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Synthesis and Characterization of Co−ZnO and Evaluation of Its

Photocatalytic Activity for Photodegradation of Methyl Orange
Muhammad Adeel, Muhammad Saeed,* Iltaf Khan, Majid Muneer, and Nadia Akram

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ABSTRACT: Photocatalysis is one of the techniques used for the eradication of organic pollutants from wastewater. In this study,
Co−ZnO was tested as a photocatalyst for the degradation of methyl orange under irradiation of visible light. Co−ZnO loaded with
5%, 10%, and 15% Co was prepared by the precipitation method. The advanced techniques including X-ray diffraction, X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance UV−visible spectroscopy, photoelectrochemical measurements, temperature-
programmed desorption, photoluminescence, and fluorescence spectroscopy related to OH• measurements were used for
characterization of prepared Co−ZnO. Experiments showed that 10% Co−ZnO was a highly efficient catalyst for the
photodegradation of methyl orange as compared to ZnO. The enhanced photocatalytic activity of Co−ZnO is attributed to the
implantation of Co which inhibits the electron−hole recombination. A 100 mg/L solution of methyl orange dye was completely
degraded within 130 min. The reaction kinetics has been described in terms of the Eley−Rideal mechanism.

1. INTRODUCTION material for a number of applications, that is, gas sensors,

Synthetic dyes, which are used in huge amounts in the textile antibacterial coatings, electrical devices, optical coatings, solar
industry, are chemically and physically stable compounds cells, and photocatalysts.11 Due to good quantum efficiency,
wide band gap, and nontoxic nature, ZnO has been extensively
which are harmful to the environment. Due to stability and
used in the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants.
solubility in water, synthetic dyes pile up in industrial effluents
When ZnO is irradiated, a pair of positive holes and electrons
and wastewater.1−3 Several conventional methods including
is generated in the valence band and conduction band. The
biological treatment, anaerobic, aerobic, electrochemical,
secondary reactions of the positive hole and electron generate
oxidation, reduction, flotation, flocculation, precipitation,
OH radicals. The OH radical which is an influential oxidizer
adsorption, and so forth have been used for the treatment of
reacts with organic pollutants and degrades it.12 However, the
wastewater; however, these methods cannot completely
wider band gap, 3.3 eV, ZnO cannot be used as a photocatalyst
degrade the organic pollutants.4−9 Therefore, photodegrada-
under visible irradiation.13,14 An efficient photocatalyst should
tion of organic pollutants with semiconductor metal oxides is a
absorb not only ultraviolet radiation but visible radiation as
promising protocol for water purification because it has shown
well because the solar radiation is composed of 45% visible
considerable performance for degradation of a wide range of
toxic and nondegradable organic pollutants in wastewater
without involving complex technologies.10 Photocatalytic Received: October 19, 2020
degradation under irradiation of visible light is a suitable Accepted: December 29, 2020
option for the eradication of recalcitrant pollutants from water. Published: January 5, 2021
ZnO is environmentally friendly and abundant-in-nature
semiconductors with n-type conductivity and a wide band
gap of 3.3 eV. These characteristics make ZnO a promising
© 2021 The Authors. Published by
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radiation and less than 10% ultraviolet radiation in addition to and fluorescence spectroscopy related to OH• measurements,
other types of radiations.15 The efficiency of ZnO to absorb respectively.
the visible radiation can be enhanced by narrowing the band 2.4. Photocatalytic Experiment. The photocatalytic
gap or dividing it into many subgaps. The implantation of activities of as-prepared ZnO and Co−ZnO samples were
transition metal ions in the structure of ZnO is one of the tested by photodegradation of methyl orange. Typically,
techniques used for narrowing the band gap.16,17 The photodegradation of methyl orange was performed by stirring
implanting metals normally occupy the positions located a reaction mixture composed of 0.05 g of catalyst per 50 mL of
between the VB and CB of ZnO. The photogenerated carriers dye solution under irradiation of visible light. Before
are trapped at these localized positions, and the recombination irradiation, the reaction mixture was equilibrated by stirring
rate is decreased which ultimately enhances the photocatalytic in dark for 30 min. Then, the mixture was magnetically stirred
activity of ZnO.18 Many researchers have evaluated the under irradiation of visible light. The extent of photo-
photocatalytic efficiency of metal-doped ZnO nanoparticles. degradation was measured with a UV−vis spectrophotometer.
Shkir et al. have investigated the photocatalytic efficiency of
Tb−ZnO and Sr−ZnO.19,20 Chandekar and co-workers have 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
developed La−ZnO as an active photocatalyst by the flash 3.1. X-ray Diffraction. XRD patterns of ZnO and Co−
combustion route.21 Similarly, other researchers have im- ZnO samples are given in Figure 1. All the diffraction peaks
planted other metals such as La, Mn, Bi, Fe, and Cu on ZnO
for the improvement in photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO.22−26
Herein, we report the visible-light-driven photodegradation of
methyl orange in the presence of a Co−ZnO photocatalyst.
Although many researchers have prepared Co−ZnO, however,
the photodegradation of methyl orange in the presence of the
Co−ZnO catalyst has not been investigated extensively. The
implantation of Co ions in ZnO is expected to alter the light
absorption behavior and create defects in ZnO. The creation of
defects will increase the visible light harvesting ability of ZnO
by narrowing the band gap.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Synthesis of ZnO. A solution of oxalic acid dihydrate,
(COOH)2·2H2O, was prepared by dissolving 3.78 g of oxalic
acid dehydrate, (COOH)2·2H2O, in 50 mL of deionized water.
Another solution was prepared by dissolving 3.38 g of zinc
acetate dihydrate, Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O, in 50 mL of
deionized water. Both solutions were mixed and stirred at 60
°C for 5 h. The precipitated zinc oxalate was filtered, washed,
and dried at 100 °C for 12 h. Finally, the dried zinc oxalate was
calcined at 450 °C to get zinc oxide, ZnO.
2.2. Synthesis of Co−ZnO. The chemical precipitation
method was used for the synthesis of cobalt-doped zinc oxide,
Co−ZnO. For this purpose, a solution was prepared by Figure 1. XRD pattern of ZnO (a), 5% Co−ZnO (b), 10% Co−ZnO
dissolving 4.38 g of zinc acetate dehydrate, Zn(CH3COO)2· (c), and 15% Co−ZnO (d).
2H2O, in 50 mL of deionized water. Similarly, another solution
of cobalt nitrate hexahydrate, Co(NO3)2·6H2O, was prepared match to standard diffraction data for ZnO, as expected. The
by adding 0.33 g of Co(NO3)2·6H2O in 30 mL of deionized XRD patterns exhibit sharp peaks at 2θ degrees 34.43, 36.27,
water. Then, both solutions were mixed and 2 M NaOH was 47.55, 56.62, 62.88, 67.97, 68.11, 72.59, and 76.99 indexed to
added drop-wise to the mixture. After stirring for 2 h, the (0 0 2), (1 0 1), (1 0 2), (1 1 0), (1 0 3), (1 1 2), (2 0 1), (0 0
resultant precipitate was filtered, washed, and dried at 100 °C 4), and (2 0 2) hkl crystal planes of ZnO, respectively (JCPDS
for 12 h. Finally, the obtained solid was calcined at 450 °C to card no. 89-0510).27,28 It is reported that cobalt oxide shows a
get 5% Co−ZnO. The same procedure was used for the sharp peak at 2θ ∼ 36°; however, it cannot be observed in the
preparation of 10% Co−ZnO and 15% Co−ZnO using 0.66 given XRD patterns due to the low concentration of Co.29 The
and 0.99 g of Co(NO3)2·6H2O as a source of Co, respectively. enlarged view of XRD given in Figure 2 shows that peak
2.3. Characterization. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray intense position of 5% Co−ZnO, 10% Co−ZnO, and 15%
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), diffuse reflectance UV− Co−ZnO is offset by 0.07, 0.12, and 0.16, respectively,
visible (DR-UV−vis) spectroscopy, photoelectrochemical compared to a peak position of ZnO. This shift in peak
(PEC) measurements, temperature programmed desorption position shows that Co2+ has been doped in ZnO.30
(TPD), photoluminescence (PL) and fluorescence spectros- 3.2. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy. XPS analysis
copy related to OH• measurements were used for character- for the ZnO and Co−ZnO was conducted to find out the
ization of the prepared material. A Bruker D8 (Germany), chemical states and elemental compositions. The XPS spectra
Kratos Axis Ultra DLD apparatus, Shimadzu model UV-2550 given in Figure 3 exhibit peaks for Zn, Co, and O which
spectrometer, AutoChem TP 5080 chemisorption analyzer, confirm the existence of three elements in the as-prepared
and PerkinElmer LS55 spectrofluorometer were used for XRD Co−ZnO photocatalyst. Figure 3a shows the Zn 2p core-level
analyses, XPS analyses, DR-UV−vis analyses, TPD analyses, spectra for ZnO and Co−ZnO samples. The Zn 2p spectra
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attributed to the intrinsic O2− ions in the wurtzite structure of

the hexagonal Zn2+ ion array, while the higher energy peak is
attributed to O2− ions in the oxygen-deficient area of ZnO.33,34
Figure 3c shows the Co 2p spectrum of Co−ZnO which
exhibits two peaks, one at 780.3 eV and the other 795.8 eV.
These peaks are attributed to Co 2p3/2 and Co 2p1/2,
respectively. The difference in the binding energy of Co 2p1/2
and Co 2p3/2 is 15.5 eV, which matches that of standard CoO.
These results show that Co exists in a high-spin divalent state
of Co, Co2+, in ZnO.35,36
3.3. UV−Visible Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy.
The effectiveness of Co−ZnO as a photocatalyst for photo-
degradation of organic pollutants under visible irradiation by
reducing the band gap energy can be confirmed by the analysis
of UV−visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV−vis DRS)
spectra. Figure 4 reflects the UV−vis DRS spectra of ZnO and

Figure 2. Enlarged view of XRD pattern of ZnO (a), 5% Co−ZnO

(b), 10% Co−ZnO (c), and 15% Co−ZnO (d).

Figure 4. DRS UV/vis spectrum of ZnO (a) 5% Co−ZnO (b) 10%

Co−ZnO (c) 15% Co−ZnO (d).

Co−ZnO samples which show that implantation of Co

influences the absorption capability of light. As XRD and
XPS results confirm the formation of Co-doped ZnO,
therefore, dramatically different UV−vis DRS spectra of Co−
ZnO samples compared to pure ZnO are expected. The UV−
vis spectra of Co−ZnO samples show that the absorption
edges move to a longer wavelength thus showing a redshift.
This redshift has been attributed to defect centers created due
to Co2+ that may lead to lattice strain. The estimated band gap
energy for ZnO is 3.37 eV, whereas for the cobalt-doped ZnO
composite is 2.16 eV which shows that doping of Co narrows
the band gap of Co−ZnO. Hence, Co−ZnO can be used as an
effective catalyst for photodegradation of organic pollutants
under visible irradiation.37−39
3.4. PEC Measurements. PEC measurement experiments
Figure 3. XPS spectra of Zn 2p (a) O 1s (b) and Co 2p (c). using the CO2 bubbled system were conducted to evaluate the
photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO and Co−ZnO. Figure 5 shows
exhibit two peaks at binding energy ∼ 1022 and ∼1047 eV the results of PEC analyses. It was observed that the reduction
attributed to the Zn 2p3/2 and Zn 2p1/2, respectively. current is greater for Co−ZnO as compared to ZnO in the
Moreover, the positions of the peaks in Co−ZnO slightly CO2 bubbled system. It suggests the superiority of catalytic
shifted to higher binding energy (peak for Zn 2p3/s shifted performance of Co−ZnO compared to ZnO due to the
from 1022.64 to 1022.76 eV; the peak for Zn 2p1/2 shifted appropriate ionic radius of Zn and surface basicity of ZnO.
from 1047.14 to 1047.26 eV) compared to ZnO. This may be ZnO can act as a good platform for accepting high-energy
due to the less concentration of Zn in the Co−ZnO sample as photoelectrons from Co to enhance the charge separation
compared to ZnO.31,32 Figure 3b shows the O 1s core-level resulting a good photocatalytic efficiency under visible
spectra of the ZnO and Co−ZnO. The O 1s core-level spectra irradiation and maintaining the thermodynamic energy.40,41
exhibit two peaks at binding energies 529.3 and 531.5 eV 3.5. Temperature-Programmed Desorption. For a
which represent lattice oxygen (OL) and chemisorbed oxygen good photocatalyst, the surface adsorption and activation of
(OH), respectively. The lower energy peak in O 1s spectra is the O2 is an eminent step to lower the recombination of
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Figure 5. Electrochemical reduction curves of ZnO (a) and Co−ZnO Figure 7. PL spectra of ZnO (a) and Co−ZnO (b).
(b) in the CO2 bubbled system.
attributed to the formation of the surface defect (SD) and the
photogenerated electrons in the conduction band and formation of hydroxyl radicals. The PL spectra of both ZnO
photoinduced positive holes in the valence band resulting in and Co−ZnO have the same characteristics; however, the
the improvement of charge separation. As the recombination is intensity of the PL spectrum of Co−ZnO is higher compared
lowered and charge separation is enhanced, the photocatalytic to the intensity of ZnO. It has been reported that Co−ZnO
efficiency of the photocatalyst for the degradation of organic behaves as a quenching center to inhibit the recombination of
pollutants is enhanced.42 For the determination of adsorption exciton due to electron transfer processes from donor−
capacity of O2 of the ZnO and Co−ZnO, oxygen TPD (O2- acceptor pairs to neighboring Co ions in the ZnO lattice.47
TPD), curves of ZnO and Co−ZnO were obtained and As a result, Co−ZnO may act as an efficient photocatalyst for
analyzed as given in Figure 6. Three kinds of desorption peaks the degradation of organic pollutants.
3.7. Fluorescence Spectroscopy related to OH •
Measurements. As the formation of OH radicals is involved
in photocatalysis, therefore, the amount of OH radicals
produced was evaluated by the Coumarin fluorescent method.
In this method, Coumarin is used as it produces easily
luminescent 7-hydroxy coumarin by reaction with OH radicals.
Generally, the higher is the amount of OH radicals, the
stronger will be the intensity of fluorescent signals in the
fluorescent spectrum. Figure 8 shows the fluorescence spectra

Figure 6. O2 TPD (O2-TPD) analysis for ZnO (a) and Co−ZnO (b).

were observed at 100−600 °C in O2-TPD which can be

attributed to the physical adsorption of O2 at low temperatures
and chemical adsorption of O2 at high temperatures. The peak
at 300−450 °C in O2-TPD showed the desorption of O2 on
ZnO. Also, a peak above 500 °C depicted the desorption of O2
on Co particles. O2-TPD signals were found stronger in the
case of Co−ZnO which indicated the greater adsorption of O2
which lowered the recombination of the photogenerated Figure 8. Fluorescent spectra related to OH radicals.
electron and photoinduced positive hole and enhanced the
charge separation leading to the improvement in the related to the produced OH of ZnO and Co−ZnO composites.
photocatalytic efficiency of the photocatalyst.43 It can be seen that the OH radical fluorescent intensity of Co−
3.6. PL Spectroscopy. PL spectra of ZnO and Co−ZnO ZnO is stronger than that of pure ZnO with the increasing
are given in Figure 7. The PL spectra exhibit a UV near-band- amount of Co coupling, especially in the case of a 10% Co−
edge emission peak around 380 nm and blue-green emission ZnO sample. Conversely, if the quantities of used Co-doped
with 485 nm wavelength. The emission peak at ∼380 nm is ZnO are in excess, the number of hydroxyl radicals (OH•)
known to be caused by the band-to-band transition of excitons generated starts to decrease which may be due to the low
while the peak at 485 nm originates from the electron charge separation. Hence, 10% Co−ZnO is considered an
transition from the level of the ionized oxygen vacancies to the efficient photocatalyst for photodegradation of organic
valence band.44 The emission peak at ∼380 nm is due to the pollutants.40
band edge emission by radiative annihilation of excitons. It is 3.8. Photocatalytic Activity. To find the latent catalytic
related to the recombination of free and shallow bound applications of the as-prepared Co−ZnO composites in the
excitons.45,46 The emission peak at 485 nm may also be remediation of environmental pollution, we have studied the
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photocatalytic degradation of the methyl orange dye as a Table 1. Semiconductor−Semiconductor Heterostructures

model pollutant over Co−ZnO as a photocatalyst under visible Reported as Catalysts for Photodegradation of Methyl
irradiation. In a typical experiment, a 50 mL of solution of Orange
methyl orange with an initial concentration of 100 mg/L was
MO efficiency
treated at 30 °C with 0.05 g of catalyst under visible irradiation no heterostructure (g) (mg/L) (%) refs
for 120 min using a Pyrex glass beaker as a batch reactor.
1 TiO2−BiOBr (0.2) 10 90 Wang et al.,
Before visible irradiation, the reaction mixture composed of 201548
methyl orange solution, and the catalyst was stirred for 30 min 2 TiO2−MoS2 (0.05) 20 97 Zhang et al.,
under dark conditions. Similarly, the dye solution was stirred 201549
and irradiated in the absence of a catalyst for 30 min as a blank 3 Ag2O−Ag3PO4 (0.05) 50 100 Wang et al.,
reaction. The photocatalytic degradation was monitored by a 201350
UV−vis spectrophotometer. Figure 9 shows the photocatalytic 4 SnOX−Zn2SnO4 (0.1) 20 83 Wang et al.,
201751
5 C3N4−Bi5Nb3O15 (0.1) 15 94 Zhang et al.,
201352
6 SnS2−TiO2 (0.1) 2 92 Dai et al.,
201853
7 β-Bi2O3-α-Bi2O3 (0.2) 4 95 Hou et al.,
201354
8 Bi2O3−BiOI (0.1) 2 95 Han et al.,
201555
9 BiOI−BiOBr (0.1) 10 63 Cao et al.,
201156
10 TiO2-β-anatase (0.02) 5 100 Zhang et al.,
201357
11 In2.77−S4−SrCO3 (0.02) 5 100 Wu et al.,
201858
12 ZrO2−MoS2 (0.05) 10 95 Prabhakar
Figure 9. Photodegradation of methyl orange with ZnO, 5% Co− Vattikuti et
ZnO, 10% Co−ZnO, and 15% Co−ZnO. al., 201659
13 Bi12TiO20-g-C3N4 (0.2) 20 90 Cao et al.,
201960
activity of ZnO, 5% Co−ZnO, 10% Co−ZnO, and 15% Co− 14 Bi2MoO6−Bi5O7Br−TiO2 16 47 Wang et al.,
ZnO toward photodegradation of methyl orange. Data given in (0.2) 202061
Figure 9 illustrates that 10% Co−ZnO showed the highest 15 WO3-g-C3N4 (0.1) 10 93 Yan et al.,
photocatalytic activity with 93% degradation of methyl orange 201962
compared to 73, 52, and 46% with 5% Co−ZnO, 15% Co− 16 LaNiO3/TiO2 (0.1) 20 92 Chen et al.,
202063
ZnO, and ZnO, respectively. Hence, the implantation of Co
17 ZnFe2O4−SnS2 (0.1) 50 99 Zhou et al.,
enhances the photocatalytic activity of ZnO toward photo- 202064
degradation of methyl orange. The DR UV−vis spectroscopy 18 Ag2Mo1−xWxO4 (0.05) 5 45 Andrade Neto
and fluorescence spectroscopy related to OḢ measurements et al., 202065
also have suggested the enhanced photocatalytic activity of 19 Co3O4-g-C3N4 (0.1) 10 99 Han et al.,
Co−ZnO as compared to ZnO. However, 15% Co−ZnO 201466
showed comparatively less catalytic activity. This was arisen 20 Co−ZnO (0.05) 100 93 this study
due to the bulkiness of the composite because of the presence 200 60
of cobalt on ZnO. Higher loading of cobalt covered the active 300 54
sites which were necessary for the accumulation of the dye
molecule and hence lowered the removal percentage of dye of Co creates SDs in ZnO. These SDs enhance the
from the solution. photocatalytic activity of ZnO toward the photodegradation
The recycling of catalysts is very important for sustainable of methyl orange. It is well known that irradiation of
wastewater treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm photocatalysts induces the formation of the exciton (pair of
whether Co−ZnO can be recycled in the photodegradation of hole and electron) in valence and conduction bands. The SDs
methyl orange or not. For this purpose, 10% Co−ZnO was trap the positive hole induced in the valence band and produce
reused three times for photodegradation of methyl orange. The surface-active centers (SD*). Then, an adduct species (SD/
spent catalyst was reused after thorough washing with ethanol MO) is formed by the reaction of the surface-active center with
and distilled water followed by drying. It was observed that methyl orange. Finally, the adduct species decompose and give
Co−ZnO exhibited nearly the same photocatalytic activity in the final degradation products. Similarly, the electrons induced
each cycle. in the conduction band react with oxygen adsorbed at Co−
The photocatalytic activity of Co−ZnO for photodegrada- ZnO and produce superoxide anion radicals which finally
tion of methyl orange is compared with different hetero- produce the OH radical by series of reactions. The OH radicals
structures reported as photocatalysts for degradation of methyl degrade the methyl orange molecules.67,68
orange. The data given in Table 1 shows that the photocatalyst The whole process can be outlined as
reported in this study is more effective toward photo- Co − ZnO + hν → h Co − ZnO+ + eCo − ZnO− (1)
degradation of methyl orange as compared to already reported
catalysts. +
SD + h Co − ZnO → SD* (2)
3.9. Mechanism and Kinetics. Based on analyses of UV−
vis DRS and PL spectroscopy, it is suggested that implantation SD* + MO → SD: MO (3)

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SD: MO → SD + Degradation products (4) data according to given kinetics models. Table 2 shows the
measured rate constants. Based on a comparison of regression
eCo − ZnO− + (O2 )ads → → OH (5) coefficients, R2, it is suggested that photodegradation of methyl
orange follows the first-order kinetics.
OH + MO → Degradation products (6)
Based on the above-mentioned reactions, the rate of reaction Table 2. Kinetics Parameters Determined by Treatment of
can be written as Photodegradation Data of Methyl Orange According to 1st
d[MO] and 2nd Order Kinetics
− = γ1[SD*][MO] + γ2[OH][MO]
dt (7) 1st order kinetics 2nd order kinetics
catalyst k1 R2 k2 R2
d[MO]
− = (γ1[SD*] + γ2[OH])[MO] ZnO 0.005 0.98 0.00006 0.91
dt (8)
5% Co−ZnO 0.01 0.95 0.0002 0.82
The above-mentioned rate expression represents a typical 10% Co−ZnO 0.014 0.95 0.0003 0.78
Eley−Rideal mechanism. Under continuous irradiation of a 15% Co−ZnO 0.006 0.98 0.00005 0.91
reaction mixture containing a fixed amount of catalyst, the rate
of reaction becomes independent on SD and exciton; hence, 3.10. Effect of the Catalyst Dose. The optimization of
the rate expression can be written as expression 9 (kobs = the amount of catalyst is essential to avoid the unnecessary use
observed rate constant, n = order of reaction concerning of photocatalysts in the photocatalytic experiments. The
methyl orange). catalyst dose was optimized by performing photodegradation
experiments of methyl orange over 0.01−0.15 g of catalyst for
d[MO]
− = kobs[MO]n 120 min. Figure 11 shows the results of photodegradation of
dt (9)
Rate expression 9 changes to expression 10 and 11 for n = 1
and n = 2, respectively (k1 = first apparent order rate constant,
k2 = second order apparent rate constant).
[MO]0
ln = k1t
[MO]t (10)

1 1
= k 2t +
[MO]t [MO]0 (11)
For reaction kinetics, the data given in Figure 9 was treated
according to first-order kinetics (eq 10) and second-order
kinetics (eq 11). Figure 10 shows the treatment of degradation

Figure 11. Effect of the catalyst dose on photodegradation and the

first-order apparent rate constant of methyl orange catalyzed by 10%
Co−ZnO.

100 mg/L methyl orange over different dose of 10% Co−ZnO

catalyst. It was observed that photodegradation of methyl
orange increased with the catalyst dose from 0.01 to 0.05 g and
decreased with a further increase in the catalyst dose. Similarly,
the rate constant observed with 0.05 g of catalyst was higher
than the rate constants observed with other dosages as given in
Figure 11. The number of active centers increases with the
catalyst dose which increases the catalytic activity. However,
the reaction mixture with an increased catalyst dose cannot be
homogenized properly at a given speed of agitation; therefore,
the active centers become nonaccessible with a higher catalyst
dose resulting in decreased catalytic activity. Furthermore, the
higher catalyst dose inhibits the penetration of irradiation to
the interior of the solution, which ultimately causes a
retardation effect on catalytic activity.69
3.11. Effect of pH. As pH of the reaction mixture affects
the production of OH radicals, the adsorption of methyl
orange on the catalyst surface, and the charges on the surface
of the catalyst, therefore, the pH dependence of photo-
Figure 10. Treatment of photodegradation data of methyl orange degradation of methyl orange catalyzed by Co−ZnO was
according to 1st (a) and 2nd (b) order kinetics. investigated. For this purpose, photodegradation experiments
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with 0.05 g of Co−ZnO catalyst and 100 mg/L solution of

methyl orange were conducted over pH range 2−10. For
adjustment of pH, 0.1 M NaOH and 0.1 M HCl were used. As
given in Figure 12, the highest photodegradation of methyl

Figure 12. Effect of pH on photodegradation and first-order apparent

rate constant (inset) of methyl orange catalyzed by 10% Co−ZnO.

orange achieved at pH 4. The observed rate constants were Figure 13. Effect of temperature on 10% Co−ZnO catalyzed
determined as 0.0099, 0.0144, 0.0084, 0.0048, and 0.0043 per photodegradation of methyl orange (b), treatment of photo-
minute at pH 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10, respectively. The pH of point degradation data according to the first-order kinetics model (b).
of zero charge (pHpzc) for ZnO has been reported in the
range 6.9−9.8.70,71 The pH above PZC makes the surface of
ZnO positive while pH below PZC makes the surface of ZnO
negative. The positively charged surface at acidic pH is
expected as conductive for the transfer of electrons to the
catalyst surface where the reduction of oxygen to the
superoxide anion radical is initiated. The superoxide anion
radicals yield OH radicals resulting in enhanced photocatalytic
activity. Furthermore, methyl orange exists in the anionic form
at acidic pH; therefore, the lower pH favors the adsorption of
the anionic methyl orange dye on the surface of positively
charged ZnO due to electrostatic interaction, resulting in an
enhanced photocatalytic activity at lower pH. However, the
strongly acidic solution causes the dissolution of ZnO; Figure 14. Effect of temperature on Co−ZnO catalyzed photo-
therefore, pH lower than 4 caused a decrease in photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange in terms of the Arrhenius and Eyring
activity. On the other hand, the photocatalytic activity of Co− plot.
ZnO decreased at higher pH due to electrostatic repulsion
between the negatively charged catalyst and anionic methyl
orange dyes.72 and the existence of activation energy in this study show that
3.12. Effect of Temperature. As temperature significantly thermal activation is an important step for accelerating the
affects the rate of reaction, therefore, the dependence of the diffusion of methyl orange to the Co−ZnO catalyst.
rate of reaction on the temperature was also evaluated by
E
conducting photodegradation experiments with 0.05 g of 10% ln k1 = ln A −
Co−ZnO/50 mL of 100 mg/L methyl orange at 30, 40, and 50 RT (12)
°C separately. Figure 13a shows that photocatalytic activity k1 k ΔS ΔH
increases with temperature. Figure 13b shows the kinetics ln = ln b + −
T h R RT (13)
treatment of degradation data which shows that the rate
constant increases with temperature. The temperature depend- 3.13. Effect of Concentration. Considering the practical
ence of the rate was further investigated using the Arrhenius application, the dye concentration dependence of photo-
equation (eq 12) and the Eyring equation (eq 13). Figure 14 catalytic activity toward the degradation of dyes is very
shows the analyses of rate constants according to Arrhenius important. Therefore, the dependence of the photocatalytic
and Eyring equations. The energy of activation (E) was activity of 10% Co−ZnO for degradation of methyl orange was
calculated from the Arrhenius plot as 15.1 kJ/mol. The investigated in 100−400 mg/L initial dye concentration in the
enthalpy (ΔH) and entropy (ΔS) was calculated from the presence of 0.05 g/50 mL catalyst at 30 °C. As shown in
Eyring plot as 12.5 kJ/mol and 241.1 J/mol, respectively. The Figure 15, the photocatalytic activity of 10% Co−ZnO
free energy of reaction (ΔG) was calculated as −62.9 kJ/mol decreased with an increase in the concentration of methyl
indicating the spontaneity of reaction. Although the photo- orange. At higher dye concentrations, the photons cannot
chemical reactions do not depend on the temperature, penetrate to the surface of the catalyst due to absorption by
however, the variation of rate constants with temperature dye molecules. Additionally, a higher concentration of dye
1432 https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c05092
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http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

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