What are the gendered costs of poverty?

What are the gendered costs of poverty for Roma communities in Europe?

I. Introduction
While there are numerous gendered costs of poverty, in the context of this essay, I shall reflect
upon the socio-economic costs of poverty in a gendered manner by focusing on the Roma
community in Europe.

I will begin by providing a background to this essay, which will include a definition of poverty
as well as a brief introduction to the Roma people. I will then investigate the topic further by
analysing the socio-economic costs of poverty for Roma communities in Europe in a gendered
manner - by way of highlighting statistical data in relation to access to education, employment
opportunities and income distribution. I will be also exploring two social issues and will be
highlighting the negative consequences of unrealized human capital development and labour
market participation inequalities.

I will conclude this essay by providing reflective comments based on my individual perceptions
gained following the completion of this study unit.

II. Background
ii.i. What defines poverty?
The Habitat for Humanity, Great Britain (2018) outlines that poverty, in its one-dimensional
form, is the absence of basic necessities and is associated to lack of adequate living conditions
– access to clean water and electricity, as well as the access to healthcare and education. The
article further delves into the matter by making distinction between two forms of poverty – i.e.
relative and absolute poverty.

The term relative poverty is associated with people whose income distribution is ‘’50 % less
than average household incomes’’ (The Habitat for Humanity, Great Britain, 2018). The daily
reality faced by families who fall within this group is extremely challenging, as their earnings
might be, at best, enough to scrape by with the essential goods and services. However, as
outlined by the Habitat for Humanity, GB (2018) if an economic growth is experienced within
the country of residence, the relative poverty will be subjected to change.

On the contrary, the term absolute poverty represents individuals whose income distribution is
scarce and does not enable them to ‘’meet basic needs of life’’ (The Habitat for Humanity,
Great Britain, 2018). In furtherance, absolute poverty also creates a heavy burden on societies

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as a whole, as it has a damaging impact on the health and wellbeing of one and results in a
circle of disparities and prejudices.

‘’Such differences in income may lead to class conflict’’ (Cutajar, 2020), and in the interest of
developing this essay and by highlighting the gendered costs of poverty, I wish to focus on the
social injustices and economic inequalities that are experienced by the Roma communities
across Europe.

ii.ii. Who are the Roma people?

As defined by the World Bank Group (2015), the Roma people are ‘’the largest and most
vulnerable minority group in Europe’’. Often referred to as ‘’travellers’’, or ‘’gypsies’’, the
Roma people are dispersed across various jurisdictions, with the largest population residing in
several countries within Eastern Europe. The people who form part of this ethnic minority
group have a distinctive set of customs and beliefs - The Romani Code, as well as own language
and Romani law that they follow, apart from the civil law of the country they reside in.

In most of the cases, the Roma people live in segregated slums, and so they find difficulty in
integrating with the native population of the country they reside in. Regrettably, the living
conditions in such ghettos are atrocious and thought-provoking, with the World Bank (2015)
defining that ‘’71% or more of Roma households live in deep poverty’’, which is a direct result
of the alienation, lack of active labour market participation, low education attainment and
inequality in income distribution.

I, therefore, wish to delve further into the specific topics and outline the socio-economic
gendered costs of poverty.

III. What are the gendered socio-economic costs of poverty experienced by the
Roma?
iii.i. Education
Education is the first pillar of a sustainable economic growth. If one accomplishes good
academic achievements, one is more likely to enter into employment with better future
prospects, thus increasing their income and decreasing the likelihood of facing relative poverty.
Unfortunately, when analysing the situation amongst Roma people, this opportunity to better
their income and life aspirations by increasing their human capital value seems to be missed in
the majority of the cases, thus creating an endless circle of poverty.

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iii.i.i Statistics
Research carried out by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Human Rights (2014)
highlights the following issues associated with education amongst Roma children:

1) Firstly, the turnout in kindergarten amongst Roma toddlers is relatively small when
compared to non-Roma toddlers.
2) The second issue highlighted in this survey indicates that there is a ‘’high risk of
segregated schooling compounded by prejudice and discrimination’’ (FRA, 2014).
3) The third finding in the survey outlines that Roma children are more likely to drop-out
of school before completing secondary education when compared to non-Roma
children.
4) Survey findings also indicate ‘’low literacy rates’’ (FRA, 2014) amongst Roma
children.

In terms of gender differences, the survey reports the following findings:

5) When analysing the attendance of compulsory education until reaching 12 years of age,
the survey finds ‘’no indication of a significant gender gap’’ (FRA, 2014) amongst
children from a Roma ethnicity.
6) Nevertheless, it is more likely for a girl to drop out of school than a boy before they
reach out the age of 16, as evident by the results portrayed in table 1.
Table 1: Roma respondents who were in Education but stopped before the age of
16, by EU member state and gender (%)

SK

PT

IT

FR

EL

BG
BG CZ EL ES FR HU IT PL PT RO SK
Male 65 49 89 72 66 44 76 47 82 60 52
Female 79 55 96 83 62 64 85 56 89 75 64

Male Female

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7) The results of participants who were aged 16 and above indicate that females are more
illiterate than males, as detailed in table 2.

Table 2: Self-perceived illiterates amongst Roma respondents aged 16 and above, by EU

member state and gender (%)

SK
PT
IT
FR
EL
BG
BG CZ EL ES FR HU IT PL PT RO SK
Male 12 5 45 9 20 3 12 8 23 24 4
Female 17 4 57 17 29 8 23 18 45 36 5

Male Female

8) In recent years, an improvement in school attendance by Roma women has been

experienced, as illustrated in table 3, thus providing an optimistic outlook to the future.

Table 3: Roma women who never attended school - change accross generations, by Member
State and age (%)

SK
RO
PT
PL
IT
HU
FR
ES
EL
CZ
BG
BG CZ EL ES FR HU IT PL PT RO SK
16-24 2 0 30 1 9 0 7 2 10 19 0
25-44 10 2 44 5 16 0 18 12 36 30 1
45+ 13 2 75 48 38 12 40 30 69 33 2

16-24 25-44 45+

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iii.i.ii. Reasons to never attend or drop-out of school

One of the main reasons why Roma people are not able to pursue the benefits of education, is
a result of the absolute poverty the household lives in. There are difficult choices that a parent
needs to make in such community due to the scarce availability of income and resources. The
World Bank Group (2014) highlights that Roma families are not in a position to afford the
various costs associated with children attending school – such as transportation, clothing, books
and tuition fees. The publication highlights that a family needs to make a choice between
feeding their children or sending them to school, therefore resulting in the continuation of the
vicious circle of poverty. Roma children are forced to take on responsibilities which non-Roma
children will face during adulthood – such as care for the family and finding work at a very
young age, which disallows them from attending school.
Furthermore, the gendered roles within the Roma household are strongly defined and rely on
the stereotypical notion that the male will be the main bread winner, whilst the female will take
on responsibilities such as care for family and home. FRA (2014) specifies that one of the
reasons why the drop-out rate amongst female Roma is higher when compared to male Roma
results from child marriages. The Romani law, followed by this ethnic minority group, allows
for marriage to occur amongst minors, despite the fact that this can be unlawful in their state.
Within the Roma community, this illicit practice results from their customs and beliefs, as there
is a sense of pride when this occurs, since entering into early marriage is seen as a form of
protection of girls and their purity. However, I am of the belief that not only does this practice
fails to protect women, but it exposes them to many health risks associated with child
pregnancy and early childbirth. This practice also hinders female aspirations to personal
development and career progressions, as female identity is not valued - thus failing to recognise
the benefits education brings to the individual and their labour market participation.
iii.ii. Labour market participation and social benefits
Roma people are more likely to be exposed to discrimination caused by the lack of integration
and the ostracised community they form part of - with Roma women more likely to be
discriminated than Roma men due to the traditionally defined gender roles that exist in this
patriarchal society. This discrimination, coupled with the high illiteracy rates, offers very
limited employment opportunities and results in low labour market participation for both male
and female Roma.
As previously outlined, the investment in human capital plays a crucial role in bettering one’s
employability. Considering the lack of such investment, Roma people are more likely to be in
precarious and temporary employment with limited opportunities for advancement and

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increase in income. In fact ‘’Roma employment rates are on average 50% lower than those of
non-Roma’’ (FRA, 2014).
In terms of gender differences, a survey carried out by the European Union Agency for
Fundamental Human Rights (2014) notes the existence of a gender gap by highlighting that
there is more Roma women which are inactive1 when compared to Roma men (FRA, 2014).
This finding further supports the inequality experienced by Roma women, as they are more
likely to experience unemployment and lower academic attainment when compared to their
male counterparts.
The lack of secure employment within Roma communities makes them particularly vulnerable
when taking into consideration the social benefits one can obtain when in employment. Roma
people who reside in socially active countries rely on the social benefits provided by the state.
However, since in most states, pension is closely related to income earned throughout active
years in employment, older Roma people rarely benefit from adequate pension which can assist
with their daily needs, thus increasing the at-risk-of-poverty for Roma who are aged 65 or over.

iii.iii. Social issues

As a result of the absolute poverty Roma people find themselves in, there are two social issues
which I wish to highlight prior to concluding this essay.

Outside the context of poverty, the Romani culture believes that men are superior over women,
and so it is the woman’s responsibility to obey the man. With this risk of being perceived as
disrespectful towards the Roma culture, I feel the need to highlight that I look at such beliefs
with dismay. The fact that this gender inequality is deeply rooted in the Roma upbringing and
mind-set results in stagnation of female aspirations for Roma women. This issue is further
worsened by the lack of freedom and independence, as women rely on the men to provide for.
It also increases the risk of females being exposed to domestic violence, since they depend on
the male to be the wage-earner of the household and are forced to tolerate disrespect for the
sake of being able to feed their children. Furthermore, Roma women who live in dire conditions
are exposed to the risk of being forced to sell their bodies to make a living, and are a victim of
abuse.

The traditional gendered roles within the Roma society also carries out social issues for the
male representatives. World Bank (2015) reports that the weights of the ‘’provider’’ which is

1
I.e. are not in employment or education

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given to the men results in stress when one is unable to fulfil their obligations. In furtherance,
this affects their mental health and may lead to several types of addiction and substance-abuse.
This further worsens one’s temperament, as the abuse of alcohol or other substances leads to
violent and hostile behaviour.

Thus, not only does poverty affect the wellbeing of one, but in certain cases - the gendered
costs it has can be ill-disposed by placing lives at danger.

IV. Reflective comments and Conclusion

When analysing the effects poverty has on the Roma people, I am let to believe that more
initiatives needs to be implemented by the states, the citizens of such states and the EU as a
whole. Policy makers should concentrate their efforts on integrating this ethnic minority group
into the societies they should form part of. Not only are Roma women suffering from the
feminisation of poverty, but they are also a subject to a constant discrimination which is a result
of their ethnicity. Thus, the right initiatives should concentrate on addressing the issues
highlighted in relation to low female participation in education and the labour market.

Furthermore, in order for a state to reduce relative poverty by experiencing economic growth
and development, the value of the human capital of its citizens should increase. Therefore, by
enabling free education and providing financial support to minority groups, the state will be
able to increase the value of such human capital and empower this minority group, so that they
are able to break free from the vicious circle of poverty.

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References
European Union Agency for Fundamental Human Rights. (2014). Education: the situation of
Roma in 11 EU Member States. Roma Survey – Data in Focus. Luxembourg:
Publication Office of the European Union. Doi: 10.2811/815973

European Union Agency for Fundamental Human Rights. (2014). Poverty and Employment:
the situation of Roma in 11 EU Member States. Roma Survey – Data in Focus.
Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union. Doi: 10.2811/413303

Habitat for Humanity, Great Britain. (2018, September). ‘’Relative vs Absolute poverty’’:
Defining different types of poverty. IEPA.
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/relative-absolute-poverty/

Sijtsma , M. (N.D.) Roma women & prostitution: Analysis of the relation between ethnicity
and engagement in prostitution in Romania [Master thesis, University of Utrecht].
Utrecht University Repository. Retrieved January 15, 2021 from
https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/374185/Sijtsma%2C%20Marianne.p
df?sequence=2&isAllowed=y

The World Bank Group. (2015) Brief: Roma. Retrieved January 23, 2021 from
https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eca/brief/roma

The World Bank Group. (2014) Gender Dimensions of Roma Inclusion: Perspectives from
Four Roma Communities in Bulgaria. Retrieved January 2, 2021 from
https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/eca/Bulgaria/Roma_Ge
nder-ENG.pdf

Wodon Q. & De La Briere B. (2018). Unrealized potential: The high cost of gender
inequality in earnings. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/gender/publication/unrealized-potential-the-high-
cost-of-gender-inequality-in-earnings

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