LESSON 1: COMPONENT OF AN ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem has gained much attention

because of the worsening condition of the environment
which is thought to be caused by human activities ABIOTIC COMPONENT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
influenced by an imbalance between population size Every environment on earth is characterized by a
(demand) and the available resources and services mosaic of small-scale differences in chemical and
(supply) and a materialistic concept of economic physical attributes such as temperature, light, water,
development which focuses on quantity of material and nutrients. These are non-living factors (abiotic) that
goods acquired and neglects the quality of life (Rabago, influence the distribution and abundance of organisms
2010). (Campbell, 2017).
Consider the following direct observations from
What is the scope of ecological studies? What is nature:
the meaning of an ecosystem? What is it composed of? 1. Grasses grow well in abundant sunlight while
These questions are answered in this module. It opens ornamental herbs grow well in shade.
with the scope of ecological studies starting from the 2. Pine trees grow well in cold places like Baguio at
simplest to the most complex ecosystem (organism to high elevations while bananas thrive in tropical
biosphere). It ends with the interaction of the biotic and areas.
abiotic components of an ecosystem. 3.
4. Most crops grow better in loam which generally
LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION has higher moisture content than other types of
We start this module by exploring the scope of soil.
the study of ecology. Ecologists work at different levels 5. Certain plants and animals are found only in
of biological hierarchy, from individual organisms to the high elevations and grasses grow abundantly in
biosphere. lowland.
Based on the observations above, certain aspects of
the physical environment determine the distribution of
plants. Three of these aspects considered are climate
(light, moisture, temperature, and wind), soil, and
topography.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

LESSON 2: FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
Biotic components refer to the different kinds of
organisms that interact with the environment. They can
be distinguished through their ability to produce their
own food (producers), those that cannot make their
own food (heterotrophs), and those that feed on
organic matter (detritivores).
 The structure and dynamics of a community FOOD WEB
depends on the feeding relationships between
organisms. It is called the trophic structure of the A food web is the natural interconnection of
food chains and a graphical representation of what-
community. The transfer of food energy upward from
the source in plants and other autotrophs (primary eats-what in an ecological community. Another name
for food web is consumer-resource system. An
producers) through herbivores (primary consumers) to
carnivores (secondary, tertiary, & quaternary ecosystem usually has two different types of food web:
consumers) and eventually to decomposers is referred
to as the food chain. The position an organism occupies
in a food chain is called its trophic level.
A food chain is not an isolated unit, separate
from other feeding relationships in a community.
Instead, a group of food chain are linked together to
form a food web. Ecologists diagram the trophic
relationships of a community using arrows that link
species according to who eats whom.

a grazing food web based on photosynthetic plants or

algae, along with a detrital food web based on
decomposers such as fungi. A food web is an important
ecological concept. It is an essential tool in
understanding that plants are the foundation of all
ecosystems and sustain life by providing nourishment
and oxygen needed for survival and reproduction. 
The food web has four characteristics:
1. It consists of number of interconnected food
chains through which energy travels in an
FOOD CHAIN ecosystem.
2. Usually members of higher trophic level feed
A food chain is a linear network of links in a
upon many organisms of lower trophic level.
food web starting from a producer organism and ending
3. Presence of complex food webs increases the
at apex predator species, detritivores, or decomposers.
stability of the ecosystem.
A food chain also shows how the organism are related
with each other by the food they eat. Each level of a
food chain represents a different trophic level. Food
chain is also referred to the sequence of transfers of
matter and energy in the form of food from organism to
organism. Food chains intertwine locally into a food
web because most organisms consume more than one
type of animal or plant. Plants which convert solar
energy into food by photosynthesis are the primary
food source. In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is
eaten by a flesh-eating animal. In a parasite chain, a
smaller organism consumes part of a larger host and
may itself be parasitized by even smaller organisms. In
saprophytic chain, microorganisms live on dead organic
matter.
 4. More complex food webs improve the is a group of interbreeding numbers of the same
adaptability and competitiveness of the species.
organisms.
Population can be distributed in a specific
pattern in an area. Take the rice field as an example.
The rice plants have a uniform pattern of distribution.
The farmers plant them that way because their roots
compete for water and dissolved minerals as well as
sunlight. The rest of species in the rice field have
clumped pattern of distribution. They cluster together in
patches if the habitat where conditions are more
suitable to the individual than in other parts of the
habitat. The weeds have a random pattern of
distribution because the environmental conditions are
more or less the same throughout the area.

POPULATION SIZE AND DENSITY

Even more crucial to the survival of species than
changes in population distribution are changes in
population size and density. Population size is the
number of individuals in a population. It influences the
chances of a species surviving or going extinct.
Population size can be determined in several ways. For
LESSON 3: CHANGES IN THE LIVING WORLD organisms that move around such as fish, birds, and
mammals, a technique called mark-recapture method is
Population is the number of organisms
used. For others, populations size is determined by
interacting and living in a particular area. When there is
direct observation and sampling.
an increase in population, it is called growth. Since
populations can grow exponentially, resource depletion Population density is the number of people per
can occur rapidly leading to specific environmental unit area, usually quoted per square kilometer or
concerns such as global warming, deforestation, and square mile. To calculate the population density, you
decreases biodiversity. Population growth in particular will divide the population by the size of the area, thus:
places increasing pressure on the plant’s resources –
water, forests, land, and the atmosphere which pose a PD= no. of peopleland area
challenge to environmental sustainability.
A high population density implies that the population is
high relative to the size of the country. The ideal
population density is 50-100 people per square
kilometer.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE

1. Slow rate reproduction
2. Presence of predators, parasites, and other
enemies that prevent growth in population
3. Balance between biotic potential and
environmental resistance
Population is defined as the total number of a particular 4. Migration
kind of organism occupying a particular area. It also 5. Immigration
includes the total number of people in a region. Also, it 6. Emigration
 As our population continues to increase,
PATTERNS OF POPULATION GROWTH humans create more and larger farms. Forests are also
cleared for the lumber that we use to build our houses.
One of the country’s environmental problems is the
rapid rate at which forest cover is decreasing in the
Philippines. It may be attributed to the following:
a.) Indiscriminate logging
b.) Shifting cultivation (Kaingin)
c.) Forest fires
d.) Natural calamities
e.) Conversion to agricultural land

Two types of population growth patterns may f.) Human settlements

occur depending on specific environmental conditions:
The effects of decreasing forest cover are listed below:
An exponential growth pattern (J curve) occurs in an
ideal, unlimited environment. A logistic growth pattern a.) More flood, greater erosion
(S curve) occurs when environmental pressures slow the
rate of growth. b.) Affects climate (Global Warming)
c.) Less income for people whose livelihood
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION depends on forest product

Ecosystems and biotic communities are d.) Less protection of fragile ecosystems from
dynamic. Once disturbed, they undergo slow but typhoon
progressive changes in plant and animal populations e.) Less protection of coastal areas
until a suitable community (climax community) results.
The sequence of communities that replace one another f.) Fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from
in a given area is called sere. In ecological succession, the atmosphere
the transition from one seral community to another
g.) Depletion of wildlife resources
happens as follows: when the environmental conditions
change, the plant and animal populations that cannot Tropical rain forests are among the richest, if not the
cope with the new environmental conditions die out richest habitat on earth in terms of biological diversity.
and are replaced by another set of organisms that are Biologists estimate 35,000 species of plants and animals
adapted to those conditions. The climax communities found in the Philippines. The problem is the rate at
will maintain itself over a long period of time as long as which wildlife species become extinct. Species
there is a harmonious interaction between the biotic extinction may result to biodiversity loss and can have a
and abiotic components. significant direct human health impact of ecosystem
services are no longer adequate to meet social needs.
Indirectly, it will affect livelihood, income, and local
LESSON 4: CHANGES IN THE LIVING WORLD migration.
Below are possible solutions on deforestation:

Human impact on the natural environment has 1. Plant a tree

reached unprecedented levels. Humans are present on
2. Go paperless
all continents almost all ecosystems have been modified
by human activities (Rhode, 2013). Impacts from human 3. Recycle and buy recycled products
activity on land and in water can influence ecosystems.
Climate change, ocean acidification, permafrost melting, 4. Eat less meat as often as possible
habitat loss, eutrophication, pollution, and invasive 5. Buy certified wood products
species are among the many problems facing
ecosystems.
 6. Support the product of companies that are of algae, mollusk, crustacean, fish, insect, reptile, bird,
committed to reducing deforestation. and mammal. It is one of the most severely threatened
and undervalued ecosystems. For many coastal
communities, mangrove ecosystem provide livelihood,
essential sources of protein, and coastal protection.
LESSON 5: DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL RESOURCES
Mangroves are being cleared at an alarming
rate and their numerous threats to these forests
Coastal resources are located where the including land development, pollution, deforestation,
terrestrial and marine ecosystem meet. It is sometimes and climate change. Without mangroves, coastal
referred to as the estuary. The Philippine archipelago damage from typhoons is much more severe. By
consist of 7,107 islands. Because of this, it has a filtering out sediments mangrove trees also protect
coastline of about 2000 miles, one of the longest in the coral reefs and seagrass beds from sedimentation. In
world. The most productive coastal resources of the the Philippines, most mangrove forests were lost due to
Philippines are coral reefs and mangrove forests. Both the creation of fishponds for commercial fish and
serve as breeding grounds and nursery of marine shrimp farming.
organisms. Unfortunately, these resources are getting
destroyed while being exploited by more and more
people through the years. 
LESSON 6: EUTROPHICATION

CORAL REEFS
Eutrophication comes from the Greek word, Eutrophus
The coral reefs of the Philippines are the second which means well-nourished. Smith (2009) defined it as
largest in Southeast Asia covering 10,000 square miles. an over enrichment of nutrients in streams, rivers, and
The reef support extraordinary biodiversity including
lakes. It causes structural changes to the ecosystem and
more than 400 species of hard corals and more than
has become a major environmental problem.
900 species of fish. Because of the diversity of life found
in the habitats created by corals, reefs are often called This can be a problem in marine habitats because it can
the “rainforest of the sea”. About 25% of the fish cause algae bloom. Some algae even produce toxins
depend on healthy coral reefs. Fishes and other that are harmful to higher forms of life. This can cause
organisms shelter, find food, reproduce, and rear their problems along the food chain and affect any animal
young in the nooks and crannies formed by corals. that feeds on them. The overabundance of nutrients is
often caused by human activity like farming,
Coral ecosystems are a source of food for
maintaining golf courses and other activities that can
millions of people, protect coastline from storms and
lead to fertilizer runoff.
erosion, provide habitat, spawning in nursery ground
for economically important species, provide job and One of the negative impacts of eutrophication
income to local economies from fishing, recreation, and and increased algal growth is the loss of available
tourism. oxygen known as anoxia. These anoxic conditions can
kill the fishes and other aquatic organisms. When the
However, these reefs are under threat from
profuse algae that grow die, they sink at the bottom of
destructive fishing methods and overfishing. The World
the water body and decompose. Decomposition uses up
Atlas of Coral Reefs compiled by the United Nation
oxygen. As a result, fishes die due to lack of oxygen.
Environment Program reported that 97% of reefs in the
Another serious effect of eutrophication is that algal
Philippines are under threat. If current destructive
blooms block sunlight from getting into the water and
fishing practices and overfishing continue, the reefs will
harm organisms that need it. If eutrophication continue
collapse with devastating consequences to marine
it will cause the collapse of the entire ecosystem.
biodiversity and the people of the Philippines.
This can be simplified by the following steps:
Step 1: Excessive nutrients enter water ways.
MANGROVE SWAMP
Step 2: Nutrients develop plant growth.
Mangrove forests are an ecosystem of
incredible biological biodiversity comprising hundreds Step 3: Algal bloom occur.
Step 4: Algae dies and is decomposed by bacteria. rain. Then it falls to the earth and damage plants,
animals, soil, water, and buildings. Despite its name,
Step 5: Decomposition of algae increases oxygen acid rain does not burn and cannot directly harm
demand. people. However, the pollutants that cause acid rain can
Step 6: Fish and aquatic organisms die. react with other pollutants in the rain forming
particulate matter which can sometimes make people
suffer from respiratory illness.
CAUSES OF EUTROPHICATION
The most common nutrient causing EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
eutrophication are Nitrogen and Phosphorus. The main
source of Nitrogen is run-off from agricultural land, A. To Man-Made Materials
whereas most Phosphorus come from household waste 1. It eats away at stone, metal, paint almost
and industries.  any material exposed to weather for a long
period of time.
Human activities can accelerate the rate at 2. Rust metals and cause marble statues
which nutrients enter the ecosystem. Agricultural curve and lose their features.
practice such as the use of fertilizers, pollution from 3. Acid dissolves Calcium carbonate found in
septic systems sewer increase the influx of this limestones thus, many monuments and
nutrients. buildings are damaged.

B. Effects on Humans
EFFECTS OF EUTROPHICATION
1. Breathing air that contain pollutants can
The most conspicuous effect of this problem is irritate damage human lungs.
the creation of dense blooms of noxious, foul smelling 2. Exposure to high level have been linked to
phytoplankton that affects water clarity and harm water asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis.
quality (Chislock, 2013). In addition, other important 3. Particulate matter such as dust can bypass
effects are water hypoxia, reduction of carbon dioxide the body’s natural defenses.
because of the decomposition of organic matter which 4. Reduce visibility.
enhances water acidification and altering
biogeochemical processes. Eutrophication and lakes will C. Effects on the Ecosystem
increase emission of methane into the atmosphere by 1. Causes trees in the forest grow more
30%-90%. This will contribute to greenhouse gases slowly.
causing climate change. 2. Leaves turn brown and fall.
3. Acid rain causes the release of aluminum
When there is a combination of population from the soil, which is a harmful element.
increase, wastewater discharge, agricultural run-off, and Once released it can contaminate bodies of
climate change, it is detrimental to humans and animals water and kill organisms like fishes.
because it produces algal blooms and many of this are 4. Once the bodies of water turn acidic and
toxic. number and type of organism that live in
these waters will decrease and later die.
LESSON 7: ACID RAIN WHAT IS BEING DONE
1. Reduce emissions by reducing the burning of
Acid rain is a complex environmental problem fossil fuel and utilizing other energy sources like
which affect many countries around the world. Acid rain windmill.
forms when clean air comes in contact with pollutants 2. Practice conservation, conserve electricity by
in the air like Sulfur dioxide (SO ), Carbon dioxide (CO ),
2 2 turning off light, appliances, and computers.
and Nitrogen oxide (NO). Although Sulfur dioxide and 3. Reduce amount of times you spend in car by
Carbon dioxide occur naturally in the air, burning fossil walking or biking.
fuel add more to this chemical to the air. When these 4. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
pollutants are released into the air, they mix and react 5. Recycle everything you can.
with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form acid 6. Volunteer to help clean the surroundings.
 2. Affect human health – exposure to them is
linked to cancer, birth defects, impaired
immunity, and endocrine disruption
3. Decrease in coastal tourism
4. Contribute to climate change
5. It upsets the food chain
6. Groundwater pollution
7. Land pollution
8. Kills animals
LESSON 8: PLASTIC POLLUTION
EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS TO PLASTIC POLLUTION   
Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects (Rinkesh, 2019)
and particles in the environment that adversely affect 1. Use reusable bags when going outside to buy
wildlife, habitat, and humans. Plastic that act as what you need
pollutants are categorized into micro, meso, or macro 2. Refrain from buying water in plastic bottles, use
debris, based on size. you water bottle/jug instead
The Philippines has a plastic pollution crisis on 3. Recycle everything
its hand and poverty makes it even worse. Single-used 4. Try not to use disposable plastics
sachets are sold in most developing countries, but the 5. Educate yourself and make better choices
number consumed in the Philippines is 163 million 6. Share what you know to friends, family, and
pieces a day. For the multinationals that manufacture companies/businesses
them, it’s a way to increase sales by targeting customers 7. Get involved
who cannot afford bigger quantities (Gualva, 2019).
A 2015 report on plastic pollution by the Ocean
Conservatory Charity and the McKinley Center for LESSON 9: TROPICAL FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Business and Environment ranked the Philippines as the
world’s third largest ocean pollution despite a waste All types of ecosystem fall into two categories:
management act coming into effect 18 years ago. the terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem is land-based
reasons are attributed to corruption, lack of political will while aquatic ecosystem is water-based. Within any
and an addiction to single-use plastic sachets. ecosystem, specific features vary widely. The major type
of land-based ecosystem includes forests, desert,
grassland, and tundra while water-based ecosystem
CAUSES
consists of the ocean, lakes, and rivers.
The main cause of plastic pollution is
negligence. It is estimated that 80% of marine litter
comes from land. This pollution comes from household A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting
waste, which is poorly recycled, dumped in landfills or of biotic components (plants, animals, and
abandoned in nature. In addition, it is also caused by: microorganisms) in that area functioning together with
abiotic factors of the environment. There are six layers
1. Increase in population
withing a forest consisting of:
2. Most widely available container because they
are cheap and convenient 1. Upper canopy
3. Very slow decomposition – it takes 400 years or 2. Low-tree layer
even more to decompose 3. Shrub under story
4. Items made of plastic is a necessity like, nets 4. Ground layer of herbaceous plants
used for fishing 5. Forest floor
5. Mismanaged disposal of plastic 6. Root layer
6. Can be easily transported by current/wind
Each layer receives a different amount of
EFFECTS sunlight and rainfall, so different types of animals and
plants are found in each layer.
1. Threatens ocean health, food safety, and quality
 Distribution. Tropical forest occurs in the
equatorial and sub-equatorial regions.
Precipitation. In tropical rainforests, rainfall is LESSON 10: DESERT ECOSYSTEM
relatively constant about 200-400cm annually. In
tropical dry forest, precipitation is highly seasonal about A desert ecosystem is defined by interactions between
150-200cm annually with a six to seven months dry organism, the climate in which they live and any other
season. non-living influences on the habitat. Desert are large,
Temperature. High year-round averaging 25- extremely dry area of land with sparse vegetation. It is
29°C with little seasonal variation. one of the earth’s major type of ecosystem supporting a
community of distinctive plants and animals specially
Plants. Tropical forests are vertically layered adapted to harsh environments. The dry condition of
and competition for light is intense. Layer in rainforest deserts helps promote the formation and concentration
include trees that grow above a closed canopy, layers of of important minerals. Gypsum, borates, nitrates,
shrubs and herbs. There are generally fewer layers in potassium, and other salts build up in deserts when
tropical dry forests. Broadleaf evergreen trees are water carrying these minerals evaporate. Desert regions
dominant in tropical rainforests whereas many tropical also hold 75% of known oil reserve in the world.
dry forest trees drop their leaves during dry season.
Epiphytes such as bromeliads and orchids generally Deserts are arid region which are generally associated
cover tropical forest trees but are less abundant in dry with warm temperatures, however cold deserts also
forests. Thorny shrubs and succulents are common in exist. These areas are covered by sand, rock, snow, or
some tropical dry forest. ice. They do not have a lot of plant like covering the
land. Desert ecosystems cover approximately 25-30% of
Animals. Earth’s tropical forests are home to the land on earth. The dry condition of deserts helps
millions of species including an estimated 5-30 million promote the formation of important minerals. Gypsum,
still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other borates, nitrates, potassium and other salts build up in
arthropods. In fact, animal diversity is higher in tropical deserts when water carrying these minerals evaporate.
forests than in any other terrestrial biomes. The animals High temperature during daytime and persistent wind
including amphibians, birds, and other reptiles, accelerate water evaporation and transpiration in
mammals, and arthropods are adapted to the vertically plants. High evapotranspiration and low rainfall are the
layered environment. chief characteristic of desert ecosystem, thus producing
sparse perennial vegetation of widely spaced shrubs.
IMPORTANCE OF FOREST TO THE ENVIRONMENT Distribution. Deserts occur in bands near 30°
north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the
Forests form a third of all land on earth
interior of continents (for instance, the Gobi Desert of
providing vital organic infrastructure for some of plant’s
north-central Asia).
densest and most diverse collections of life.
Precipitation. Precipitation is low and highly
1. Forest support countless species as well as
variable, generally less than 30cm per year.
1.6 billion human livelihoods.
2. Forest products are used in daily life. The Temperature. Temperature is variable
fruits, paper, and wood from trees go into seasonally and daily. Maximum air temperature in hot
daily manufacturing of goods. Forest by- deserts may exceed 50°C; in cold deserts air
products like medicine, cosmetics, and temperature may fall below -30°C.
detergents are also used daily.
3. Forests are very important in biodiversity Plants. Deserts are dominated by low, widely
and livelihood for humans. scattered vegetation; the proportion of bare ground is
4. Forests provide habitat to diverse species. high compared with other biomes. The plants include
5. Forests offer water shed protection, provide succulents such as cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted
timber and non-timber products, and shrubs, and herbs that grow during the infrequent moist
recreational venue. periods. Desert plant adaptations include tolerance of
6. Forest prevent soil erosion; help maintain heat and desiccation, water storage, and chemical
the water cycle and check global warming defenses, such as toxins in the leaves of shrubs, are
by using carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.
common. Many of the plants exhibit C or CAM 4 2. Occur in semi-arid climate.
photosynthesis. 3. Rainfall and soil insufficient to support
significant tree growth.
Animals. Common desert animals include 4. Most common at mid-latitudes and near
snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory interior of continents.
and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents. Many 5. Often exploited for agricultural use.
species are nocturnal. Water conservation is a common
adaptation, with some species surviving solely on water
obtained from breaking down carbohydrates in seeds. IMPORTANCE OF GRASSLAND
Grasslands are the key life source to
sustainability and are essential in sustaining soil health.
LESSON 11: GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM Having a wealth of grasslands provide the ecosystem
with sufficient clean water, helps prevent flood, and
promotes the natural production of food crops and
Grassland is one of the major ecosystems of the world, meat.
covering close to one-third of the earth’s terrestrial
surface. It is mainly created by processes related to
climate, fire, and wildlife grazing (Parr, et.al., 2019). Grassland in the Philippines have been
Grasslands generally occur in areas where the climate is traditionally referred to as cogonal lands because cogon
hot and dry in summer and cool to cold in winter. The is the predominant species. It has been reduced from
parent material is often composed of fine sediments 11% of the total land area to 6% over the past few
and grasslands are often in valley or plateau landscapes. decades mainly due to conversion of this ecosystem
The organisms that live in them include plants and into croplands. Most grassland in the Philippines are the
animals that have adapted to the dry climatic condition result of the destruction of forests. Some like the
in a variety of ways. Humans can help the grassland by grassland on top of Mount Pulag in Mountain Province
protecting and restoring wetlands which are an are natural formations.
important part of grassland ecology. Rotate agricultural
crops to prevent the sapping of nutrients. Plant trees as Location of Grasslands in the Philippines:
wind breaks to reduce erosion. 1. Laguna de Bay (Gulod, Cabuyao)
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated 2. Alfonso, Cavite
by grasses and other herbaceous (nonwoody) plants. It 3. Batangas
is also called transitional landscape. Grasslands occur 4. Bulacan
naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are 5. La Union
found in most ecoregions of the earth. The primary 6. Laguna Province
function of grassland: 7. Pangasinan
8. Rizal
1. Provide forage for livestock 9. Tarlac
2. Protect and conserve soil and water resources
3. Furnish a habitat for livestock LESSON 12: ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
4. Contribute to the attractiveness of the
landscape
Estuaries or transitional waters represent the transition
Grasslands are important to maintain the crop of many between freshwater and marine environments and are
domesticated and wild herbivores such as horse, mule, influenced by both aquatic realms. Salinity level are
ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, and indicative of the position within the mixing zones of an
many more. If grasslands are not protected and estuary. The upper limit of an estuary is referred to as
conserved, many years from now supply of meat its head while the lower limit is called the mouth of the
products will adversely be affected. estuary. They are classified by the geology that defines
them or the way in which water circulates throughout
them. Estuaries are subject to both to marine influence
The following are the key characteristics of the
such as tides and waves and influx of saline water and
grassland biome:
to riverine influences such as flow of freshwater and
1. Vegetation structure is dominated by grasses. sediment. The mixing of seawater and freshwater
provides high levels of nutrients both in water column Estuaries are also crucial feeding areas for waterfowl
and in sediments making estuaries the most productive and some marine mammals.
habitats in the world.
Human Impact. Filling, dredging, and pollution
Lesson Presentation from upstream have disrupted estuaries worldwide.
An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water
and its surrounding coastal habitats where saltwater ECOSYSTEMS SERVICES OF ESTUARINE
from the ocean typically mixes with freshwater from
rivers or streams. Estuaries support diverse and abundant
ecological communities of plants and animals and
provide important habitats for many fishes, birds, and
shellfish. It also provides a range of valuable ecosystem
services for humans such as food provision, water
filtration, nutrient regulation, and storm protection.
Estuaries can also remove toxins from the environment.
The filtered water brings nutrients from the watershed
and also many other pollutants. Estuaries and their
surrounding wetlands filter out pollutants such as
herbicides, pesticides, heavy metals, and excess
Two ecosystem services that estuaries provide nutrients and sediments.
are water filtration and habitat protection. Habitats
associated with estuaries, such as salt marshes and
mangrove forests act like enormous filters. Estuaries are LESSON 13: FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
very productive ecosystems because they constantly
receive fresh nutrients from the river. They are Every living thing on earth needs water to survive, but
important natural places because they provide goods more than 100,000 species need a special kind of water
and services that economically indispensable. that can only be found in certain places and is very rare
Physical Environment. An estuary is a transition supply. The plants, animals, microbes, rocks, soil,
area between river and sea. Seawater flows up the sunlight, and water found in and around this valuable
estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back resource are all part of the freshwater ecosystem. Less
down during the falling tide. Often, higher-density than 3% of the earth is freshwater and less than half
seawater occupies the bottom of the channel and mixes that is available as liquid. The rest is locked away as ice
little with the lower-density river water at the surface. in polar ice caps and glaciers thus, freshwater is
precious resource.
Chemical Environment. Salinity varies spatially
within estuaries, from nearly that of freshwater to that IMPORTANCE OF FREHSWATER
of seawater. Salinity also varies with the rise and fall of Freshwater is vital for life supporting
the tides. Nutrients from the river make estuaries, like ecosystems and human civilizations. It is used in many
wetlands, among the most productive biomes. aspects of daily life including food production, power
Geologic Features. Estuarine flow patterns generation, manufacturing, and sanitation. Healthy
combined with the sediments carried by river and tidal freshwater environments supply water for drinking and
waters create a complex network of tidal channels, growing crops. They also help prevent soil erosion,
islands, natural levees, and mudflats. dispose waste, and provide natural protection from
flooding.
Photosynthetic Organisms. Saltmarsh grasses
and algae, including phytoplankton, are the major TYPES OF FRESHWATER:
procedures in estuaries. Essentially there are two main types:
Heterotrophs. Estuaries support an abundance 1. Lentic ecosystems are those whose water is still
of worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species that and are made up of ponds, marshes, ditches,
humans consume. Many marine invertebrates and lakes, and swamps. These ecosystems range in
fishes use estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate size from very small ponds that may be
through them to freshwater habitats upstream. temporary to large lakes. The consumer species
 found in lentic habitats include worms, snails, high salt content. These systems contrast with
amphibians, crustaceans, insects, reptiles, and freshwater which have a lower salt content. It includes
birds. marshes, tidal zones, estuaries, mangrove forests,
2. Lotic ecosystems can be any kinds of moving lagoons, seagrass beds, the ocean floor, and the coral
water such as creek, brook, rivers, spring, or reef. 
stream. The water in a lotic ecosystem from
source to mouth must have atmospheric gases, Ocean ecosystem is divided into four zones:
turbidity, longitudinal temperature gradation, 1. intertidal
and materials dissolved in it. 2. pelagic
3. benthic
The organisms in these waters have suckers and
hooks that help them stick to the waterbed, rocks, 4. abyssal
or plants. Some of them have a streamlined body
that help them swim against water currents. Some IMPORTANCE OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM
species attach to the substratum.
Marine ecosystems are important for society
since they provide services including food security, feed
for livestock, raw materials for medicine, building
materials from coral rock and sand, and natural
defenses against hazards such as coastal erosion and
LESSON 14: MARINE ECOSYSTEM inundation.
Marine ecosystem also provides other
Marine ecosystems are the largest of earth’s aquatic
important services associated with their regulatory and
ecosystems and are distinguished by waters that have a
habitat function such as pollution control, storm
high salt content. It includes marshes, tidal zone,
protections, flood control, habitat for species, and
estuaries, mangrove forest, lagoons, sea grass beds, the
shoreline stabilization.
sea floor, and the coral reefs (largest of all marine
ecosystems). BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Ocean ecosystems are divided into four zones: Most ocean life can be found in coastal habitats
intertidal, pelagic, benthic, and abyssal. Most ocean on the continental shelf, even if this area occupies only
life can be found in coastal habitats on the continental 7% of the total ocean area. Most of the open ocean
shelf, even if this area occupies only 7% of the total habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge
ocean area. Most of the open ocean habitats are found of the continental shelf. The Pacific Ocean has the most
in the deep ocean. The ocean supports a diverse life marine life.
system starting from creatures that float or swim such
as algae, plankton, jellyfish, and whales. Many living A. Animals of the Marine Biome
forms inhabit the upper layer where sun’s rays 1. Fish – sharks, swordfish, tuna, clownfish,
penetrate. Marine life not only exist in the open ocean stingray, flatfish, eels, rockfish, seahorse,
waters, but on its floor as well. Species that live in this sunfish mola, and gurs.
ecosystem include certain types of fish, crustaceans, 2. Marine mammals – blue whale, seal,
clams, oysters, worms, urchins, seaweed, and smaller dolphins, manatees, and otters.
organism. At greater depths, sunlight cannot penetrate 3. Mollusks – octopus, cuttlefish, clams, conch,
to the bottom. Organism inhabiting this deep water rely squids, oysters, slugs, and snails.
on the sinking of organic matter above for survival. 4. Jellyfishes
(Harris, 2010) 5. Reptiles

Healthy marine ecosystems are important for

society since they provide services including food B. Plants in the Ocean
security, feed for livestock, raw materials for medicine,
building defenses against hazards such as coastal Phytoplankton. Serve as the major primary
erosion and inundation. producers in the marine ecosystem. These
microscopic single-celled plants, bacteria, algae, and
Marine ecosystems are the largest of the earth’s aquatic other organisms harvest sunlight through
ecosystems and are distinguished by waters that have photosynthesis and store it as chemical energy.
Kelps are also major producers in the ocean. It
grows abundantly and can be found throughout the
ocean. They stay anchored in the ocean floor with a
structure call holdfast. Air filled sacs buoy the kelp
up towards ocean surface where the leaf blades
collect sunlight for photosynthesis. Kelp provide
food and shelter for a variety of ocean creatures
such as sea turtles, crabs, and fishes.