled
off-grain, so that grain lines are no longer at perfect right angles. A garment made with such
fabric will not hang correctly, so re-alignment must be done before cutting. Bear in mind that not

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every off-grain fabric can be corrected, especially those that have water repellent or permanent
press finish, or a bonded backing.

4.2.5 Grain line

Grain line is a line drawn from end to end on each pattern piece to indicate how the pattern
should aligns with the lengthwise grain of the fabric. Whichever be the direction, the grain line is
drawn on the pattern; it will always be placed parallel to the selvedge on the fabric.

Direction of Grain line

Straight Grain line: For garments to be cut on straight grain, the grain line is drawn parallel to
the centre front or back of the garment along the length of the piece.
Crosswise Grain line: For garments to be cut on cross wise grain, the grain line is drawn at right
angle to the centre front or back of the garment or across the garment width.
Bias Grain line: For garments to be cut on the bias, grain line is drawn at an angle of 45o to the
centre front or back of the garment.

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4.2.6 Marking Methods

Marking—the transfer of significant pattern notations to fabric- is done after cutting and before
removing pattern. Common marking methods and their typical uses are discussed below. In
general, any device can be used provided it makes a precise, clear, mark without disfiguring the
material. Always pre-test a fabric swatch to be sure marks show up clearly and can later be
removed.

Using a tracing paper and wheel is a fast method that works best on plain, opaque fabrics. It is
less satisfactory for multi-coloured fabrics, and not recommended for sheers, marking shows
through to the right side. It is preferred to other methods for its convenience, but the wheel can
rip tissue, thus limiting the reusability of a pattern. While tracing, keep a cardboard under the
fabric to prevent marring of the surface beneath. Use serrated wheel for most fabrics, smooth
wheel for those that are delicate, hard to mark, or napped. The fabric folded with wrong sides
together, so that both layers can be marked simultaneously using double–faced paper or two

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sheets back to back. With fabric right sides together, layers are marked one at a time. Only dots
are registered, but these can be connected, if desired, after the pattern is removed.

Tailor’s chalk is also a quick marking device. For this use ruler and chalk, regular or wax type.
The first tends to rub off easily; the wax type is more durable, but cannot be removed from some
fabrics.

Thread Tracing is done on fabrics which are delicate and slippery to mark the seam allowances,
grain, dart, centre front, centre back, waist etc. it is to be done on right side of the fabric. It has
an advantage that it does not leave marks and is very effective for jackets dark colour fabrics

Fill in the blanks

1. The fabrics should be ------------------------ to ensure that the garment does not -----------------
after being stitched. __
2. The methods of Marking fabrics are -------------------------, ---------------------------------- and -
-----------------------------._______________

Review Questions

1. What is Fabric Grain?

2. What are the three types of Fabric Grain?

4.3 Placket

A placket is an opening in the upper part of trousers or skirts, or at the neck or sleeve of a
garment Plackets are almost always used to allow clothing to be put on or removed easily, but
are sometimes used purely as a design element. Modern plackets often contain fabric facings or
attached bands to surround and reinforce fasteners such as buttons, snaps, or zippers.

In modern usage, the term placket often refers to the double layers of fabric that hold the buttons
and buttonholes in a shirt. Plackets can also be found at the neckline of a shirt, the cuff of a
sleeve, or at the waist of a skirt or pair of trousers.

Plackets are almost always made of more than one layer of fabric, and often have interfacing in
between the fabric layers. This is done to give support and strength to the placket fabric because
the placket and the fasteners on it are often subjected to stress when the garment is worn. The

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two sides of the placket often overlap. This is done to protect the wearer from fasteners rubbing
against their skin and to hide underlying clothing or undergarments.

A button front shirt without a separate pieced placket is called a "French placket." The fabric is
simply folded over and the buttonhole stitching secures the two layers (or three layers if there is
an interlining). This method affords a very clean finish, especially if heavily patterned fabrics are
being used. This method is normally only used in stiff-fronted formal evening ("white-tie")
shirts. However, the normal, separate placket on a shirt gives a more symmetrical appearance.
If the buttons are concealed by a separate flange or flap of the shirting fabric running the length
of the placket, it is called a "fly front." The inner placket of a fly front shirt can be made as a less
constructed French placket or as a fully constructed regular placket

A placket is a finished opening in a garment section. Placket should be designed and styled in
sufficient length to permit ease and convenience of dressing. Placket openings are used on
sleeves to allow expansion of the narrow end and to provide room, when the cuff is opened.
They are used on front or back neckline opening instead of a zipper. Plackets are planned as
extension for placement of buttonholes, snaps and other fasteners.

The type and length of placket selected depends on:

• Placement of placket.
• Function of placket.
• Style and design of garment.
• Use of garment.
• Type and weight of fabric.
• Care of garment.
• Method of construction.

4.3.1Continuous Placket

This type of placket is easy to make and serves as the basis for a number of variations. It is one-
piece placket that is widely used on cuffed sleeve openings to permit hand to fit through sleeve
circumferences, bloomers, children‘s dresses, on skirts and trousers, where zipper application
would detract from appeal of the garment and as a neckline opening alternative to other fasteners
or closures.

Pattern piece required

Cut the pattern piece for length of the piece take double the length of the finished placket
opening and add 1‖ extra. (The 1‖ extra length of the binding strip is for emergency only. If
measurements are accurate and the placket is properly made, this amount should be cut off after
the binding is stitched in place.) The width of the piece will be twice the width of finished

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placket facing (which is usually ½‖ for 1 side) plus two times seam allowances (which usually is
¼‖)
CONTINUOUS PLACKET

PATTERN PIECES
2 X length of finished placked + 1"

Seam Allowance - 1/4‖

½" ½"
F O L D L I N E

½" ½"

Seam Allowance - 1/4‖

STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Place the right side of the placket on the wrong side of the sleeve opening and start
stitching near the edge leaving a distance of ¼‖. As you come in the centre of the placket,
maintain ¼‖ seam allowance of placket piece and reduce the allowance of the garment piece.
Take care so that no pleat formation takes place at this point.
2. Fold the allowance (other side) of the placket and place it on first stitching line. Then stitch in
place
from right side of the sleeve. Take care that stitching at the back should be same i.e. if it is on
top, it should be maintained on top throughout and if it is in ditch then maintain it throughout. In
good quality plackets, this seam is on top at the back.
3. From wrong side of the sleeve, stitch both the upper and under of the placket, 2 to 3 times
diagonally (at 45°) near end. This is known as Bar Tack.

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 Continuous Sleeve Placket

4.3.2 Simple Shirt Placket

Pattern pieces required are two one for upper part and other for the under part.

Upper Part
Trace the bodice till centre front line. Mark the extension; which is taken as half the button + 1
cm i.e. Radius of the button + 1cm = extension. Or it is taken as the diameter of the button.
Otherwise a standard measurement of ½‖ or ¾‖ is taken for men‘s shirts.

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The line of extension is the fold line. After this a standard facing of 1½‖ is made, an allowance
of ¼‖ is then taken. Turn the allowance towards wrong side of the facing. Then turn fold line
towards wrong side of the garment piece. (If facing has to be aligned to the selvedge when
placed on fabric then no seam allowances is taken). Cut out the pattern.

Under Part
Flip the pattern horizontally, trace it. Under part is made in the same way as you make the over
part but the difference being the facing, which is 1‖. Otherwise stitching line of under part will
be visible on the front of the placket.

Upper Part

Under Part

STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION

Upper Part

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1. Trace the pattern on the fabric and mark the position of the lines.
2. Turn the allowance towards the wrong side of the fabric. Turn the facing also in the same way
from fold line i.e. towards wrong side of fabric.
3. on the wrong side of fabric machine stitch on the edge of facing as illustrated.

Under Part
1. Trace the pattern on the fabric and mark the position of all lines.
2. Turn the allowance towards wrong side of the fabric. In same way turn the facing also.
3. from wrong side of the fabric machine stitch on the edge of the facing as illustrated.

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4.3.3 Shirt Placket with Facing

The shirt band/the strip on the right side of shirt front in which the buttonholes are made,
eliminates the need for facing. An extended self-facing is used on the left front. The finished
shirt band is 1½‖ wide but construction techniques vary depending on the fabric and style of the
shirt.

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Pattern pieces required

Upper Part
Trace the bodice and make extension of ¾‖ which is half of finished placket. Then give an
allowance of ¼‖.
Facing
A straight strip of the length same as placket opening is taken, mark ¼‖ seam allowance on one
side and ½‖ seam allowance on the other side.

Under Part
Flip and trace the other half of bodice and mark extension of ¾‖ and facing of 1‖ then mark the
seam allowance of ¼‖.

STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION

Upper Part
1. Place right side of the facing over wrong side of garment piece and then stitch leaving the ¼‖
allowance near edge.
2. From right side of the fabric, turn facing towards right side. Press the seam allowance (½‖) of
facing towards wrong side of facing. Iron in place.
3. Leave allowance of ¼‖ from both the sides and stitch in place from right side.

Under Part
Trace the pattern for under part on the fabric. Fold the seam allowance of the facing towards the
wrong side of the fabric. Again turn this facing towards the wrong side of the fabric, stitch in
place. (For diagram refer steps of construction for under part of simple shirt placket.)

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4.3.4 Button Placement

The button extension is equal to the width of the button. As a general rule, the neckline of the
front bodice is lowered by ¼‖ at the centre front for comfort, whenever a basic neckline is
required. The first buttonhole is placed on centre front, down from neckline an amount equal to
the width of the button. This ensures that the button will not extend into the neck. Placement of
the last button hole depends on the need or the requirement of the garment. The rest of the button
holes are marked on the even division between the first and the last. It is a good idea to place a
button close to the apex or bust point this ensures that the garment does not gape open at centre
front due to movement which may cause a pull on the bust.

The size of the button hole equals the width of the button plus 1/8‖ for the button to go in easily.
The button hole is marked so that width of the button is on the garment side of the centre front
and extra 1/8‖ is on the extension.

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 Activity

Collect pictures of garments with different kinds of openings, identify the fasteners used. Place them in
your folder and identify the buttons and other trims used for fastenings. This will become a resource guide
for you for the fasteners.

Fill in the blanks

a. 1. The placket is a ___________ given to the garment ____________.

b. 2. Placket should be _________________ and _________ with sufficient ________ to permit movement.
c. 3. ___________, ___________ and _____________are kind of plackets.
d. 4. The size of the ________ determines the size of button hole and width of ____________.
e. 5. The first buttonhole is placed on __________, ________ from neckline an amount _________ to the
_________ of the button.

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4.4 Neckline Facings

A facing is the fabric used to finish raw edges of a garment at such locations as neck, armhole
and front and back opening. There are three categories of facings: Shaped facings, extended
facings and bias facings.
A facing is shaped to fit the edge it will finish either during cutting or just before application. A
―shaped facing‖ is cut out, using a pattern, to the same shape and on the same grain as the edge it
will finish. A ―bias facing‖ is a strip of fabric cut on the bias so that it can be shaped to match
the curve of the edge it will be applied to. After a facing is attached to the garments edge, it is
turned to the inside of the garment and should not show on the outside.

In order to reduce bulk, both shaped and bias facings can be cut from a fabric lighter in weight
than the garment fabric. Because the extended facing is cut as one with the garment, garment
and facing fabric are always the same but sometimes may vary according to the design.

4.4.1 Bias Strip

Bias strip is prepared as a strip of matching or contrasting fabric. In construction it is used to

conceal, finish and strengthen seams and raw edges or as a substitute for facings. Bias may be
used as decorative binding, piping, or tubing. Bias for binding, piping and tubing is a true bias
and is defined as the diagonal line established by a 45° degree angle, intersecting length and
cross grain of a square. The bias of the fabric offers the maximum stretch, flexibility, and
elasticity needed to conform to a curved edge.

The Bias strip may be self-prepared, specially manufactured for industry, or commercially
prepared and purchased in retail stores.

Commercially prepared, pre-cut and folded bias bindings are also known as bias tape or ―bias
fold‖ they are available in a variety of width and placement of bias selected depends on:

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 Style and design of garment
 Type of garment
 Use of garment
 Care of garment
 Choice of fabric
 Method of construction
 Availability of machines and attachments
 Procedures for production

4.4.2 Preparation of Bias Strip

Steps of construction
 First, find the true bias of the fabric by folding fabric with lengthwise grain parallel to
thecrosswise grain. The fold edge is the true bias.
 After locating the true bias, draw the width and the number of strips needed for the
required length and then cut it.
 Many times, the bias strips are not long enough to complete a continuous sewing step.
Adequate number of strips must be joined before starting to sew bias binding or facing.
 Now place the cut out bias strips at right angles, with the right side facing right side.
 Stitch bias strips with a ¼‖ seam allowance at angles.
 Continue to join bias strips as needed for the desired length. Press all seams open and snip
extended points.
 Once the strip is ready it can be applied on the neckline

Activity

Collect pictures of garments with different necklines. Identify the finishing used.
Place them in your folder.

Fill in the blanks

1. A sari blouse is finished by __________ which is very rarely seen in garments in western
countries.
2. A true bias can be found by ____________ the fabric in __________ .
3. Bias binding may be __________, specially __________, or __________ prepared.

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Review Questions

1. What is the function of a Placket in a garment? What are the factors to be kept in mind while
selecting a placket opening?

2. What is a French Placket?

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