Conceh

SOAPS - are the sodium and potassium salts of the long chain Fatty acid.
A soap
molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogen)
with a carboxylic acid on one end which is ionic bonded to metal ion usually a
sodium or potassium. A soap has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon
group and an ionic group COO-Na+.
EXAMPLES OF SOAPS:
 Sodium stearate (Chemical formula:

C17H35COO-Na+)
 Sodium palmitate (Chemical formula:
C15H31COO-Na+)
 Sodium oleate (Chemical formula:
C17H33COO-Na+)
SAPONIFICATION
The process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalies is
called saponification. Soap is made by heating animal fats or
vegetable oil with concentrated sodium hydroxide (NAOH).
Fat or Oil + NaOH → Soap + Glycerol
PROCESS OF SOAP MANUFACTURE
> Hot Process (Boiling process)

>Cold Process
> Modern Continuous Process
>Advanced Process
Hot Process (Boiling process)
BOILING. The saponification of the fat is done by

boiling the fat with sodium hydroxide solution
(soda lye) in a large cylindrical steel vessel known
as Soap Pan or Kettle.
- The soap pan is usually open at the top. The

lower part of the pan is 'funnel shape.
- It contains a system of steam heating coils which

can be either'open' or'closed.'
- Molten fat and appropriate quantity of soda lye

are simultaneously run into the pan.
FAT + SODA LYE ► GLYCEROL + SOAP

A. SALTING OUT. This step involves the separation of soap and glycerol, a
process known as 'Salting Out'. Use is made of the fact that soap is insoluble
in concentrated salt solution (Common Ion Effect), while \glycerol is readily
soluble.
B. FlNISHING: The upper layer of soap obtained from

step
C. is called 'neat soap'.
Cold Process
- The manufacture of soft coconut oil or potassium

soaps cannot be carried out by the Boiling Process.
- In the Cold Process the saponification is allowed in

cold condition with mechanical stirring.
-At this stage, Heating is initiated to convert soap into

the hot liquid soap is run into frames where
saponification is completed.
- The Cold Process is also employed in India to

prepare ' Washing Soap' on a small scale for
household use.
Modern Continuous Process
In this process saponification can be carried

out in about 15 minutes as compared to
hours required for the open-pan method.
-This is achieved by reacting the fat/alkali

mixture at elevated temperature and
pressure in a closed vessel.
- This operation not only has the advantage of

speed but is economical of space, heat and
man power.
Direct Neutralization of Fatty Acids
Soap manufacture by direct neutralization of fatty

acids is of recent introduction. The methods
developed for the purpose are continuous and
hence more economical.
- The fatty acids required in the process are
obtained by hydrolysis of fats in the presence of
specific catalysts.
 (1) Ittner Process. In this process the hydrolysis

of fat is carried out with water under pressure and
at elevated temperature in the presence of lime
or zinc oxide as catalyst
MICELLES – SOAP MOLECULES
A soap molecule has two ends with

different properties-
1. A long hydrocarbon part which is

hydrophobic (i.e. it dissolves in
hydrocarbon or oils or dirts).
2. A short ionic part containing COO

Na+ which is hydrophilic (i.e. it
dissolves in water)
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
 Soaps are eco-friendly

and bio degradable
DISADVANTAGES
 Soaps are not suitable in the

hard water.
 They have weak cleansing

properties than detergents.

R-COO-Na + + Ca ++
(R-COO)2 Ca ++ +2Na +
DETERGENTS OR SYNDETS
The term detergent is now generally used for synthetic

soaplike cleansing agents which are also referred to as
Syndets.
Detergents were first introduced in United States and Great Britain in 1920s.
The detergent industry soon gained momentum and by 1950s soap was being
replaced by syndets for all purposes except toilet use. At the present time the
consumption of synthetic detergents far exceeds that of soaps.
DETERGENTS
Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphuric acids.
Detergents are primarily surfactants, which could be produced easily from
petrochemicals. Surfactants lower the surface tension of water, essentially
making it 'wetter' so that it is less likely to stick to itself and more likely to
interact with oil and grease. The ionic group is in a detergent is.
ADVANTAGES OF DETERGENTS
Since detergents are the salts of strong acids they do not decompose in acidic
medium. Thus detergents can effectively clean fabric even if the water is
acidic. Synthetic detergents are more soluble in water than
soaps. They have a stronger cleansing action than soaps. As detergents are
derived from petroleum they save on natural vegetable oils, which are
important as essential cooking medium.
DISADVANTAGES OF DETERGENTS
Many detergents are resistant to the action of biological agents and thus are
not biodegradable. Their elimination from municipal wastewaters by the
usual treatments is a problem.
They have a tendency to produce stable foams in rivers that extend over
several hundred meters of the river water. This is due to the effects of
surfactants used in their preparation.
Thus they pose a danger to aquatic life. They tend to inhibit oxidation of
organic substances present in wastewaters because they form a sort of
envelope around them.
Constituent of Detergents
It contains about 20 % of active detergents. Another 20% of Sodium sulphate

as make up substance. About 30-50 % of inorganic phosphates
which can complex with calcium and magnesium ion present in hard water
which enhance the cleaning action of detergents, Other ingredient like
Sodium perborate act as a bleaching agent, fluorescent agent ,colouring
agent and odouring agents are also added
Household Ammonia
is a solution of ammonia gas in water. Ammonia is a weak base that slightly ionizes
only in water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions. It is a colorless, volatile,
soluble alkali gas that occurs naturally in the environment. When used in cleaning
compounds, it’s called “household ammonia.” which causes irritation to the
respiratory system and mucous membranes if inhaled, cause chemical burn if spilled
on skin, and reacts with chlorinated products.
Bleach
is a large class of compounds used to whiten or color-lighten materials. They are

frequently used for cleaning and disinfection. (T Benzoni, 2017) Household bleach is
a very strong disinfectant, which is either made of sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen
peroxide.
Other Ingredients in Cleaning Agents
1. Phenol is a translucent ,colorless, crystalline mass, a white powder, or a thick,

syrupy liquid which is soluble in water. It is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable and
affects the central nervous system, targets the liver and kidneys, mutagenic, possibly
teratogenic.
2. Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium

tetraborate, is a salt of boric acid. It is white, soft colorless crystals that dissolve
easily in water and usually found in detergents cosmetics, and enamel glazes.
3. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is a white crystalline solid that appears as a

fine powder. It is slightly salty and has an alkaline taste resembling that of washing
soda.
4. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is a white, granular or crystalline solid that is highly

soluble in water. TSPs are used as cleaning agent, lubricant, food additive, stain
remover and degreaser.
5. Sodium percarbonate is a colorless, crystalline, hygrocospic and water-soluble

solid. It is used in some eco-friendly cleaning products and as a laboratory of
anhydrous hydrogen peroxide.
6. Sodium perborate (PBS) is a white, odorless, water-soluble chemical compound.

It serves as a source of active oxygen in many detergents, laundry detergents,
cleaning products, laundry bleaches.
What is dry cleaning?
Dry cleaning is a process that uses liquids other than water to clean clothes, bedding,
upholstery and other types of fabrics.
What is the importance of dry cleaning?
Dry cleaning uses fluids to remove stains and soils from fabrics.
Amongst the advantages of dry cleaning is its ability to dissolve grease and oils in a
way that water cannot.
Natural fibers such as silk and wool dry clean beautifully, but can shrink, distort, and
even lose color when washed in water(laundering).
What is the difference between dry cleaning and laundering?
The fundamental difference between dry cleaning and laundering is water; dry-

cleaning does not use water while laundering does.
Most dry cleaners use chemical solvents like perchloroethylene (PERC) to get rid of

stains like pen ink while the process of laundering uses gentler soaps and detergents.
Dry cleaning chemicals, cont
Tetrachloroethylene, also known as tetrachloroethene, or perchloroethylene, and

many other names, is a chlorocarbon with the formula C2Cl4.
It is a colorless liquid widely used for dry cleaning of fabrics, hence it is sometimes
called "dry-cleaning fluid“ and however, is also known to be toxic despite its
common use.
The Process of Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning machines consist of four parts, according to the Dry cleaning & Laundry
Institute (DLI),
1. The holding tank or base tank that holds the solvent.

2. A pump that circulates the solvent through the machine.
3. Filters that trap solid impurities and soils removed from either the solvent or the
fabric.
4. A cylinder or wheel where the items that are being cleaned are placed.
Where does drainwater go when it goes down the drain?
If you are on a sewer system, all of the drains in your house are connected to a single
pipe that leads to the street.
The pipe in the street collects the wastewater form all the homes in your area and
takes it a larger pipe that collects water from other streets. The wastewater then
flows into still bigger pipes that connect various neighborhoods.
If you are not connected to a sewer system, the liquid wastes from your home go
into a septic tank, where most of the solids settle. The water then goes into a leach
field, pipes buried in the ground that have holes in the bottom. The water seeps out
of these holes and into the ground.
Without a septic tank, the waste would come out of the machine directly into the
ground just like draining water from a washing machine.

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SOAPS - are the sodium and potassium salts of the long chain Fatty acid.

 Sodium stearate (Chemical formula:

PROCESS OF SOAP MANUFACTURE

> Hot Process (Boiling process)

Hot Process (Boiling process)

BOILING. The saponification of the fat is done by

- The soap pan is usually open at the top. The

- It contains a system of steam heating coils which

- Molten fat and appropriate quantity of soda lye

FAT + SODA LYE ► GLYCEROL + SOAP

B. FlNISHING: The upper layer of soap obtained from

C. is called 'neat soap'.

- The manufacture of soft coconut oil or potassium

- In the Cold Process the saponification is allowed in

-At this stage, Heating is initiated to convert soap into

- The Cold Process is also employed in India to

Modern Continuous Process

In this process saponification can be carried

-This is achieved by reacting the fat/alkali

- This operation not only has the advantage of

Direct Neutralization of Fatty Acids

Soap manufacture by direct neutralization of fatty

 (1) Ittner Process. In this process the hydrolysis

MICELLES – SOAP MOLECULES

A soap molecule has two ends with

1. A long hydrocarbon part which is

2. A short ionic part containing COO

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

 Soaps are eco-friendly

 Soaps are not suitable in the

 They have weak cleansing

The term detergent is now generally used for synthetic

It contains about 20 % of active detergents. Another 20% of Sodium sulphate

is a large class of compounds used to whiten or color-lighten materials. They are

Other Ingredients in Cleaning Agents

1. Phenol is a translucent ,colorless, crystalline mass, a white powder, or a thick,

2. Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium

3. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is a white crystalline solid that appears as a

4. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) is a white, granular or crystalline solid that is highly

5. Sodium percarbonate is a colorless, crystalline, hygrocospic and water-soluble

6. Sodium perborate (PBS) is a white, odorless, water-soluble chemical compound.

What is the importance of dry cleaning?

Dry cleaning uses fluids to remove stains and soils from fabrics.

What is the difference between dry cleaning and laundering?

The fundamental difference between dry cleaning and laundering is water; dry-

Most dry cleaners use chemical solvents like perchloroethylene (PERC) to get rid of

Dry cleaning chemicals, cont

Tetrachloroethylene, also known as tetrachloroethene, or perchloroethylene, and

The Process of Dry Cleaning

1. The holding tank or base tank that holds the solvent.

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